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161-455: Jämtland was originally an autonomous republic , its own nation with its own law , currency and parliament . Jämtland was conquered by Norway in 1178 and stayed Norwegian for over 450 years until it was ceded to Sweden in 1645. The province has since been Swedish for roughly 370 years, though the population did not gain Swedish citizenship until 1699. The province's identity is manifested with

322-575: A Danish landsting in the early 16th century. Even though it was banned in the end of the same century, it continued to be held in secret. After the transition to Sweden some parts were transmitted into a Swedish landsjämnadsting . Sweden's intentions in the province were first and foremost focused on defense, which led to a burden on the Jamtish farmers. The Jamts managed to enforce a treaty in 1688 which stated that Jamts were under no circumstances obligated to defend anything but their own province. This treaty

483-534: A city-state should ideally be a republic, but maintained that a limited monarchy was better suited to a state with a larger territory. The American Revolution began as a rejection only of the authority of the British Parliament over the colonies, not of the monarchy. The failure of the British monarch to protect the colonies from what they considered the infringement of their rights to representative government ,

644-475: A collar and a bell to aid in identifying the dog and the falcon, respectively. Strangely, the revised blazon does not mention the moose's attire although the prototype in the Riksheraldikerämbetet (Swedish National Heraldry Office) is provided with secondary colours for the antlers, beak, hooves and claws. Jämtland's first seal was the one depicted above from the medieval period. It was abolished after

805-515: A commercial elite being republics. Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, gaining control of the rural hinterland. The two most powerful were the Republic of Venice and its rival

966-627: A different model in the Middle East; it installed local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including Iraq , Jordan , Kuwait , Bahrain , Oman , Yemen and Libya . In subsequent decades revolutions and coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installed republics. Several monarchies remain, and the Middle East is the only part of the world where several large states are ruled by monarchs with almost complete political control. Before Christ The terms anno Domini ( AD ) and before Christ ( BC ) are used when designating years in

1127-415: A falcon?) The identity of these animals as a moose between a dog and a falcon was settled in 1884. According to popular perception, these represent Jämtland torn between Norway and Sweden, though obviously this meaning was not officially assigned by any royal authority. Svante Höglin claimed the scene to portray a moose hunted by a trained hunting dog and falcon, and in 1935 the coat of arms was revised, adding

1288-421: A general way to refer to any regime, or to refer specifically to governments which work for the public good. In medieval Northern Italy , a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani described these states using terms such as libertas populi , a free people. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in

1449-520: A great deal of equality between each parishioner, Jämtland lacked a nobility and there are no noble family coats of arms nor authorial marks in the churches, which is very common in the rest of Sweden. Jämtland also lacked a specific "bench order" (an order based on rank that defined where you were allowed to sit in the church), something that other churches had. In Jämtland the principle "among farmers no other rank except age and life-time" applied. Each parish also had an assembly, where every parishioner

1610-664: A king in Svealand . The Sagas reliability on the matter has been defined as low. In the oldest written source for Norway, Historia Norwegiæ , it is however clearly stated that Norway borders in the north-east to Jämtland. During the civil war era in Norway Jämtland was defeated by king Sverre of Norway after losing the Battle of Storsjön . This was the last war fought by the Jamts under their own elected leaders. The consequences of this defeat

1771-445: A mixture of the other forms, oligarchy and democracy . He argued that this was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybius expanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on the idea of mixed government and differentiated basic forms of government between "benign" monarchy ,  aristocracy , and democracy, and the "malignant" tyranny , oligarchy, and  ochlocracy . The most important Roman work in this tradition

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1932-633: A necessity. During the Viking Age , the settlement in the province grew. This confirms the sagas written by Snorri Sturluson , where he narrates about the Vikings who fled from Harald Fairhair and Norway and took residence in Jämtland, just like many Norwegians at the same time fled and colonized Iceland. When a climate change (which later resulted in the Medieval Warm Period ) took place, Frösön acquired

2093-577: A number of small states embraced republican systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Mediterranean maritime republics and the Hanseatic League , in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance , Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by

2254-640: A relatively strong federal republic to replace the relatively weak confederation under the first attempt at a national government with the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union ratified in 1781. The first ten amendments to the Constitution called the United States Bill of Rights , guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to republican ideals that justified the Revolution. The French Revolution

2415-676: A republic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are described as sovereign. The Israelite confederation of the era of the Judges before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type of republic. The system of government of the Igbo people in what is now Nigeria has been described as "direct and participatory democracy". Early republican institutions come from the independent gaṇasaṅgha s — gaṇa means 'tribe' and saṅgha means 'assembly'—which may have existed as early as

2576-520: A system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right . While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome , as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the Middle East . After the classical period, during

2737-455: A wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city charters. In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire , 51 of the largest towns became free imperial cities . While still under

2898-583: Is Cicero's De re publica . Over time, the classical republics became empires or were conquered by empires. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander . The Roman Republic expanded dramatically, conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics, such as Carthage . The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire. The term republic

3059-639: Is a genitive plural case. It is not known how the Jamts got their name. One possible explanation is presented in the Icelandic work Heimskringla from the 13th century. In the Saga of Håkon Góði , Snorri Sturluson narrates about Kettil Jamti, a son of Anund Jarl from Sparbu in Trøndelag who fled from Norway when Harald Fairhair united the country with brute force in the 9th century. His descendants then came to bear his name . An alternative explanation comes from

3220-510: Is a 20th-century Swedish alteration of the older spelling Jemtland . Localities settled by Jamtish emigrants such as Jemtland in Ringsaker , Norway and Jemtland in Maine , United States were founded before the alteration occurred. In the nearby Norwegian province of Trøndelag old settlements such as Jamtøya , Jamtgarden and Jamtåsen all use the prefix Jamt- , just like the regional name, however

3381-627: Is a part of Västernorrland County . The landsting, County Council , is an elected assembly and the successor of Jamtamót. This County Council was the role model for the rest of the Swedish County Councils when they were established in 1863. The province is also divided into primarily seven municipalities ; Berg Municipality , Bräcke Municipality , Krokom Municipality , Ragunda Municipality , Strömsund Municipality , Åre Municipality and Östersund Municipality . The uninhabited part in northern Jämtland belongs to Dorotea Municipality and

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3542-510: Is always placed after the year number (for example: 70 BC but AD 70), which preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation "AD" is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium , as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Since "BC" is the English abbreviation for Before Christ , it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death (i.e., after

3703-456: Is as low as 500 mm. Due to the warm winds the temperature during the winters reaches its maximum in the fell region with about -7-8 °C in Storlien and the environs. The coldest winter temperatures are found in the province's outskirts like Börtnan with roughly -11 °C. Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 14 °C in Jämtland's eastern parts to around 11 °C in

3864-460: Is assumed to have been destroyed in the 16th century, or never having existed at all. Nevertheless, the Jamtish law was either the same, or strongly influenced by the Frostating law applied on Trøndelag. When Magnus the law-mender became the king of Norway he instituted a national law for Norway in 1276, however Jämtland was not applied by this law. Jämtland came under this law either in 1365 or in

4025-577: Is because of the warm winds brought to the area by the Gulf Stream . The average precipitation in the Jamtish Fells is roughly 1 000 millimetres per year, with Skäckerfjällen as extreme with about 1 500 mm. The precipitation rates in the middle of the province are much more moderate. In fact the central and eastern parts of Jämtland have precipitation shortages, in Storsjöbygden the annual averages

4186-551: Is called a framlänning "front lander". After the conversion to Christianity several parishes (so called socknar , related to "seek") were established in Jämtland, these are now replaced by over 40 församlingar , meaning "assemblage". These are organized by so-called kontrakt "contracts", collaboration units within the Swedish church's each diocese . Jämtland is a part of the Härnösand diocese , established two years after Jämtland

4347-415: Is debate about the extent to which classical, medieval, and modern republics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock has argued that a distinct republican tradition stretches from the classical world to the present. Other scholars disagree. Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical republics had a form of government with few links to those in any modern country. The political philosophy of

4508-526: Is equal in size with e.g. Ireland . Jämtland's western border is made out by Kölen which stretches throughout the province from north to south with branches into the landscape's southeastern parts. The fell massif is broken at some places by large valleys stretching all the way to the Norwegian Sea . These valleys have been used for centuries as paths connecting Jämtland to the west. The valleys were particularly heavily used during pilgrimages to Nidaros ,

4669-452: Is generally accepted by experts there is a 27-year difference between AP and AD reference. The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating, but the date is estimated through two different approaches—one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in

4830-516: Is known in Southern Sami), a language mutually unintelligible with the other Sami languages. The Sami in Jämtland have historically been referred to as "Lapps" and sometimes by using the vague word "Finns" (supposedly related to English "find", see Fenni ), though they prefer to call themselves Sami. There have been Sami peoples in Jämtland from pre-historic times; exactly how many, however, is disputed. The northernmost part of Jämtland, Frostviken ,

4991-530: Is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city-states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence. However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics. In the ancient Near East , a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean achieved collective rule. Republic city-states flourished in Phoenicia along

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5152-449: Is originally a Sami area, historically referred to as a finnmark . However, the ancestors to the Sami people who live south of this area today probably did not come to the area before the 16th century, when large-scale reindeer herding began, leading to a nomadic lifestyle among the Sami people. This also led to several conflicts in court between Sami people in Jämtland and the land owners . At

5313-462: Is reflected in the Arthashastra , an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the saṅgha s , which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens, indicating that the gaṇasaṅgha are more of an aristocratic republic, than democracy. The Icelandic Commonwealth

5474-480: Is the yoik called vuoille . The arms are represented with a ducal coronet. Blazon : English translation: The coat of arms of Jämtland, created for Karl X Gustav 's funeral, derived from a seal which had been granted to Jämtland in 1635 by the Danish-Norwegian king . The beasts on this seal were difficult to identify. (Is the primary animal a deer, moose or reindeer? Is it a dog, wolf or bear? An eagle or

5635-458: Is tied to the churches. Making them the core of Jämtland's cultural heritage. The churches have symbolized a connection between Jämtland's population through generations and this is still the case for many today. People are joined through cheerful moments such as christening , Holy Matrimony , confirmation , through crisis and mournful times like funerals . In Jämtland-Härjedalen the free church movement did not become near as widespread as in

5796-551: Is unknown although it has been suggested that they all reached Storsjön in the center of the province. The eastern farthing at Brunflo , the western from Trångsviken to the Rödö peninsula and the south farthing from Oviken and Hackås and southwards. The northern farthing is assumed to have covered all the northern parts in addition to all the islands in Storsjön (like Frösön, Norderön , Andersön etc.) and Mörsil plus Hallen parish all

5957-415: The 159 states that use the word republic in their official names as of 2017 , and other states formally constituted as republics, are states that narrowly constrain both the right of representation and the process of election. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic , lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of

6118-488: The Battle of Stiklestad just west of Jämtland. During this period Jämtland turned into a Christian region and the first church, Västerhus chapel was built shortly after the runestone appeared. According to Snorri Sturluson 's Sagas the Jamts sometimes paid taxes to Norwegian kings such as Håkon Adalsteinsfostre and Øystein Magnusson for protection. The Sagas also mentions that the Jamts at one occasion also paid taxes to

6279-684: The Byzantine Era . No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world . Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham , dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami). Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Spanish Era (also called Era of the Caesars ), which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became

6440-521: The Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede used the expression "anno [...] ante incarnationem Dominicam" (in the year before the incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno ante Christi nativitatem" (in

6601-649: The Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of

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6762-632: The Empire in 27 BC. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates from the populace and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority. Most often a republic is a single sovereign state , but there are also subnational state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as republican in nature. The term originates from

6923-508: The Fascist regime . These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement. King Umberto II was pressured to call the 1946 Italian institutional referendum to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. The supporters of the republic chose the effigy of the Italia turrita , the national personification of Italy, as their unitary symbol to be used in

7084-667: The Greco-Turkish War (1919–22) , the monarchy was briefly replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–35). In 1931, the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–39) resulted in the Spanish Civil War leading to the establishment of a Francoist regime . The aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of

7245-518: The Gregorian and Julian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord" but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord", taken from the full original phrase " anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi ", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ ". The form "BC" is specific to English , and equivalent abbreviations are used in other languages:

7406-556: The Habsburgs tried to reassert control over the region both rural farmers and town merchants joined the rebellion. The Swiss were victorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed, and Switzerland has retained a republican form of government to the present. Two Russian cities with a powerful merchant class— Novgorod and Pskov —also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when

7567-547: The Julian or Gregorian calendars , AD 1 is immediately preceded by 1 BC, with nothing in between them (there was no year zero ). There are debates as to whether a new decade, century, or millennium begins on a year ending in zero or one. For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc. In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in

7728-451: The Latin form, rarely used in English, is ante Christum natum (ACN) or ante Christum (AC). This calendar era takes as its epoch the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. Years AD are counted forward since that epoch and years BC are counted backward from the epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme; thus the year AD 1 immediately follows

7889-425: The Latin phrase res publica ('public affair'), is a state in which political power rests with the public through their representatives —in contrast to a monarchy . Representation in a republic may or may not be freely elected by the general citizenry. In many historical republics, representation has been based on personal status and the role of elections has been limited. This remains true today; among

8050-461: The Levantine coast starting from the 11th century BC. In ancient Phoenicia, the concept of Shophet was very similar to a Roman consul . Under Persian rule (539–332 BC), Phoenician city-states such as Tyre abolished the king system and adopted "a system of the suffetes (judges), who remained in power for short mandates of 6 years". Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest known examples of

8211-551: The Middle Ages , many free cities developed again, such as Venice . The modern type of republic itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the classical era that are today still called republics. This includes ancient Athens and the Roman Republic . While the structure and governance of these states was different from that of any modern republic, there

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8372-538: The Nordic Seven Years' War and the second seal of Jämtland was used between 1575 and 1614. This seal contained two Olav-axes and was also abolished after a Swedish occupation, the one during the Kalmar War . When Jämtland became Swedish it was not suitable to use one of the older seals with such a strong Norwegian influence as a basis for a new Swedish coat of arms. So the latest seal was used instead, even though it

8533-453: The Republic of Genoa . Each were large trading ports, and further expanded by using naval power to control large parts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an ideology advocating for republics first developed. Writers such as Bartholomew of Lucca , Brunetto Latini , Marsilius of Padua , and Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-states as heirs to the legacy of Greece and Rome. Across Europe

8694-478: The Roman Empire . The term politeia can be translated as form of government , polity , or regime , and it does not necessarily imply any specific type of regime as the modern word republic sometimes does. One of Plato 's major works on political philosophy, usually known in English as The Republic , was titled Politeia . However, apart from the title, modern translations are generally used. Aristotle

8855-541: The Trøndersk name for Jämtland is Jamtlainn , whilst the Jamtish name is Jamtland . As the d is silent the form Jamtlann is also common. The regional name Jamtland has only status as an official form in Nynorsk and Icelandic , but is popularly used among locals which is one of the reasons as to why the regional museum was given the dialectal name Jamtli (Swedish jämtsk backsluttning ), "Jamtish hillside". Some finds from

9016-560: The death of Jesus ), which would mean that the approximately 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would be included in neither the BC nor the AD time scales. The anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate years in his Easter table . His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in older Easter tables , as he did not wish to continue

9177-466: The reformation ( Catholicism survived in some places into the 17th century) was forced upon the population when the kings took control of the church. Sweden's separation from the Kalmar Union transferred Jämtland from a central Scandinavian region into a border region between two aggressive states. This eventually led to conflict, first in 1563 during the Nordic Seven Years' War (after which Jämtland

9338-543: The 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD in India. The evidence for this is scattered, however, and no pure historical source exists for that period. Diodorus , a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great 's invasion of India (now Pakistan and northwest India) mentions, without offering any detail, that independent and democratic states existed in India. Modern scholars note

9499-501: The 7th century and Mjälleborgen was abandoned in the 8th century. A human migration occurred at the same time and the people concentrated themselves around Storsjön with villages such as Frösön , Brunflo , Rödön , Hackås , Lockne and Näs being larger communities. Storsjöbygden became an oasis in the middle of the Scandinavian inland, surrounded by dense forest. Horses were the only reliable means of transportation and therefore

9660-471: The Common Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years (but not for BC years in the case of astronomical years; e.g., 1 BC is year 0, 45 BC is year −44). Traditionally, English follows Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number, though it is also found after the year. In contrast, "BC"

9821-501: The Creole elite had little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty . Simón Bolívar , both the main instigator of the revolts and one of its most important theorists, was sympathetic to liberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary. In Mexico, this autocracy briefly took

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9982-467: The English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica , and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica . Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use. At the present time, the term republic commonly means

10143-548: The French liberal thinkers, and also in the history of the classical republics. John Adams had notably written a book on republics throughout history. In addition, the widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract Common Sense , by Thomas Paine , succinctly and eloquently laid out the case for republican ideals and independence to the larger public. The Constitution of the United States , which went into effect in 1789, created

10304-407: The Jamts had abandoned the indigenous Germanic tribal religion in favour of the Christian faith. In religious practice, Jämtland was dominated by the older Vanir gods ( Freyr , Njord , Ullr etc.), although the Æsirs were also worshiped. As the population continued to grow, the Jamts established a Thing (assembly) , just like other Germanic tribes. Jamtamót came into existence shortly after

10465-411: The Latin translation of Greek word politeia . Cicero , among other Latin writers, translated politeia into Latin as res publica , and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic (or similar terms in various European languages). The term can literally be translated as 'public matter'. It was used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of

10626-473: The Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus . The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede , who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which he completed in AD 731. In the History he also used the Latin phrase ante [...] incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in

10787-402: The Norwegian king Haakon IV for the Icelanders to rejoin the Norwegian "family", led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Haakon IV as king by the signing of the Gamli sáttmáli (" Old Covenant ") in 1262. This effectively brought the Commonwealth to an end. The Althing, however, is still Iceland's parliament, almost 800 years later. In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when

10948-523: The People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. Under his leadership, the Republic of China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912. Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of the 19th century, with Protestant missionaries playing a central role. The liberal and republican writers of the West also exerted influence. These combined with native Confucian inspired political philosophy that had long argued that

11109-513: The Scandinavian Mountains and drains several lakes on their way eastwards to lower altitudes. Jämtland has a temperate climate and belongs to the temperate zone 's northernmost area. The climate in Jämtland is both humid continental and subarctic , depending on the location. The climate is greatly affected by the Norwegian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean , due to several mountain passes in Scandinavian mountain range. In western Jämtland mild winters with excessive precipitation are common. This

11270-471: The Swedish governor of Jämtland and he had the song translated into Swedish from Jamtish and sent to the king. The last segment of the song was the most derisive one (direct English translation to the right): We have now lived for 30 years time certainly under the Swedish crown through battle and tyranny no person to spare You be praised oh God, our friend who gave us the Danish king again with joy. The conquest failed and once Jämtland

11431-399: The Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis. The Empire of Magadha included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called gramakas . Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of

11592-539: The alternative abbreviations CE and BCE (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC. The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references but still uses the same epoch as the anno Domini notation. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. […] do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than

11753-511: The area around Överturingen is a part of Ånge Municipality . Though, even if these municipalities and the county are serving as administrative regions most Jamts still identify themselves with the parishes and with Jämtland as a province. Jämtland is a large land-locked province in the heart of the Scandinavian peninsula in northern Europe . Jämtland stretches 315 kilometers in north–south direction and 250 kilometers in east–west direction and

11914-461: The area just south of Storsjön; Oviken , Berg , Sunne and Hallen . Öst i bygdom (also ast, äst, ust, åst etc. instead of "öst") for eastern Jämtland, mainly Ragunda , Revsund and Brunflo . Opp i lännan "up in the lands" refers to western Jämtland, Undersåker and Offerdal . Fram på lännan "the front", "central lands" or in på lännan "in on the lands" consists of the area around Storsjön like Frösön, Rödön etc. A person from this area

12075-441: The centre in each parish. Everybody had to help build them and their descendants had to maintain them, this carried on for generations. Families have decorated the churches throughout history with various ornaments and art such as valuable inventories, wood carvings , paintings (predominantly biblical illustrations), textiles , silver and tin along with various handicrafts . Almost the entire older popular culture in Jämtland

12236-655: The city-states of Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. During the Dutch Revolt (beginning in 1566), the Dutch Republic emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule. However, the country did not adopt the republican form of government immediately: in

12397-425: The classical republics has influenced republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating republics, such as Machiavelli , Montesquieu , Adams , and Madison , relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes. Aristotle 's Politics discusses various forms of government. One form Aristotle named politeia , which consisted of

12558-435: The concept of a republic within the kingdom of Sweden, although this is only done semi-seriously. Historically, socially and politically Jämtland has been a special territory between Norway and Sweden. This in itself is symbolized in the province's coat of arms where Jämtland, the silver moose, is threatened from the east and from the west. During the unrest period in Jämtland's history (1563–1677) it shifted alignment between

12719-570: The conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西 元 ( xī yuán ; 'Western Era'). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 ( gōngyuán ; 'Common Era') for all purposes domestic and foreign. In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to

12880-512: The country in themselves. In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded by the Puritans and funded by the merchants of London, the revolt was a success, and King Charles I was executed. In England James Harrington , Algernon Sidney , and John Milton became some of the first writers to argue for rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican form of government. The English Commonwealth

13041-474: The creation of the Republic of Jamtland ( see below ). Jämtland was originally divided into four parts, so called farthings ( fjalingan or fjålingan in Jamtish), just like Iceland ( fjórðungr in Icelandic ). This division is similar to the hundred subdivision the rest of Scandinavia had. Just like on Iceland these farthings were named after cardinal directions . Exactly how the borders for each farthing went

13202-471: The dawn of the 20th century, the Swedish state had an official policy which stated that "Lapp should be Lapp" and that they should all live a "traditional" Sami life and not integrate in the society. This has now changed and only a minority are in fact reindeer-herders. The Sami people in Jämtland are closely connected to their brethren living in Trøndelag, and a distinctive feature of the Southern Sami culture

13363-506: The dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament . It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking

13524-508: The decisions of the assembly. Elected by the gaṇa , the chief apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of Kshatriya Varna . The chief coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles. The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077 gaṇa mukhyas , the heads of the most important families. On the other hand, the Shakyas , Koliyas , Mallakas , and Licchavis , during

13685-564: The dominion of the Holy Roman Emperor most power was held locally and many adopted republican forms of government. The same rights to imperial immediacy were secured by the major trading cities of Switzerland. The towns and villages of alpine Switzerland had, courtesy of geography, also been largely excluded from central control. Unlike Italy and Germany, much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudal barons, but by independent farmers who also used communal forms of government. When

13846-522: The electoral campaign and on the referendum ballot on the institutional form of the State, in contrast to the Savoy coat of arms , which represented the monarchy. On June 2, 1946 the republican side won 54.3% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic, a day celebrated since as Festa della Repubblica . Italy has a written democratic constitution , resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by

14007-551: The end of the French First Republic and her Sister Republics , each replaced by " popular monarchies ". Throughout the Napoleonic period, the victors extinguished many of the oldest republics on the continent, including the Republic of Venice , the Republic of Genoa , and the Dutch Republic . They were eventually transformed into monarchies or absorbed into neighboring monarchies. Outside Europe, another group of republics

14168-518: The end of the 4th century a fortress , Mjälleborgen , was established on Frösön to control the iron production and trade that took place. At the same time Kurgans start appearing in the Jamtish landscape, just like in Bertnem in Trøndelag and Högom in Medelpad. The western influence from Trøndelag through Jämtland to Norrland was at the time extensive. The expansion of settlement was somewhat halted in

14329-495: The end of the world. Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The " Historia Brittonum " attributed to Nennius written in the 9th century makes extensive use of the Anno Passionis (AP) dating system which was in common use as well as the newer AD dating system. The AP dating system took its start from 'The Year of The Passion'. It

14490-591: The establishment of the socialist Folkhemmet ( the people's home ) and the Rehn-Meidner model Jämtland became a true neglected area in Sweden. The model deemed it necessary to concentrate the Swedish population in cities, at the coast and in the south. Jämtland an inland region in Norrland with the largest part of the population living in the countryside in Sweden was by far the most unprofitable region one could imagine. When

14651-399: The evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an aristocracy . Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. This

14812-399: The excessive iron production that took place in the province before the Viking Age . A folk etymological theory is that the name ought to have something to do with the "even" (as in level or flat) parts around the lake Storsjön . This theory is based on the similarity between the Swedish words jämt (from emat- ) and jämnt (from Germanic *ebna , "even"). The name Jämtland with an Ä

14973-432: The farmers were probably 20 or less. These original parishioners built churches that's lasted for centuries, many are still existing and functioning today. This is quite remarkable given that they built these churches in stones, much larger than their ordinary timber houses and in a material the parishioners were not accustomed to (given that they only used timber). The churches became a matter of concern for every parishioner,

15134-401: The fell region. Though on certain mountain peaks the averages are usually as low as 5 °C. The highest (34.0 °C) and lowest (-45.8 °C) temperatures ever recorded in Jämtland were found in its easternmost parts near Hammarstrand in 1947 and 1950, respectively. Republic This is an accepted version of this page List of forms of government A republic , based on

15295-641: The form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire . Due to the Peninsular War , the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until 1889. In many other Latin American states various forms of autocratic republic existed until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century. The French Second Republic

15456-595: The formal declaration of independence ( Act of Abjuration , 1581), the throne of king Philip was only declared vacant, and the Dutch magistrates asked the Duke of Anjou , queen Elizabeth of England and prince William of Orange , one after another, to replace Philip. It took until 1588 before the Estates (the Staten , the representative assembly at the time) decided to vest the sovereignty of

15617-463: The fourth most visited pilgrimage site during the medieval period. In fact no less than three pilgrim roads went through Jämtland. The entire province is more or less a highland region with the highest peak being Storsylen , a peak in the Sylan mountain range with an altitude of 1 728 meters above sea level. Though this is not the highest peak in the mountain range, since that peak is in fact located on

15778-463: The hunted animal in question, usually in known places where the animals moved. Because of this there are several places where pits have been dug separately in lines stretching on for miles throughout the landscape. Several place names in Jämtland still display the significance these pits had to the tribes. A Jamtish Neolithic culture emerged during late Roman Iron Age in Storsjöbygden , although

15939-524: The hunter-gatherers had come in contact with this lifestyle long before they settled down themselves. Since the hunts were rich and successful in Jämtland, it took a long time before a change occurred. The Neolithic Revolution happened quickly once initiated since the Trønders had been farmers for a long time and some of the Jamts had already begun herding . The Jamtish farmers grew first and foremost barley , although palynological study also show hemp . At

16100-624: The largest and most powerful of the medieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolition of monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faithful had the duty to overthrow irreligious monarchs. Advocacy for republics appeared in the writings of the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion . Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in England and the Netherlands. Like

16261-563: The last Catholic country to adopt the anno Domini system. The Era of Martyrs , which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the most severe persecution of Christians , was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still officially used by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches. Another system

16422-420: The last non-imperial consul, Basilius , was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I , later emperors through to Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first of January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years. Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of

16583-686: The law code of Leo VI did so in 888. Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire , years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation , were exclusively used and are still used in Ethiopia . This accounts for

16744-533: The limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism . Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended in either anarchy or tyranny . Thus philosophers like Voltaire opposed absolutism while at

16905-412: The memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians . The last year of the old table, Diocletian Anno Martyrium 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, anno Domini 532. When Dionysius devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year— Dionysius himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior ", which

17066-485: The middle of the 16th century. The divisions by farthings were replaced in the 16th century by Court Districts , shortly after Jämtland got its own Norwegian law thing. There is also an historical subdivision of Jämtland in Jamtlandic. One area is referred to as Nol i bygdom "the north countryside" and consist of Lit - Hammerdal and the area further north. Sö i bygdom "the south countryside" or Sunna sjön consists of

17227-557: The model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating independent Commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarch. While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states in the Caribbean and the Pacific retained this system, it was rejected by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia , which revised their constitutions and became republics instead. Britain followed

17388-476: The monarch's branding of those requesting redress as traitors, and his support for sending combat troops to demonstrate authority resulted in widespread perception of the British monarchy as tyrannical . With the United States Declaration of Independence the leaders of the revolt firmly rejected the monarchy and embraced republicanism. The leaders of the revolution were well-versed in the writings of

17549-428: The movement drew its strongest support (in relation to the population) in Jämtland in the entire world, and it was also here, in Östersund, that the world's largest order house was built. Jämtland failed to industrialize, mostly due to the residents opposition to industries, which were seen as the destroyers of society. Keeping Jämtland as a clean environment, but also making it a region of raw material extraction. Due to

17710-502: The oldest one being an arrowhead found in Åflo near Kaxås in Offerdal parish possibly older than 8,000 years, which would make it one of the oldest Stone Age finds in all of Sweden. Rock paintings found in Jämtland often collocates with various trapping pits and well over 10,000 pits used for hunting have been located, which is much more than any other Scandinavian region. Trapping or hunting pits were placed in areas in close proximity of

17871-524: The only republics in Europe. This changed when, after the 1908 Lisbon Regicide , the 5 October 1910 revolution established the Portuguese Republic . In East Asia, China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment during the 19th century, and a number of protest movements developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen , whose Three Principles of

18032-444: The other side of the border. Another large peak in Jämtland worthy of mention is Åreskutan (1 420 meters above sea level). The lowest point in the province is as low as 35 meters above sea level and is located in the eastern part of Jämtland. Approximately 8 per cent of Jämtland's area is covered by water and the province has two larger streams , Ljungan and Indalsälven (also known as Jämtlandsälven ). Both of which emanates from

18193-458: The period around Gautama Buddha , had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor. Early republics or gaṇasaṅgha , such as Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara , and the Vajjika (or Vṛjika) League, centered in the city of Vaishali , existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of

18354-462: The politics were launched Jämtland experienced the largest population loss in modern Swedish history. Local companies were forced into bankruptcy and unemployed people were encouraged to move to cities at the coast or in the south through subsidies and governmental commercials. At the same time taxes were rising and the public sector growing. Opposition to the loss of population and the centralist plans among officials regarding Jämtland County led to

18515-934: The populace had the right to reject unjust governments that had lost the Mandate of Heaven . During this period, two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia; the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic . Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of World War I when several of the largest European empires collapsed: the Russian Empire (1917), German Empire (1918), Austro-Hungarian Empire (1918), and Ottoman Empire (1922) were all replaced by republics. New states gained independence during this turmoil, and many of these, such as Ireland , Poland , Finland and Czechoslovakia , chose republican forms of government. Following Greece's defeat in

18676-400: The position as regional centre. The warmer climate made the agriculture flourish, the stock-raising and the special inland Scandinavian herding or "livestock drifting", buföring , was developed further. This is especially true for the southern parts of Jämtland when the so-called " fell cow" was introduced. The hunt for moose and other wild animals increased during this period. Religiously

18837-420: The province began industrializing when the rail road Mittbanan - Meråkerbanen was established between Sundsvall , Östersund and Trondheim . This evolved the logging process and also led to more people migrating to Jämtland, not to mention all the tourists who came for the "fresh air". As a side effect the rail road also meant the end of the faring traditions. After the unsuccessful (or successful, depending on

18998-488: The province's agriculture, with significances such as the potato and better granaries through national politics. The standard of living was greatly improved during this period. However, the visions and ideas behind the improvements also led to one of the greatest environmental disasters in Scandinavia when the lake Ragundasjön was drained and the great rapid Gedungsen cut off, creating the so-called " dead waterfall ". It

19159-464: The province, first in 1657 ( Dano-Swedish war of 1657 ) where the Norwegians were hailed as liberators. Then for a longer period in 1677 with the conquest of Jemtland . The Jamts conducted snapphane (guerilla) warfare against the Swedish army and during this time a Jamt from Lockne , the first known Jamtish poet, wrote a scurrilous song that was sung throughout the province during the war. It involved

19320-412: The province, predominantly near old camp-sites, beaches and lakes. The oldest settlement found is located at Foskvattnet , not far way from the so-called Fosna culture , this settlement has been dated to 6600 BC. In Jämtland the moose was the dominant prey, which is clearly shown on petroglyphs and rock paintings in for example Gärde and Glösa . Jämtland has over 20,000 documented ancient monuments ,

19481-528: The rail road the city of Östersund quickly grew with settlers arriving from the countryside and southern Sweden, giving it the true character of a city, rather than a mere village with city status. The rise of Östersund brought a more excessive trade than before, handicrafts etc. Just like in the rest of the Western world a modernisation process started in the 20th century. New items such as cars , fridges , television etc. made their way into people's lives. With

19642-528: The representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy . In the years following World War II , most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment of republics in its former colonies. The United Kingdom attempted to follow

19803-586: The republics were conquered by Muscovy / Russia at the end of 15th – beginning of 16th century. Following the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and establishment of the Turkish Anatolian Beyliks , the Ahiler merchant fraternities established a state centered on Ankara that is sometimes compared to the Italian mercantile republics. The dominant form of government for these early republics

19964-532: The rest of Sweden. Because of this Jämtland and Härjedalen have a large number of members in the Swedish church since nine out of ten in fact are members. Although nowadays church attendance is much lower, back then every parishioner gathered on the Sabbath because no one was allowed to work. Within each parish distinctive customs, bunads and dialects developed because of this, especially the dialects are known to differ from parish to parish in Jämtland. Jämtland also had

20125-495: The same time being strongly pro-monarchy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu praised republics, and looked on the city-states of Greece as a model. However, both also felt that a state like France, with 20 million people, would be impossible to govern as a republic. Rousseau admired the republican experiment in Corsica (1755–1769) and described his ideal political structure of small, self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt that

20286-499: The seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars . Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor , George Syncellus , and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi , "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC,

20447-458: The sixtieth year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), which is equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus Christ , but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch

20608-529: The time before humans have been discovered in Jämtland, most notably the remains from a woolly mammoth in Pilgrimstad . The first humans came to Jämtland from the west across the Keel approximately 7000–6000 BC , after the last ice age . The climate was at the time much warmer than today and trees such as oak were growing at the top of today's mountains. Several thousand archaeological remains have been located in

20769-761: The towns of the Holy Roman Empire. Similar revolts occurred in Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence. While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the Protestant Reformation would be used as justification for establishing new republics. Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Confederacy, one of

20930-613: The two states no less than 13 times. Jämtland's name derives from its inhabitants, the Jamts. The name can be traced back to Europe's northernmost runestone , the Frösö Runestone from the 11th century, where it is found as eotalont (normalized Old Norse : Jamtaland ). The root of Jamt ( Old West Norse : jamti ), and thus Jämtland, derives from the Proto-Germanic word stem emat- meaning persistent, efficient, enduring and hardworking. The Proto-Norse prefix eota ( jamta )

21091-508: The underlying date." Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation . Among the sources of confusion are: It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. One major theory is that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke , which states that Jesus

21252-454: The viewer) channelling of Gedungsen Jämtland's rich forests could be used in sawmills along the coast. A great deal of the forest was sold to large corporations since for the first time in history the farmers could earn money from their forests. In the late 19th century the province was struck by social movements . In Jämtland the " free minded " Good Templar movement (a part of the temperance movement ) came to dominate completely, in fact,

21413-436: The way to Oviksfjällen . The farthings were lesser administrative regions, more or less juridical districts with their own assemblies, all parallel with the common assembly on Frösön. The old law used in Jämtland is the so-called Jamtish Law , referred to in old documents as e.g. Jamptskum laughom . Old documents also makes reference to a specific law book — Jamskre loghbok . The law book has never been recovered and it

21574-536: The word democracy at the time of the 3rd century BC and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state, no matter how aristocratic in nature. Key characteristics of the gaṇa seem to include a gaṇa mukhya (chief), and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed

21735-495: The world's oldest parliament, the Icelandic Althing , was instituted in 930 CE. Jamtamót is unique in Scandinavia since it is the only one referred to as mót instead of þing , although they have the same meaning. Jämtland was Christianized in the middle of the 11th century when the Frösö Runestone appeared (the only one in the world that tells about the christening of a country), shortly after Olaf II of Norway died in

21896-471: The writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states, writers (most importantly, Leonardo Bruni ) adopted the Latin phrase res publica . While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. In subsequent centuries,

22057-459: The year 1 BC . This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus but was not widely used until the 9th century. (Modern scholars believe that the actual date of birth of Jesus was about 5 BC.) Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before

22218-574: The year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk. In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum , popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD. When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin

22379-595: The year: Christmas, Annunciation , or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology: With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101. During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating , imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating . Although

22540-588: Was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table. This method was probably the one used by ancient historians such as Tertullian , Eusebius or Epiphanius , all of whom agree that Jesus was born in 2 BC, probably following this statement of Jesus' age (i.e. subtracting thirty years from AD 29). Alternatively, Dionysius may have used an earlier unknown source. The Chronograph of 354 states that Jesus

22701-451: Was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ". Thus, Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad , year of the world , or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify

22862-526: Was also not republican at its outset. Only after the Flight to Varennes removed most of the remaining sympathy for the king was a republic declared and Louis XVI sent to the guillotine. The stunning success of France in the French Revolutionary Wars saw republics spread by force of arms across much of Europe as a series of client republics were set up across the continent. The rise of Napoleon saw

23023-470: Was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia , asserting in Book III of his Politics : "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments ( to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn ), government ( politeia )". In later Latin works the term republic can also be used in

23184-403: Was born during the consulship of Caesar and Paullus (AD 1), but the logic behind this is also unknown. It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world . At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of

23345-656: Was ceded to Sweden. In Jämtland there are five contracts; Bräcke-Ragunda , Krokom-Åre , Strömsund and Östersund's contract , along with Berg-Härjedalen . Although only half of the parishes in the last one are actually located in Jämtland, the rest are located in Härjedalen. When the first churches were established in Jämtland during the medieval period they were done so by a small number of farmers. Estimations show that there were seldom more than 30 to 40 farmers in each parish. In some cases, like in Kyrkås , Marby and Norderö parish

23506-484: Was control by a limited council of elite patricians . In those areas that held elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council. This left the great majority of the population without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in

23667-521: Was created as the Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin America to gain their independence. Liberal ideology had only a limited impact on these new republics. The main impetus was the local European-descended Creole population in conflict with the Peninsulares —governors sent from overseas. The majority of the population in most of Latin America was of either African or Amerindian descent, and

23828-557: Was created in 1848 but abolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. The French Third Republic was established in 1870 when a civil revolutionary committee refused to accept Napoleon III's surrender during the Franco-Prussian War . Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic in 1873–74, but the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzerland and San Marino remained

23989-402: Was established in 930 AD by refugees from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair . The Commonwealth consisted of a number of clans run by chieftains, and the Althing was a combination of parliament and supreme court where disputes appealed from lower courts were settled, laws were decided, and decisions of national importance were taken. One such example

24150-463: Was eventually broken by king Charles XII and Jamts participated in Carl Gustaf Armfeldt 's Norwegian campaign during the Great Northern War . The campaign was unsuccessful and when Charles XII died in southern Norway Armfeldt marched back to Jämtland. On New Year's Eve 1718 a massive blizzard arose and over 3,000 Caroleans succumbed in Jämtland's mountains mostly due to poor clothing. The time that followed "the Age of Liberty " brought changes to

24311-419: Was identified with Christ's conception, i. e., the Annunciation on March 25" ("Annunciation style" dating). On the continent of Europe, anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout

24472-433: Was in Swedish hands a Swedification process began. The Diocese of Härnösand was instituted at the Swedish coast. Schools were established (to direct the Jamts away from Trondheim). The population did not receive Swedish citizenship until 1699. Thus the Jamts were the last people from an acquired territory in Sweden to become Swedish. The Jamtish people maintained some self-governance . The Jamtamót had been transformed into

24633-405: Was in fact of Danish origin. Just like every other historical province of Sweden Jämtland serves no administrative purposes, but serves as an historical, geographical and cultural region. Jämtland makes up three quarters of the Swedish administrative province Jämtland County , though a small uninhabited part in northern Jämtland is a part of Västerbotten County and the area around Överturingen

24794-510: Was less autonomy . Jämtland never became a fully integrated part of Norway and had the same status in the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) as the Atlantic isles like Shetland and Orkney , even though Jämtland was connected by land with the rest of Norway. This is clearly shown when Haakon V of Norway refers to Jämtland as his "eastern realm — öystræ rikinu ". After Norway was forced into a personal union with Denmark ( Denmark-Norway ) in 1536 Jämtland came to be governed from Copenhagen . When

24955-410: Was present and decisions were only taken unanimously. If they were not able to come to a mutual understanding the matter had to rest and be resumed later until everybody agreed. In the community houses the village's prominent people, so called byalag , gathered to decide on mutual concerns such as split-rail fences , ditch construction and agricultural related stuff. The central figure in each district

25116-460: Was put under the diocese of Nidaros ), then in 1611 during the Kalmar War . Conflict continued and Jämtland was occupied yet again in 1644 during the Hannibal War by Swedish forces under the command of Henrik Fleming . The Swedish troops were however quickly driven out by Norwegians and locals. Sweden did however win that war in the south and received Jämtland as a part of the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645. After this Denmark-Norway tried to regain

25277-440: Was short-lived, and the monarchy was soon restored. The Dutch Republic continued in name until 1795, but by the mid-18th century the stadtholder had become a de facto monarch. Calvinists were also some of the earliest settlers of the British and Dutch colonies of North America. Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchical power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced

25438-413: Was the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, where the Althing decreed that all Icelanders must be baptized into Christianity, and forbade celebration of pagan rituals. Contrary to most states, the Icelandic Commonwealth had no official leader. In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs , the Commonwealth began to suffer from long conflicts between warring clans. This, combined with pressure from

25599-581: Was the priest . He dealt with most matters since he was in contact with every parishioner. He meddled in conflicts and gave advice and comfort in various situations. Besides preaching and informing the priest was also a farmer himself, often a forerunner in the field. The priest did not always go the authority's errand, sometimes he tried to help his fellow parishioners fend off extra taxes and military services. Gallery In Jämtland there are also Sami people. The Sami in Jämtland are Southern Sami people and speak Southern Sami (or åarjelsaemien giele , as it

25760-443: Was the result of a project that sought to circumvent the obstacle posed by the waterfall for timber transportation on Indalsälven . In order to end the free trade conducted by "faring-men" or "faring-farmers" ( fælmännan or fælbönnran in dialect), Jämtland's first and only city, Östersund , was founded by Gustav III 1786, though plans had existed since the province was seceded. It took almost one hundred years after this before

25921-458: Was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus , which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts. Alternative names for the anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin), "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635), "Christian Era" (in English, in 1652), " Common Era " (in English, 1708), and "Current Era". Since 1856,

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