Misplaced Pages

#481518

89-476: The minaret, designed by Bako, was built on an earlier existing structure called Kalyan by the Qarakhanid ruler Mohammad Arslan Khan in 1127 to summon Muslims to prayer five times a day. An earlier tower was collapsed before starting this structure which was called Kalyan, meaning welfare, indicating a Buddhist or zoroasterian past. It is made in the form of a circular-pillar baked brick tower, narrowing upwards. It

178-669: A Naiman who usurped the throne of the Qara Khitai dynasty, instituted anti-Islamic policies on the local populations under his rule. The decline of the Seljuks following their defeat by the Qara Khitais at the Battle of Qatwan (1141) allowed the Khwarazmian dynasty , then a vassal of the Qara Khitai, to expand into former Seljuk territory, where they became independent rulers circa 1190. In 1207,

267-648: A Seljuk campaign into Talas and Zhetysu, but the Eastern Khanate was a Seljuk vassal for only a short time. At the beginning of the 12th century the Eastern Khanate invaded Transoxiana and briefly occupied the Seljuk town of Termez. The Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) host which invaded Central Asia was composed of remnants from the defunct Liao dynasty which was annihilated by the Jin dynasty in 1125. The Liao noble Yelü Dashi recruited warriors from various tribes and formed

356-406: A depth of 13 meters, did not reach its base. The lower parts of the foundation are laid on a clayey (loess) mortar, with gypsum and vegetable ash gradually added as it rises, reducing the clay content. Consequently, there is no loess mortar in the minaret's pedestal. The perfectly regular masonry of the foundation is adorned with three belts of yellow limestone slabs. The decorative embellishments of

445-512: A fertilizer. Gypsum may act as a source of sulfur for plant growth, and in the early 19th century, it was regarded as an almost miraculous fertilizer. American farmers were so anxious to acquire it that a lively smuggling trade with Nova Scotia evolved, resulting in the so-called "Plaster War" of 1820. Gypsum is moderately water-soluble (~2.0–2.5 g/L at 25 °C) and, in contrast to most other salts, it exhibits retrograde solubility, becoming less soluble at higher temperatures. When gypsum

534-753: A horde that moved westward to rebuild the Liao dynasty. Yelü occupied Balasagun on the Chu River , then defeated the Western Karakhanids in Khujand in 1137. In 1141 Qara Khitai became the dominant force in the region after they dealt a devastating blow to the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar and the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Qatwan near Samarkand . Several military commanders of Karakhanid lineages such as

623-474: A range of industrial processes. Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) is recovered at some coal-fired power plants. The main contaminants are Mg, K, Cl, F, B, Al, Fe, Si, and Se. They come both from the limestone used in desulfurization and from the coal burned. This product is pure enough to replace natural gypsum in a wide variety of fields including drywalls, water treatment, and cement set retarder. Improvements in flue gas desulfurization have greatly reduced

712-413: A result, waste gypsum is stored in stacks indefinitely, with significant risk of leaching their contaminants into water and soil. To reduce the accumulation and ultimately clear out these stacks, research is underway to find more applications for such waste products. People can be exposed to gypsum in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact. Calcium sulfate per se is nontoxic and

801-529: A wide range of colors to local deposits. Because gypsum dissolves over time in water, gypsum is rarely found in the form of sand. However, the unique conditions of the White Sands National Park in the US state of New Mexico have created a 710 km (270 sq mi) expanse of white gypsum sand, enough to supply the US construction industry with drywall for 1,000 years. Commercial exploitation of

890-457: Is 45.6 metres (150 feet) high (48 metres including the point), of 9 metres (30 feet) diameter at the bottom and 6 metres (20 feet) overhead. There is a brick spiral staircase that twists up inside around the pillar to the rotunda. The tower base has narrow ornamental strings belted across it made of bricks which are placed in both straight or diagonal fashion. The frieze is covered with a blue glaze with inscriptions. In times of war, warriors used

979-510: Is contaminated by impurities found in the rock, namely fluoride , silica , radioactive elements such as radium , and heavy metal elements such as cadmium . Similarly, production of titanium dioxide produces titanium gypsum (TG) due to neutralization of excess acid with lime . The product is contaminated with silica, fluorides, organic matters, and alkalis. Impurities in refinery gypsum waste have, in many cases, prevented them from being used as normal gypsum in fields such as construction. As

SECTION 10

#1732855016482

1068-448: Is even approved as a food additive, but as powdered gypsum, it can irritate skin and mucous membranes. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for gypsum exposure in the workplace as TWA 15 mg/m for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m for respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set

1157-638: Is evident in both of these pieces of work, but they also showed the influences of Persian and Islamic culture. However, the court culture of the Karakhanids remained almost entirely Persian. The two last western khaqans also wrote poetry in Persian. The Cambridge World History describes the Kara-Khanid state as the first of the Islamic Turco-Iranian states. Islam and its civilization flourished under

1246-593: Is heated in air it loses water and converts first to calcium sulfate hemihydrate ( bassanite , often simply called "plaster") and, if heated further, to anhydrous calcium sulfate ( anhydrite ). As with anhydrite , the solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is also strongly dependent on sodium chloride (common table salt) concentration. The structure of gypsum consists of layers of calcium (Ca ) and sulfate ( SO 2− 4 ) ions tightly bound together. These layers are bonded by sheets of anion water molecules via weaker hydrogen bonding , which gives

1335-462: Is prized for ornamental work of various sorts. In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form, typically opaque, with embedded sand grains called desert rose . It also forms some of the largest crystals found in nature, up to 12 m (39 ft) long, in the form of selenite. Gypsum is a common mineral, with thick and extensive evaporite beds in association with sedimentary rocks . Deposits are known to occur in strata from as far back as

1424-421: Is supported by a ten-sided pedestal, over 185 centimeters in height, constructed, like the entire minaret, from high-quality fired bricks (27x27x5 centimeters) with gypsum mortar. Over time, the bricks and mortar fused into a monolithic mass, ensuring the rare preservation of the structure in this region. The underground part of the minaret consists of a brick foundation of unknown depth. The excavation, reaching

1513-493: The Archaean eon . Gypsum is deposited from lake and sea water, as well as in hot springs , from volcanic vapors, and sulfate solutions in veins . Hydrothermal anhydrite in veins is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near-surface exposures. It is often associated with the minerals halite and sulfur . Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral. Pure gypsum is white, but other substances found as impurities may give

1602-480: The Battle of Dandanaqan and entered Iran. Conflict with the Karakhanids broke out, but the Karakhanids were able to withstand attacks by the Seljuks initially, even briefly taking control of Seljuk towns in Greater Khorasan . The Karakhanids, however, developed serious conflicts with the religious classes (the ulama ), and the ulama of Transoxiana then requested the intervention of the Seljuks. In 1089, during

1691-478: The Bukhara operation . In 1924, a small part of the wall and the minaret's muqarnases were restored. In 1960, by the founding by Ochil Bobomurodov, the underground part of the minaret was repaired and reinforced, where the foundation and the foundation of the minaret are located. In 1997, to the 2500th anniversary of Bukhara, the minaret was thoroughly reconstructed and restored by the best masters. In subsequent years,

1780-693: The Byzantine Empire , and the Nottingham alabasters of Medieval England . The word gypsum is derived from the Greek word γύψος ( gypsos ), "plaster". Because the quarries of the Montmartre district of Paris have long furnished burnt gypsum ( calcined gypsum) used for various purposes, this dehydrated gypsum became known as plaster of Paris . Upon adding water, after a few dozen minutes, plaster of Paris becomes regular gypsum (dihydrate) again, causing

1869-531: The Chagatay and the Kypchak . The Kara-Khanid cultural model that combined nomadic Turkic culture with Islamic, sedentary institutions spread east into former Kara-Khoja and Tangut territories and west and south into the subcontinent, Khorasan (Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and Northern Iran), Golden Horde territories ( Tataristan ), and Turkey . The Chagatay , Timurid, and Uzbek states and societies inherited most of

SECTION 20

#1732855016482

1958-536: The Karakhanids , Qarakhanids , Ilek Khanids or the Afrasiabids ( Persian : آل افراسیاب , romanized :  Āl-i Afrāsiyāb , lit.   'House of Afrasiab '), was a Karluk Turkic khanate that ruled Central Asia from the 9th to the early 13th century. The dynastic names of Karakhanids and Ilek Khanids refer to royal titles with Kara Khagan being the most important Turkic title up until

2047-756: The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) have indicated the existence of gypsum dunes in the northern polar region of Mars, which were later confirmed at ground level by the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Opportunity . Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in the cities of Araripina and Grajaú in Brazil; in Pakistan, Jamaica, Iran (world's second largest producer), Thailand, Spain (the main producer in Europe), Germany, Italy, England, Ireland, Canada and

2136-890: The Pechenegs , the Oghuz Turks , and the Karluks. The domain of the Karluks reached as far north as the Irtysh and the Kimek confederation, with encampments extending to the Chi and Ili rivers, where the Chigil and Tukshi tribes lived, and east to the Ferghana valley and beyond. The area to the south and east of the Karluks was inhabited by the Yagma. The Karluk center in the 9th and 10th centuries appears to have been at Balasagun on

2225-727: The Toġuzġuz kings", that Ashina tribe was not listed among the Toquz Oghuz (Ch. 九姓 Jĭu Xìng "Nine Surnames") in Chinese-language sources and that early Uyghur khagans belonged to the Yaglakar clan of Toquz Oghuz and later Uyghur khagans belonged to the Ädiz clan . Alternatively, Bilge Kul Qadir might belong to the Eðgiş or Chigils . The Karluks were a nomadic people from the western Altai Mountains who moved to Zhetysu (Semirechye). In 742,

2314-737: The Uyghur Khaganate by the Old Kirghiz . Control of sacred lands, together with their affiliation with the Ashina clan, allowed the Khaganate to be passed on to the Karluks along with domination of the steppes after the previous Khagan was killed in a revolt. During the 9th century southern Central Asia was under the rule of the Samanids , while the Central Asian steppe was dominated by Turkic nomads such as

2403-651: The chemical formula CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster , drywall and blackboard or sidewalk chalk . Gypsum also crystallizes as translucent crystals of selenite . It forms as an evaporite mineral and as a hydration product of anhydrite . The Mohs scale of mineral hardness defines gypsum as hardness value 2 based on scratch hardness comparison . Fine-grained white or lightly tinted forms of gypsum known as alabaster have been used for sculpture by many cultures including Ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Ancient Rome ,

2492-565: The "heaven-mandated" right to rule resided. The Karluks and Uyghurs later allied themselves against the Basmyl, and within two years they toppled the Basmyl khagan. The Uyghur yabghu became khagan and the Karluk leader yabghu. This arrangement lasted less than a year. Hostilities between the Uyghur and Karluk forced the Karluk to migrate westward into the western Turgesh lands. By 766 the Karluks had forced

2581-723: The 1040s. In the late 11th century, they came under the suzerainty of the Seljuk Empire followed by the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) who defeated the Seljuks in the Battle of Qatwan in 1141. The Eastern Khanate ended in 1211, and the Western Khanate was extinguished by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1212. The capitals of the Kara-Khanid Khanate included Kashgar , Balasagun , Uzgen and Samarkand . The history of

2670-587: The Arab titles sultan and sultān al-salātīn ("Sultan of Sultans"). According to the Ottoman historian known as Munajjim-bashi, a Karakhanid prince named Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first of the khans to convert. After conversion, he obtained a fatwa which permitted him in effect to kill his presumably-still-pagan father, after which he conquered Kashgar (of the old Shule Kingdom ). Later, in 960, according to Muslim historians Ibn Miskawaih and Ibn al-Athir , there

2759-514: The Ashina. Even so, the tribal origin of Bilge Kul Qadir Khan, the first Kara-Khan, is still unknown: if Bilge Kul Qadir descended from the Karluk Yabghus , then he indeed belonged to the Ashina dynasty as they did; if Bilge Kul Qadir descended from the Yagma (as suggested by Vasily Bartold ), then he did not, considering that the Hudud al-'Alam stated that "Their [Yagmas'] king is from the family of

Kalyan Minaret - Misplaced Pages Continue

2848-748: The Chigil and Yaghma tribes – the Eastern Khagan bore the title Arslan Qara Khaqan (Arslan "lion" was the totem of the Chigil) and the Western Khagan the title Bughra Qara Khaqan (Bughra "male camel" was the totem of the Yaghma). The names of animals were a regular element in the Turkic titles of the Karakhanids: thus Aslan (lion), Bughra (camel), Toghan (falcon), Böri (wolf), and Toghrul or Toghrïl (a bird of prey). Under

2937-655: The Chu River. In the late 9th century the Samanids marched into the steppes and captured Taraz , one of the headquarters of the Karluk khagan, and a large church was transformed into a mosque. During the 9th century, the Karluk confederation (including three chief tribes: the Bulaq ( Mouluo 謀落 / Moula 謀剌), Taşlïk ( Tashili 踏實力), and Sebek (Suofu 娑匐) , along with Chigils , Charuks , Barskhans , Khalajes , Azkishi and Tuhsis (the last three being possibly remnants of Türgesh ) and

3026-456: The East and China"; 東方與秦之主 ) as their title, and minted coins bearing these titles. Another title they used was Sulṭān al-Sharq wa al-Ṣīn (Sultan of the East and China). Early period "proto-Qarakhanid" coinage featured Chinese-style square-holed coins, combined with Arabic writing. Much of the realm of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, including Transoxiana and the western Tarim Basin , had been under

3115-453: The Eastern Khanate. The Eastern Khanate had its capital at Balasaghun and later Kashgar. The Fergana-Zhetysu areas became the border between the two states and were frequently contested. When the two states were formed, Fergana fell into realm of the Eastern Khanate, but was later captured by Ibrahim and became part of the Western Khanate. In 1040, the Seljuk Empire defeated the Ghaznavids at

3204-429: The Kara-Khanid Khanate is reconstructed from fragmentary and often contradictory written sources, as well as studies on their coinage . The term Karakhanid was derived from Qara Khan or Qara Khaqan ( Persian : قراخان , romanized :  Qarākhān ), the foremost title of the rulers of the dynasty. The word "Kara" means "black" and also "courageous" from Old Turkic (𐰴𐰺𐰀) and khan means ruler. The term

3293-639: The Kara-Khanids' local status. The Kara-Khanid rulers also formed marriage relations with the Liao dynasty and addressed the Song emperors as "maternal uncle", in possible imitation of Uyghur and Tibetan rulers who had marital relations with the previous Tang dynasty. In an account, the Kara-Khanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari referred to his homeland, around Kashgar , then part of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, as "Lower China". A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined

3382-674: The Kara-Khitai throne. In 1218, Kuchlug was killed by the Mongol army . Some of the Kara-Khitai's eastern vassals including Eastern Kara-Khanids then joined the Mongol forces to conquer the Khwarezmian Empire. The takeover by the Karakhanids did not change the essentially Iranian character of Central Asia, though it set into motion a demographic and ethnolinguistic shift. During the Karakhanid era,

3471-576: The Karakhanid court. He wrote this first comprehensive dictionary of Turkic languages in Arabic for the Caliphs of Baghdad in 1072–76. Another famous Karakhanid writer was Yusuf Balasaghuni , who wrote Kutadgu Bilig (The Wisdom of Felicity), the only known literary work written in Turkic from the Karakhanid period. Kutadgu Bilig is a form of advice literature known as mirrors for princes . The Turkic identity

3560-544: The Karakhanid state. Nasr, the conqueror of Transoxiana, held the large central area of Transoxiana (Samarkand and Bukhara), Fergana (Uzgen) and other areas, although after his death his appanage was further divided. Ahmad held Zhetysu and Chach and became the head of the dynasty after the death of Ali. The brothers Ahmad and Nasr conducted different policies towards the Ghaznavids in the south – while Ahmad tried to form an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazna , Nasr attempted to expand unsuccessfully into Ghaznavid territory. Ahmad

3649-775: The Karakhanids repelled an attack by a large mass of nomadic Turkic tribes in what was described in Muslim sources as a great victory. Around the same time, the Kara-Khanid ruler Ilig Khan reached an agreement with Mahmud of Ghazni , in which they agreed to partition former Samanid territory along the Oxus river . The Islamic conquest of the Buddhist cities east of Kashgar began when the Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in 934 and then captured Kashgar. He and his son directed endeavors to proselytize Islam among

Kalyan Minaret - Misplaced Pages Continue

3738-588: The Karakhanids still survive today, including the Kalyan minaret built by Mohammad Arslan Khan beside the main mosque in Bukhara, and three mausolea in Uzgend. The early Karakhanid rulers, as nomads, lived not in the city but in an army encampment outside the capital, and while by the time of Ibrahim the Karakhanids still maintained a nomadic tradition, their extensive religious and civil constructions showed that they had assimilated

3827-510: The Karakhanids. The earliest example of madrasas in Central Asia was founded in Samarkand by Ibrahim Tamghach Khan . Ibrahim also founded a hospital to care for the sick as well as providing shelter for the poor. His son Shams al-Mulk Nasr built ribats for the caravanserais on the route between Bukhara and Samarkand, as well as a palace near Bukhara. Some of the buildings constructed by

3916-467: The Karluk horde: Sanah, a possible rendition of Ashina (compare Śaya (also by al-Masudi), Aś(i)nas (al-Tabari), Ānsa (Hudud al-'Alam), and Śaba (Ibn Khordadbeh) ), and Afrasiab, whom 11th-century Karakhanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari identified with Turkic king Alp Er Tunga , the legendary progenitor of the Karakhanid ruling dynasty. Furthermore, Kara-khanid heads of state claimed the title khagan , which indicates that they may have been descended from

4005-411: The Karluks were part of an alliance led by the Basmyl and Uyghurs that rebelled against the Göktürks and led to the demise of the Second Turkic Khaganate (682–744). In the realignment of power that followed, the Karluks were elevated from a tribe led by an Elteber to one led by a yabghu , which was one of the highest Turkic dignitaries and also implies membership in the Ashina clan in whom

4094-424: The Khagans were four rulers with the titles Arslan Ilig, Bughra Ilig, Arslan Tegin and Bughra Tegin. The titles of the members of the dynasty changed with their position, normally upwards, in the dynastic hierarchy. In the mid-10th century the Kara-Khanids converted to Islam and adopted Muslim names and honorifics, but retained Turkic regnal titles such as Khan, Khagan , Ilek (Ilig) and Tegin . Later they adopted

4183-416: The Qara Khitai were Buddhists ruling over a largely Muslim population, they were considered fair-minded rulers whose reign was marked by religious tolerance. Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Islamic authority persevered under the Qara Khitai. Kashgar became a Nestorian metropolitan see and Christian gravestones in the Chu River Valley appeared beginning in this period. However, Kuchlug ,

4272-406: The Samanids returned to Bukhara. Hasan's cousin Ali b. Musa (title: Kara Khan or Arslan Khan) resumed the campaign against the Samanids, and by 999 Ali's son Nasr had taken Chach, Samarkand, and Bukhara. The Samanid domains were divided between the Ghaznavids , who gained Khorasan and Afghanistan , and the Karakhanids, who received Transoxiana. The Oxus River thus became the boundary between

4361-400: The Turks and engage in military conquests. In the mid-10th century, Satuq's son Musa began to put pressure on Khotan, and a long period of war between Kashgar and the Kingdom of Khotan ensued. Satok Bughra Khan's nephew or grandson Ali Arslan was said to have been killed by Buddhists during the war; during the reign of Ahmad b. Ali, the Karakhanids also engaged in wars against non-Muslims to

4450-570: The United States. Large open pit quarries are located in many places including Fort Dodge, Iowa , which sits on one of the largest deposits of gypsum in the world, and Plaster City, California , United States, and East Kutai , Kalimantan , Indonesia. Several small mines also exist in places such as Kalannie in Western Australia , where gypsum is sold to private buyers for additions of calcium and sulfur as well as reduction of aluminum toxicities on soil for agricultural purposes. Crystals of gypsum up to 11 m (36 ft) long have been found in

4539-409: The Yaghma, possible descendants of the Toquz Oghuz , joined forces and formed the first Karluk-Karakhanid khaganate. The Chigils appear to have formed the nucleus of the Karakhanid army. The date of its foundation and the name of its first khan is uncertain, but according to one reconstruction, the first Karakhanid ruler was Bilge Kul Qadir Khan . The rulers of the Karakhanids were likely to be from

SECTION 50

#1732855016482

4628-402: The administration of the western branch of the family that eventually led to a formal separation of the Khara-Khanid Khanate. Ibrahim Tamghach Khan was considered by Muslim historians as a great ruler, and he brought some stability to the Western Karakhanids by limiting the appanage system that caused much of the internal strife in the Kara-Khanid Khanate. The Hasan family remained in control of

4717-495: The amount of toxic elements present. Gypsum precipitates onto brackish water membranes , a phenomenon known as mineral salt scaling , such as during brackish water desalination of water with high concentrations of calcium and sulfate . Scaling decreases membrane life and productivity. This is one of the main obstacles in brackish water membrane desalination processes, such as reverse osmosis or nanofiltration . Other forms of scaling, such as calcite scaling, depending on

4806-418: The area, strongly opposed by area residents, was permanently prevented in 1933 when President Herbert Hoover declared the gypsum dunes a protected national monument . Gypsum is also formed as a by-product of sulfide oxidation , amongst others by pyrite oxidation , when the sulfuric acid generated reacts with calcium carbonate . Its presence indicates oxidizing conditions. Under reducing conditions,

4895-450: The brickwork. At one time, the minaret performed several functions. It was simultaneously an observation tower, also had a religious function, in particular, it was used for adhan (calling Muslims for prayer ) to the Kalyan Mosque , which is located next to the minaret. It was also used to call the population in the nearest area to read decrees of rulers and other occasions. In 1920, the minaret suffered damage by Soviet bombardment in

4984-431: The caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua , Mexico. The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C (136 °F), and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tonnes (61 short tons) and is around 500,000 years old. Synthetic gypsum is produced as a waste product or by-product in

5073-415: The citizens of Bukhara revolted against the sadrs (leaders of the religious classes), which the Khwarazmshah 'Ala' ad-Din Muhammad used as a pretext to conquer Bukhara. Muhammad then formed an alliance with the Western Karakhanid ruler Uthman ibn Ibrahim (who later married Muhammad's daughter) against the Qara Khitai. In 1210, the Khwarezm-Shah took Samarkand after the Qara Khitai retreated to deal with

5162-407: The city in 1938, says in his memoir Eastern Approaches , "For centuries before 1870, and again in the troubled years between 1917 and 1920, men were cast down to their death from the delicately ornamented gallery which crowns it." According to some historical sources, before the construction of the Kalyan Minaret in its place was another minaret, a smaller one, which later fell, and in its place it

5251-622: The crystal perfect cleavage along the sheets (in the {010} plane). Gypsum occurs in nature as flattened and often twinned crystals , and transparent, cleavable masses called selenite . Selenite contains no significant selenium ; rather, both substances were named for the ancient Greek word for the Moon . Selenite may also occur in a silky, fibrous form, in which case it is commonly called "satin spar". Finally, it may also be granular or quite compact. In hand-sized samples, it can be anywhere from transparent to opaque. A very fine-grained white or lightly tinted variety of gypsum, called alabaster ,

5340-491: The culture and traditions of the settled population of Transoxiana. During the excavations of the citadel of Samarkand, the ruins of the palace of the Karakhanid ruler Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202) were found. The palace was decorated with wall paintings. Numerous works of art and decorative objects are also known from the realm of the Kara-Khanids during the time of their rule (840–1212). Samarkand, with its old citadel of Afrasiab where many works of art have been excavated,

5429-464: The cultures of the Kara-Khanids and the Khwarezmians without much interruption. The Kara-Khanids translated the Quran into Middle Turkic . There are four surviving copies of the Quran translations found in various collections and a Middle Turkic excerpt of Al-Fatiha , which supposedly belong to the Kara-Khanid period. Kara-Khanid monarchs adopted Tamghaj Khan (Turkic for "Khan of China"; 桃花石汗 ) or Malik al-Mashriq wa-l’Sin (Arabic for "King of

SECTION 60

#1732855016482

5518-461: The east and northeast. Muslim accounts tell the tale of the four imams from Mada'in city (possibly now in Iraq) who travelled to help Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader, in his conquest of Khotan, Yarkend, and Kashgar. The "infidels" were said to have been driven towards Khotan, but the four Imams were killed. In 1006, Yusuf Qadir Khan of Kashgar conquered the Kingdom of Khotan, ending Khotan's existence as an independent state. The conquest of

5607-428: The end of the dynasty. The Khanate conquered Transoxiana in Central Asia and ruled it independently between 999 and 1089. Their arrival in Transoxiana signaled a definitive shift from Iranic to Turkic predominance in Central Asia, yet the Kara-khanids gradually assimilated the Perso-Arab Muslim culture , while retaining some of their native Turkic culture. The Khanate split into the Eastern and Western Khanates in

5696-473: The father of Osman of Khwarazm fled from Karakhanid lands in the wake of the Qara Khitai invasion. Despite losing to the Qara Khitai, the Karakhanid dynasty remained in power as their vassals. The Qara Khitai themselves stayed at Zhetysu near Balasagun, and allowed some of the Karakhanids to continue to rule as their tax collectors in Samarkand and Kashgar. Under the Qara Khitai the Karakhanids functioned as administrators for sedentary Muslim populations. While

5785-440: The formation of two independent Karakhanid states. A son of Hasan Bughra Khan, Ali Tegin , seized control of Bukhara and other towns. He expanded his territory further after the death of Mansur. The son of Nasr, Böritigin , later waged war against the sons of Ali Tegin, and won control of a large part of Transoxiana, making Samarkand the capital. In 1041, another son of Nasr b. Ali, Muhammad 'Ayn ad-Dawlah (reigned 1041–52) took over

5874-443: The local population began using Turkic in speech – initially the shift was linguistic with the local people adopting the Turkic language. While Central Asia became Turkicized over the centuries, culturally the Turks came close to being Persianized or, in certain respects, Arabicized. Nevertheless, the official or court language used in Kashgar and other Karakhanid centers, referred to as "Khaqani" (royal), remained Turkic. The language

5963-473: The material to harden or "set" in ways that are useful for casting and construction. Gypsum was known in Old English as spærstān , "spear stone", referring to its crystalline projections. Thus, the word spar in mineralogy, by comparison to gypsum, refers to any non- ore mineral or crystal that forms in spearlike projections. In the mid-18th century, the German clergyman and agriculturalist Johann Friderich Mayer investigated and publicized gypsum's use as

6052-441: The minaret also carried out small restoration works. The Kalon Minaret is a powerful, tapering brick pillar that culminates in a cylindrical lantern rotunda with a stalactite crown. The lantern has sixteen open arches, above which there is also an ornamental stalactite cornice called "sharafa." The minaret is located at the southeastern corner of the Friday Mosque and is connected to its roof by an arched footbridge. The height of

6141-415: The minaret as a watchtower to lookout for enemies. About a hundred years after its construction, the tower so impressed Genghis Khan that he ordered it to be spared when all around was destroyed by his men. It is also known as the Tower of Death, because until as recently as the early twentieth century criminals were executed by being thrown from the top. Fitzroy Maclean , who made a surreptitious visit to

6230-430: The minaret consist of bricks and tiles that are very well-fired without glaze. The minaret's walls are adorned with various, not just geometric, patterns. Additionally, historical and religious Kufic texts are inscribed on the walls. Qarakhanid dynasty The Kara-Khanid Khanate ( Persian : قراخانیان , romanized :  Qarākhāniyān ; Chinese : 喀喇汗國 ; pinyin : Kālā Hánguó ), also known as

6319-422: The minaret's shaft is 46.5 meters. The circumference of the shaft at the base is 30.43 meters, and the corresponding diameter is 9.7 meters. In Central Asia , only the minaret of Kutlug-Timur in Kunya Urgench has a larger base diameter. The Bokhara minaret's shaft noticeably narrows towards the top, and just below the lantern , at around 32 meters from the base, its diameter is 6 meters.The minaret's round shaft

6408-671: The rebellion from the Naiman Kuchlug, who had seized the Qara Khitans' treasury at Uzgen. The Khwarezm-Shah then defeated the Qara Khitai near Talas. Muhammad and Kuchlug had, apparently, agreed to divide up the Qara Khitan's empire. In 1212, the population of Samarkand staged a revolt against the Khwarezmians, a revolt which Uthman supported, and massacred them. The Khwarezm-Shah returned, recaptured Samarkand and executed Uthman. He demanded

6497-647: The reign of Ibrahim's grandson Ahmad b. Khidr, the Seljuks entered and took control of Samarkand, together with the domains belonging to the Western Khanate. For half a century, the Western Karakhanid Khanate was a vassal of the Seljuks, who largely controlled the appointment of the Khanate's rulers in that time. Ahmad b. Khidr was returned to power by the Seljuks, but in 1095, the ulama accused Ahmad of heresy and managed to secure his execution. The Karakhanids of Kashgar also declared their submission following

6586-412: The remains of three Khara-Khanid individuals. They were found to be carrying the maternal haplogroups G2a2 , A and J1c . The Kara-Khanid were found to have more East Asian ancestry than the preceding Goktürks . ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Western Karakhanids Eastern Karakhanids Gypsum Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate , with

6675-502: The rule of the Tang dynasty prior to the Battle of Talas in 751, and the Kara-Khanid rulers continued to identify their dynasty with China several centuries later. Yusuf Qadir Khan sent the first Kara-Khanid envoy to the Song dynasty, Boyla Saghun, to request the Song to send an official envoy who would help 'pacify' Khotan, apparently seeking to use the prestige of the Chinese court to strengthen

6764-613: The submission of all leading Karakhanids, and finally extinguished the Western Karakhanid state. In 1204, a rebellion of the Eastern Kara-Khanid in Kashgar was suppressed by the Kara-Khitai who took the prince Yusuf hostage to Balasagun. The prince was later released but he was killed in Kashgar by rebels in 1211, effectively ending the Eastern Kara-Khanid. In 1214, the rebels in Kashgar surrendered to Kuchlug , who had usurped

6853-501: The submission of the Turgesh and they established their capital at Suyab on the Chu River . The Karluk confederation by now included the Chigil and Tukshi tribes who may have been Türgesh tribes incorporated into the Karluk union. The Karluks converted to Nestorian Christianity at the end of the 8th century CE, about 15 years after they established themselves in the Semerich'e region. This

6942-447: The sulfates it contains can be reduced back to sulfide by sulfate-reducing bacteria . This can lead to accumulation of elemental sulfur in oil-bearing formations, such as salt domes, where it can be mined using the Frasch process Electric power stations burning coal with flue gas desulfurization produce large quantities of gypsum as a byproduct from the scrubbers. Orbital pictures from

7031-805: The two rival empires. The Karakhanid state was divided into appanages ( Ülüş system ), as was common of Turkic and Mongol nomads. The Karakhanid appanages were associated with four principal urban centers, Balasagun (then the capital of the Karakhanid state) in Zhetysu, Kashgar in Xinjiang, Uzgen in Fergana , and Samarkand in Transoxiana. The dynasty's original domains of Zhetysu and Kasgar and their khans retained an implicit seniority over those who ruled in Transoxiana and Fergana. The four sons of Ali (Ahmad, Nasr, Mansur, Muhammad) each held their own independent appanage within

7120-561: The water source, can also be important considerations in distillation , as well as in heat exchangers , where either the salt solubility or concentration can change rapidly. A new study has suggested that the formation of gypsum starts as tiny crystals of a mineral called bassanite (2CaSO 4 ·H 2 O). This process occurs via a three-stage pathway: The production of phosphate fertilizers requires breaking down calcium-containing phosphate rock with acid, producing calcium sulfate waste known as phosphogypsum (PG). This form of gypsum

7209-620: The western Tarim Basin which includes Khotan and Kashgar is significant in the eventual Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin , and modern Uyghurs identify with the Karakhanids even though the name Uyghur was taken from the Manichaean Uyghur Khaganate and the Buddhist state of Qocho . Early in the 11th century the unity of the Karakhanid dynasty was fractured by frequent internal warfare that eventually resulted in

7298-444: Was the master of Bako , who was later buried 45 meters from the minaret itself. In the will of the architect it was said that the minaret, if it falls, fell on his head, and bequeathed him to bury it in the place indicated by him. According to legend, the master builder, who laid the foundation of the minaret from alabaster and camel milk, disappeared, but returned only two years later, when the foundation became durable, and proceeded to

7387-554: Was a mass conversion of the Turks (reportedly "200,000 tents of the Turks"), and circumstantial evidence suggests these were the Karakhanids. The grandson of Satuk Bughra Khan, Hasan b. Sulayman (or Harun) (title: Bughra Khan) attacked the Samanids in the late 10th century. Between 990 and 992, Hasan took Isfijab , Ferghana , Ilaq , Samarkand , and the Samanid capital Bukhara . However, Hasan Bughra Khan died in 992 due to an illness, and

7476-408: Was conquered by the Kara-Khanids between 990 and 992, and held until 1212 (11th–12th centuries): Kara-Khanid is arguably the most enduring cultural heritage among coexisting cultures in Central Asia from the 9th to the 13th centuries. The Karluk-Uyghur dialect spoken by the nomadic tribes and Turkified sedentary populations under Kara-Khanid rule formed two major branches of the Turkic language family,

7565-451: Was decided to build the current one. The minaret was built in 1127 (XII century), when Bukhara was part of the Karakhanid state . The initiator of the construction was the ruler from the Karakhanid dynasty - Arslan Khan Muhammad , who was known for his urban development. His name as the initiator of the construction is carved on one of the belts of the minaret. The architect of the minaret

7654-502: Was devised by European Orientalists in the 19th century to describe both the dynasty and the Turks ruled by it. The Kara-Khanid Khanate originated from a confederation formed some time in the 9th century by Karluks , Yagmas , Chigils , Tuhsi , and other peoples living in Zhetysu , Western Tian Shan (modern Kyrgyzstan ), and Western Xinjiang around Kashgar . 10th-century Arab historian Al-Masudi listed two "Khagan of Khagans" of

7743-524: Was partly based on dialects spoken by the Turkic tribes that made up the Karakhanids and possessed qualities of linear descent from Kök and Karluk Turkic. The Turkic script was also used for all documents and correspondence of the khaqans, according to Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk . The Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk (Dictionary of Languages of the Turks) was written by a prominent Karakhanid historian, Mahmud al-Kashgari , who may have lived for some time in Kashgar at

7832-526: Was succeeded by Mansur, and after the death of Mansur, the Hasan Bughra Khan branch of the Karakhanids became dominant. Hasan's sons Muhammad Toghan Khan II, and Yusuf Kadir Khan who held Kashgar , became in turn the head of the Karakhanid dynasty. The two families, i.e. , the descendants of Ali Arslan Khan and Hasan Bughra Khan, would eventually split the Karakhanid Khanate in two. In 1017–1018,

7921-514: Was the first time the Church of the East received such major sponsorship by an eastern power. Remains of a Nestorian church have been found in the Karluk capital of Suyab , as well as hundreds of tomstones with Nestorian Syriac inscriptions in the Semerich'e region. By the mid-9th century, the Karluk confederation had gained control of the sacred lands of the Western Türks after the destruction of

#481518