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41-572: The town, formerly known as Khula and Hulo, was a merchant place located on a medieval road that linked the neighboring region of Samtskhe-Javakheti to the Black Sea coast. The Khulo area has been inhabited since ancient times, almost from the Bronze Age. Cult monuments include the Thilvani Menhir, a simple megalith building/vertical column about 20 meters tall that archaeologists think was connected to

82-632: A decrease of 6% compared to the 2014 census. Of these, 35.9% live in urban areas and 64.1% in rural villages. Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki are the most densely populated municipalities. In 1926, the Akhaltsikhe Uyezd (corresponding to Meskheti or Samtskhe) had a population of: In 1926, the Akhalkalaki Uyezd (corresponding to Javakheti ) had a population of: In 2002, Samtskhe–Javakheti province ethnic makeup of 207,598 total population: In 2014, Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia had

123-453: A few other lesser lands, from the Arab dominance. For a long time the region became a cultural safe-house and one of the most important religious centers of Georgia. In the mid-10th century, Javakheti was incorporated into Kingdom of Abkhazia . In 964 Leon III of Abkhazia extended his influence to Javakheti, during his reign was built Kumurdo Cathedral . In subsequent centuries, Javakheti

164-627: A funeral ritual. Another monument, the Kaloto Altar was found in Khulo, confirming the existence of civilization in the Khulo region in pre-Christian times. The site was built up in the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the many surviving churches, castles, and medieval arched bridges. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire pursued an active policy of conquest in several regions of the world, including in what

205-674: A highland of volcanic origin and the northern extension of the Armenian highlands . The plains are between 1500 and 2000 meters above sea level. Samtskhe–Javakheti is bordered by several mountain ranges, the most important being the Meskheti Range and Trialeti Range in the north and the Samsari Range and Javakheti Range in the east. The highlands are home to some of Georgia's largest lakes, such as Paravani Lake , Tabatskuri Lake , Khanchali Lake and Kartsakhi Lake . Georgia's largest river,

246-512: A pair of letters). Note that in the table above, the last two columns refer to digraphs, not isolated letters (however, they are considered letters in the Reformed orthography). However the last column displays the ligature that is used in the Classical orthography only as an isolated symbol for the short Armenian word ew (meaning and ) and its derivations in a way similar to the ampersand (&) in

287-570: A province of Georgia, and later cast into the new Samtskhe–Javakheti region. In ancient sources, the region was recorded as Zabakha in 785 BC, by the king Argishti I of Urartu . According to Cyril Toumanoff , Javakheti was part of the Iberian duchy of Tsunda from the 4th or 3rd century BC. Saint Nino entered Iberia from Javakheti, and, following the course of the River Kura , she arrived in Mtskheta ,

328-510: A result of the struggles of the Russian Empire with the Ottomans, Russian authorities settled Christian Armenians and Caucasus Greeks in the area after 1828. Armenian refugees from the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire came in the early 20th century. Also a large number of Russian Doukhobor sect members settled the region. Georgia came fully under Soviet control in 1921, after

369-468: A similar purpose in Greek: t̔, ch̔, č̔, p̔, k̔ . However, the computer support (fonts, rendering systems, availability on usual applications) of these combining diacritics has been poor for long, so some documents resorted to use, as possible fallbacks, their spacing variants (so-called “modifier letters”) written after the letter instead of above it, such as the spacing dot above ⟨˙⟩ (U+02D9), or

410-548: Is a region ( mkhare ) in southern Georgia with a population of 147.400 (2023 ) and an area of 6,413 km (2,476 sq mi). The region has Akhaltsikhe as its administrative center. Samtskhe–Javakheti is made up of the historical Georgian provinces Meskheti , Javakheti and Tori . The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline , the South Caucasus natural gas pipeline , and the Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway pass through

451-553: Is not a proper transliterator but can be convenient for users that don't have Armenian keyboards. Despite these input methods being commonly used, they do not adhere to any approved international or Armenian standard, so they are not recommended for the romanization of Armenian. Note that the input methods recognize the Latin digraphs zh, dz, gh, tw, sh, vo, ch, rr for Classic or Eastern Armenian, and zh, dz, tz, gh, vo, ch, rr for Western Armenian, but offer no way to disambiguate words where

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492-593: Is not, and instead its unaspirated counterpart ճ is transcribed č̣ with an underdot appearing nowhere else in the system. Note that in this scheme, č (signifying չ) collides with the Hübschmann-Meillet transliteration (where it signifies ճ). This system is recommended for international bibliographic text interchange (it is also the base of simplified romanizations found to localize the Armenian toponomy of for transliterating human names), where it works very well with

533-509: Is now Georgia. Georgian lands became one of the directions of Ottoman expansion on the eastern coast of the Black Sea . However, the scattered parts of the former Georgian kingdom found themselves in the orbit of the Ottoman Empire's influence at different times, and the forms of their relations with the Ottoman state were also different. Along with the entire region of Adjara , Khulo was part of

574-601: Is the international standard for transliteration of the modern Armenian alphabet. Like with the BGN/PCGN romanization, the apostrophe is used to denote most of the aspirates. This system is reversible because it avoids the use of digraphs and returns to the Hübschmann-Meillet (however some diacritics for vowels are also modified). The aspirate series is not treated consistently in ISO 9985: while pʼ, tʼ, cʼ, kʼ are romanized with an apostrophe-like mark, aspirated չ č

615-523: Is the spacing left half-ring ⟨ʿ⟩ (U+02BF), or the spacing turned comma ⟨‘⟩ (U+02BB, which has the shape of a single left quotation mark), or the spacing reversed comma ⟨ʽ⟩ (U+02BD, which is the Latin-script equivalent of the Greek-script rough breathing), with the spacing turned comma having the advantage of excellent support in many Latin fonts because it

656-478: Is unknown, but most scientists think it was built in some time in the 10th-13th centuries. Khikhani Fortress was one of the most important fortresses in Adjara. The castle is strategically located in a very convenient location, as it has one pedestrian access from the south-eastern side. It used to be a shelter for the local lords. On the way to Khikhani Fortress there is an active monastery at Skhalta cathedral , built in

697-466: Is visually identical to the left single quote ⟨‘⟩ . Also, some ambiguities were not solved to work with modern vernacular Armenian, which has two dialects, both using two possible orthographies (besides, the modern orthography is used for Classical Armenian in modern publications). BGN/PCGN romanization (1981) uses a right single quotation mark (more accurately, a modifier letter apostrophe ) to express aspirates, tʼ, chʼ, tsʼ, pʼ, kʼ ,

738-483: The Armenian alphabet . In linguistic literature on Classical Armenian, the commonly used transliteration is that of Hübschmann-Meillet (1913). It uses a combining dot above diacritic (U+0307) to express the aspirates: ṫ, cḣ, č̇, ṗ, k̇ . Some documents were rather published using the Greek rough breathing diacritic (U+0314), a reversed comma combining above the letter, which is easier to distinguish visually, and serves

779-527: The Mtkvari , flows through the region from Turkey, a few miles north of Kartsakhi Lake. The river has carved a canyon through in the highlands and forms the eastern boundary of the Erusheti Highlands , a mountain range along the border with Turkey. In this gorge the large historic cave monastery Vardzia is situated, an important tourist attraction. The river flows initially in a northwesterly direction through

820-649: The Ottoman Empire . During this period, most residents of the region converted to Islam . During Ottoman times, Khulo was a chief settlement of Upper Adjara governed by the Khimshiashvili family. In 1829, it was briefly occupied by the Russian force of General Osten-Sacken who sacked the Khimshiashvili residence before withdrawal. Khulo's population, largely Islamized under the Ottomans , diminished dramatically under

861-576: The Red Army invasion of Georgia . The remaining Muslim minority in Meskheti, also known as " Meskhetian Turks ", were deported in cattle-trucks to Central Asia by order of Stalin and settled within an area that overlaps the boundaries of the modern nations of Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Uzbekistan . Today, many are still dispersed across those countries. Of the 100,000 forcibly deported, as many as 30,000-50,000 perished. The major tourist attractions are

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902-508: The Russian oppression of Islam in the 1870s. A series of floods and avalanches in the 1990s-2000s induced another wave of migration from the mountainous villages of the municipality. In April 1929, during Soviet rule, the Muslim villagers of mountainous Adjara rose in arms against compulsory collectivization and religious persecution. The Soviet troops were invoked and the revolt was quickly put down. Thousands of Adjarians were deported from

943-769: The 13th century. Besides historical monuments, Khulo is also known for the Khulo Cable Car , the fastest mode of transportation from the Khulo town center to the village named Tago. This cable car is the second-longest free span cable car in Europe. 41°39′N 42°19′E  /  41.650°N 42.317°E  / 41.650; 42.317 This Georgia location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Samtskhe-Javakheti Samtskhe–Javakheti ( Georgian : სამცხე-ჯავახეთი , pronounced [samtsʰχe dʒavaχetʰi] , Armenian : Սամցխե-Ջավախեթի , romanized :  Samts’khe-Javakhet’i )

984-689: The 16th century Meskheti was integrated into the Safavid Empire , followed by the Ottoman Empire . After the conclusion of the Russo-Persian War of 1826-28 , it was a part of Russian Tiflis Governorate from 1817 till 1829, from 1918 to 1921 part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia , and from 1921 to 1990 part of the Georgian SSR . After independence from the USSR Meskheti was reinstalled as

1025-571: The ASCII backquote ` U+0060). This standard changes the transliteration scheme used between Classical/Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian for the Armenian consonants represented by swapping the pairs b vs. p , g vs. k , d vs. t , dz vs. ts and ch vs. j . In all cases, and to make this romanization less ambiguous and reversible, On various Armenian websites, non-standard transliterators have appeared, which allows inputting modern Western or Eastern Armenian text using ASCII-only characters. It

1066-567: The capital of the kingdom, once there, she eventually began to preach Christianity, which culminated by Christianization of Iberia . In struggle against the Arab occupation , Bagrationi dynasty came to rule over Tao-Klarjeti and established the Kouropalatate of Iberia . rulers of Tao-Klarjeti fought the Arabs from there, gradually incorporating the surrounding lands of Samtskhe and Javakheti, along with

1107-491: The cave monasteries of Vardzia (which was founded by Queen Tamar in 1185), Vanis Kvabebi (which dates from the 8th century), Rabati Castle and Khertvisi Fortress . Also, among national visitors is very popular 10th century Sapara Monastery , Tmogvi fortress, and 8th century Zarzma monastery . 41°35′N 43°16′E  /  41.583°N 43.267°E  / 41.583; 43.267 Romanization of Armenian There are various systems of romanization of

1148-521: The common ISO/IEC 8859-2 Latin encoding used in Central Europe. ALA-LC romanization (1997) is largely compatible with BGN/PCGN, but returns to expressing aspirates with a left single quotation mark (in fact the modifier letter left half-ring ʿ U+02BF, US-MARC hexadecimal code B0, that is also used to denote ayin in Arabic, so some documents may contain either the preferred left half-ring, or sometimes

1189-486: The digraphs should not be recognized. Some Armenian letters are entered as Latin digraphs, and may also be followed by the input of an ASCII single quote (which acts as the only letter modifier recognized) but this quote does not always mean that the intended Armenian letter should be aspirated (this may be the reverse for the input ch' ), it is also used as a vowel modifier. Due to ambiguities, texts must be corrected by entering an intermediate dummy character before entering

1230-410: The feudal family of Toreli . In the 15th century, Javakheti was incorporated to principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago . In the 16th century, the region, as well as the adjacent territories of western Georgia, was occupied by the Ottoman Empire . The Georgian population of Javakheti was displaced to inner regions of Georgia such as Imereti and Kartli . Those who remained gradually became Muslim . As

1271-502: The first known inhabitants of the area. Some scholars credit the Mosiniks (or Mossynoeci ) with the invention of iron metallurgy . From the 2nd millennium to the 4th century BC, Meskheti was believed to be part of the Kingdom of Diauehi , in the 4th century BC to the 6th century AD part of the Kingdom of Iberia . From the 10th to the 15th century it was part of the united Georgian Kingdom . In

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1312-571: The following ethnic makeup of 160,504 total population: The current division of Georgia into "regions" ( Mkhare ) was introduced by the Shevardnadze government in the mid-1990s, partly as a response to the secession of Abkhazia and the South Ossetia conflict. Samtskhe–Javakheti was basically formed by combining the two traditional provinces of Meskheti (Samtskhe) and Javakheti . The ancient tribes of Meskhi (or Moschi ) and Mosiniks are

1353-565: The gorge to Akhaltsikhe via Khertvisi Fortress where the Paravani River joins the Mtkvari. The river gorge has a depth of approximately 500 meters. At Akhaltsikhe the river turns to the northeast and streams to Borjomi between the Meskheti Range (left bank) and Trialeti Range (right bank), after which the river leaves the region through the Shida Kartli plain. Due to its high location,

1394-445: The language branch. However, cells with red background contain transliterations that are context dependent (and may in some cases create ambiguities, only the ISO 9985 and Hübschmann-Meillet romanizations do not use any context-dependant ambiguous digraphs for transcribing simple Armenian letters that are not ligatures, but the former is inconsistent with its representation of aspirated consonants and incompatible with all other systems for

1435-484: The opposite of the original rough breathing diacritic. This romanization was taken up by ISO (1996) and is considered obsolete. This system is a loose transcription and is not reversible (without using dictionary lookup), notably for single Armenian letters romanized into digraphs (these non-reversible, or ambiguous romanizations are shown in a red cell in the table below) . Some Armenian letters have several romanizations, depending on their context: ISO 9985 (1996)

1476-472: The region has cold and snowy winters. In the northern situated Bakuriani , not far from the tourist attraction Borjomi, there is a ski resort. The region has six municipalities with 82 administrative communities ( temi ) and a total of 271 populated settlements: According to data from the National Statistical Bureau of Georgia, Samtskhe–Javakheti had 151,110 inhabitants as of January 1, 2021,

1517-477: The region. The population of the region is made up of Georgians and Armenians , as well as smaller numbers of Russians . Samtskhe–Javakheti borders Adjara and Guria in the northwestern tip, Imereti in the north, Shida Kartli in the northeast and Kvemo Kartli in the east. The southern border is formed by Armenia , the southwestern flank borders Turkey . The region covers the Javakheti Plateau ,

1558-468: The republic. The Khulo district was established in 1965 by its current borders, and, according to the current administrative-territorial arrangement, it is called Khulo municipality. In the district are medieval historical monuments such as Khikhani Fortress (10th century) where rebel against Ottoman Empire Selim Beg Khimshiashvili defended himself until he was captured and beheaded by Ottoman forces in 1785. The exact date of building Khikhani Fortress

1599-595: The second Latin letter or quote, then removing the dummy character, so that the automatic input converter keeps the Armenian letters distinct. Some Armenian letters have very different phonetic sounds between Classical or Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, so that the usage of Armenian letters is different between the two sub-branches of the language. This is made visible in the table below by coloring transliterations specific to Classical or Eastern Armenian on green background, and those for Western Armenian on blue background. Other letters are transliterated independently of

1640-408: The spacing turned comma ⟨‘⟩ (U+02BB) — or sometimes the spacing Greek-script rough breaking ⟨῾⟩ (U+1FFE), or the spacing grave accent ⟨ˋ⟩ or ASCII backquote or ⟨`⟩ (U+02CB or U+0060) even if they are too flat, or even the ASCII apostrophe-quote ⟨'⟩ (U+0027) when there was no confusion possible. The preferred character today

1681-412: Was integral part of unified Georgian monarchy and had a period of significant development: lot of bridges, churches, monasteries, and royal residences (Lgivi, Ghrtila, Bozhano, Vardzia ) were built. From the 11th century, the center of upper Javakheti became Akhalkalaki . From the 10th century, the center of lowland Javakheti was Tmogvi . From the 12th century, the domain was ruled by representatives of

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