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84-413: This archaeological site is located about three kilometres (two miles) from the modern town, and is believed to have been involved in long distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres) in area; however this is yet to be confirmed with extensive survey work. With the help of archaeological excavations mainly by Roderick and Susan McIntosh ,

168-572: A federal state of nine provinces: Timbo, Fugumbaa, Ɓuuriya, Koyin, Kollaaɗe, Keebaali, Labe, Fode-Hajji, and Timbi. After the Muslim Fulɓe victory, other ethnic groups who had resisted the jihad were deprived of their rights to land except for a small piece for their subsistence and were reduced to servitude. The nomad Pulli Fulɓe lost all freedom of movement, and thus, began to settle en-masse. The Jalonke lost their noble status and became slaves ( maccuɓe ). Later, due to strife between two branches of

252-794: A fixed or settled homestead not too far away, they are basically "in-betweeners". Settled Fulani live in villages, towns, and cities permanently and have given up nomadic life completely, in favor of an urban one. These processes of settlement, concentration, and military conquest led to the existence of organized and long-established communities of Fulani, varying in size from small villages to towns. Today, some major Fulani towns include: Labé , Pita , Mamou , and Dalaba in Guinea; Kaedi , Matam and Podor , Kolda in Senegal and Mauritania; Bandiagara , Mopti , Dori , Gorom-Gorom , and Djibo in Mali and Burkina Faso, on

336-462: A four-kilometer radius. The configuration of the mounds helped “segmented” communities to surmount the ecological challenges caused by the volatile weather patterns characteristic of the Middle Niger. The fact that the mounds were disjointed allowed communities to specialize their trade while the relative proximity of the mound facilitated the exchange of goods and services between these communities. It

420-569: A major ethnic boundary marker" between them and other African ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa. Armed with horses and weapons from the north and inspired by Fula, Berber and Arab clerics, Fulani political units would play a central role in promoting Islam in West Africa through peaceful and violent means. These jihads targeted other ethnic groups but also other Fulani who had not yet adopted Islam or who follows it too loosely. These wars helped

504-484: A nomadic herding people, they have moved through and among many cultures, making it difficult to trace their relationships and history with other peoples. Speculations about their origins started in the era of European conquest and colonization because of their oftentimes fair skin, wavy long hair and facial features. Fulani oral histories suggest that their origins lie in North Africa. Their ethnogenesis likely arose as

588-646: A precedent for later, larger, and more disruptive Fula jihads . The Emirate / Imamate of Timbo in the Fuuta Jallon developed from a revolt by Islamic Fulɓe against their oppression by the pagan Pulli (فُلِی or 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞥆𞤭, non-Islamic Fulɓe), and the Jallonke (the original Mande inhabitants of the Fuuta-Jallon), during the first half of the 18th century. The first ruler took the title of Almaami and resided in Timbo , near

672-550: A result of interactions between an ancient West African population and North African populations such as Berbers or Egyptians. The earliest mention of the Fula in history may go back to the Bible. Maurice Delafosse speculated that they may correspond to the descendants of Put , son of Ham . Josephus wrote of the Phutites, ancient inhabitants of what is now Libya . The precursors of

756-506: Is also known for her advocacy against the looting of cultural property in the name of archaeology. From 2002-4, McIntosh served as president of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists. She was nominated to be featured on Trowelblazers, a site that highlights important female archaeologists, for her contributions to the field in mentoring many Senegalese, Malian, Nigerian and Batswana archaeologists who have gone on to become prominent members of

840-626: Is believed by some that little scientific work has been done on these figurines, and that most of them are in circulation around the globe today, the fact is there is insufficient data to determine how much material remains undiscovered. Recently, 300 km (200 mi) from Djenné-Djenno, in Timbuktu cultural property has also been threatened. Ethical battles over antiquities are hard to define as "the conflicts are multifaceted, questions of innocence and guilt often – through not always – hard to pin down." Art dealers and collectors depend on such trade, while

924-440: Is believed that drawing Western attention to these items would increase their market value. Some claim this could hurt art historians and dealers, as it would be difficult for them to know how to distinguish artifacts from fakes. However, there are both subjective and scientific means such as a combination of Thermoluminescent (TL) testing and CT scanning that can reliably identify fake and compromised (pastiche) works. Historically,

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1008-415: Is believed that instead of a ruling elite, Djenné-Djenno split power between corporate groups and this can be seen with the clustered organization at the site. This means that unlike places like Egypt, Djenné-Djenno was not highly stratified and evidence for a very wealthy ruling class has never been found. This urban configuration incentivized peaceful reciprocity between the communities, which in turn caused

1092-513: Is believed that these people might have been rice producers, even though no definitive evidence has been discovered yet. Saharan ceramic styles are similar to the oldest ceramics found in Djenne-Djenno, dated to 250 BCE. Phase II is defined by a larger population and definitive evidence for the mass production of rice. The borders of the site expanded during this period (possibly covering 100,000 square meters or more). Other developments include

1176-415: Is believed to have an even higher population based on crowded cemeteries. The site also has evidence for a more intensive occupation through deep house deposits, possibly from multiple generations. A shift in trade routes helped this population growth, including attracting immigrants from Dia. By c. 800 CE, Djenne and its environs housed around 50 000 people. Since there is no evidence for a fourth phase, it

1260-399: Is expected that towards the end of Phase III the city experienced a slow decline in population and eventually a total abandonment. However, very little is known about why this decline happened, and more research is needed. By the end, the site's occupation had created a large tear-shaped mound (known as a tell ) consisting of layer upon layer of occupation that had built up over time. This tell

1344-497: Is now eastern Senegal, from his home near Podor . Sy settled the lands with relatives from his native Futa Toro and Muslim immigrants from as far west as the Djolof Empire and as far east as Nioro du Sahel . Under Sy, Bundu became a refuge for Muslims and Islamic scholars persecuted by traditional rulers in other kingdoms. Sy was killed in 1699 caught in an ambush by the army of Gajaaga . Still, Bundu's growth that would set

1428-718: Is now illegal, memories of the past relationship between Fulɓbe and Rimayɓe are still very much alive in both groups. Paul Riesman, an American ethnographer who resided among the Jelgooji Fulɓbe of Burkina Faso in the 1980s, states that the Fulɓe are tall, slim, and light-skinned; they have thin straight noses, and their hair tends to be long and curly. In contrast, the Rimayɓe are stocky, tending towards corpulence, dark-skinned with flat 'squashed' noses, and short kinky hair. The first Fulani people who were forcibly expatriated to America during

1512-547: The Atlantic slave trade came from several parts of West and Central Africa . Many Fulani slaves came from places such as Guinea, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Cameroon. Most of the slaves who came from Senegal belonged to Fula and Mandinga peoples. Some of the most common names found on the Registry of Liberated Africans were Fulani in origin. Many of the captors and perpetrators of raids providing sources for

1596-685: The Faro River , to the foot of the Mambilla Plateau , which they would later ascend in subsequent years. The heaviest concentrations of their settlements were at Gurin, Chamba territory, Cheboa, Turua and Bundang. Today, Fula oral historians recognize three different Fuuta , or Fula lands: Fuuta Kingi , meaning 'Old Fuuta', encompassing the Tagant Plateau , the Assaba Region , the Hodh , Futa Toro and

1680-670: The Fulfulde word Ballo meaning “helper or assistant”, this name is spread across several ethnic groups in Nigeria), Tukur (from Takrur ), Gidado, Barkindo, Jallo, Ahidjo and Dikko. In Mali , the most common Fulani family names are Diallo, Diakité, Dia, Sow, Sidibé, Sangaré, Bah, Dicko, Tall, etc. These names can be found among the Fulani populations of the following Malian regions and areas of Mopti , Macina , Nioro , Kidal , Tomboctou , Gao , Sikasso , and others. These names are also found among

1764-400: The Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe , which is a plural noun (singular, Pullo ) has been Anglicised as Fulbe , which is gaining popularity in use. In Portuguese, the terms Fula or Futafula are used. The terms Fallata , Fallatah , or Fellata are of Arabic origins, and are often the ethnonyms by which Fulani people are identified by in parts of Chad and Sudan. The Toucouleur people of

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1848-575: The Fulɓe Wuro . Fulani towns were a direct result of nomadic heritage and were often founded by individuals who had simply chosen to settle in a given area instead of continuing on their way. Evidence of Fulani migration as a whole, from the Western to Eastern Sudan is very fragmentary. Delafosse, one of the earliest enquirers into Fulani history and customs, principally relying on oral tradition, estimated that Fulani migrants left Fuuta-Tooro heading east between

1932-533: The Fulɓe ladde . While the initial expansionist groups were small, they soon increased in size due to the availability of grazing lands in the Sahel and the lands that bordered it to the immediate south. Agricultural expansions led to a division among the Fulani, where individuals were classified as belonging either to the group of expansionist nomadic agriculturalists or the group of Fulani who found it more comfortable to abandon traditional nomadic ways and settle in towns or

2016-921: The Maccuɗo , Rimmayɓe , Dimaajo , and less often Ɓaleeɓe , the Fulani equivalent of the Tuareg Ikelan known as Bouzou ( Buzu ) or Bella in the Hausa and Songhay languages respectively. The Fulani rulers and merchants were, like many other ruling ethnic groups of Africa, also involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade, sourcing the enslaved people through raids and from captives they took by waging war. Many Fulani were enslaved and raided by ethnic groups who adhered to traditional African religions . The Fulani castes are endogamous in nature, meaning individuals marry only within their caste. This caste system, however, wasn't as elaborate in places like northern Nigeria , Eastern Niger or Cameroon . According to some estimates, by

2100-665: The Ouaddaï highlands of Eastern Chad, the areas around Kordofan , Darfur and the Blue Nile , Sennar , Kassala regions of Sudan, as well as the Red Sea coastal city of Port Sudan . The Fulani on their way to or back from the pilgrimage to Mecca , Saudi Arabia, settled in many parts of eastern Sudan, today representing a distinct community of over two million people referred to as the Fellata . While their early settlements in West Africa were in

2184-512: The Red Sea coast in Sudan . The approximate number of Fula people is unknown, due to clashing definitions regarding Fula ethnicity. Various estimates put the figure between 25 and 40 million people worldwide. A significant proportion of the Fula–a third, or an estimated 7 to 10 million –are pastoralists , and their ethnic group has the largest nomadic pastoral community in the world. The majority of

2268-565: The Sahel from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea , particularly in West Africa . In addition, many also speak other languages of the countries they inhabit, making many Fulani bilingual or even trilingual. Such languages include French , Hausa , Bambara , Wolof , Soninke , and Arabic . Major concentrations of Fulani people exist in the Fouta Djallon highlands of central Guinea and south into

2352-668: The University of Pennsylvania in 1973. After graduate studies at the University of Cambridge and University of California, Santa Barbara she received her MA and PhD , respectively. Her doctoral dissertation was based on field work at Djenné-Djenno in Mali. McIntosh is the Herbert S. Autrey Professor of Anthropology and interim dean of the School of Social Sciences at Rice University, where she has taught since 1981. She has co-authored or edited archaeological monographs on field work 1980–2018 at

2436-525: The 20th century. Djenné-Djenno is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses. Before the site's excavation in 1977, many of these sculptures were in circulation, being sold as tourist souvenirs and fine art to the West. During this time, Mali was experiencing famine; and it was unlikely for many to be upset about any money that came into the country. The sale of cultural antiquities has been prohibited since 1970, with

2520-755: The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Fulani people have held on to "a strict caste system". There are the Fulani proper, also referred to as the Fulɓe , including the Pullo (also called the Rimɓe (singular)) and the Dimo , meaning "noble". There is the artisan caste, including blacksmiths, potters, griots , genealogists, woodworkers, and dressmakers. They belong to castes but are considered free people . Then there are those castes of captive, slave or serf ancestry:

2604-609: The Arab arrival in the seventh and eighth centuries. Archaeological evidence however supports that Djenné-Djenno was part of a pre-Arab trans-Saharan trade network. It has been hypothesized that the city grew as a trade center due to its location on the southern portion of the agriculturally productive region of the delta. It was likely that rice produced in this region would have been a valuable trade for Saharan commodities such as salt, copper and dried fish. Djenné-Djenno would have been an excellent middle ground between traders from North Africa and

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2688-478: The Djenné-Djenno site lies in close proximity to dune landscape, which allows for necessary recreation needed for keeping cattle in floodplain environments. Overall, the diversified sources of food provided food security that allowed for permanent settlement in a region of volatile climate. It is believed that this food production, especially that of African rice, was one of the main contributors to population rise in

2772-603: The European slave merchants were also Fulani. Fula society features the caste divisions typical of the West African region. The fairly rigid caste system of the Fula people has medieval roots, had become well established by the 15th-century, and has survived into modern age. The four major castes, states Martin Kich, in their order of status are "nobility, traders, tradesmen (such as blacksmith) and descendants of slaves". According to

2856-506: The Fula dominate much of the Sahel region of West Africa during the medieval and pre-colonial era, establishing them not only as a religious group but also as a political and economic force. From the 18th century onwards, the frequency of jihads increased and the Fulani became politically dominant in many areas. While establishing their hegemony, the Fulbe defined a strict social hierarchy and imposed limitations on economic and trading activities,

2940-450: The Fula ethnic group consisted of semi-sedentary people, as well as sedentary settled farmers, scholars, artisans, merchants, and nobility. As an ethnic group, they are bound together by the Fula language , their history and their culture. The Fula are almost completely Muslims with a tiny minority being Christians and Animists. Many West African leaders are of Fulani descent, including

3024-548: The Fula population of Burkina Faso , along with other names like Barry and Sankara (derived from Sangaré). Bocoum, Niangadou, Bassoum, Daff, Djigué, and Lah are some family names that can be found among the Diawambe/Jawambe (Singular: Dianwando/Jawando and Diokoramé/Jokorameh in Bambara ) of Mali. The Jawambe are a sub-group of Fulanis in Mali who are primarily known for trading. In some parts of Mali, like Mopti, apart from

3108-533: The Fulani likely migrated out of the Sahara desert , at the time much wetter than today, as it progressively dried beginning in the 7th century BC. They migrated into the Senegal river valley from the east, pushed by Berber raids and desertification. The kingdom of Tekrur in what is now Futa Toro was formed through the interaction of the Fula (and perhaps Berber) migrants with the native "Negro agricultural peoples" of

3192-463: The Hausa and other surrounding groups of the region. This Hausa–Fulani interaction is uncommon outside the eastern subregion of West Africa. In Mali , Burkina Faso and Senegal for instance, those within the Fulɓe cultural sphere, but who are not ethnically Fula, are referred to as yimɓe pulaaku ( 𞤴𞤭𞤥𞤩𞤫 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤳𞤵 , "people of the Fula culture"). As such, Fulani culture includes people who may or may not be ethnic Fulani. Although slavery

3276-747: The Inland Delta. Despite its power and omnipresence, the hegemony of the emirate was constantly threatened. During the reign of Aamadu Aamadu, the grandson of Sheeku Aamadu, internal contradictions weakened the emirate until it fell to the Toucouleur in 1862. The founder of the Toucouleur Empire, El Hadj Umar Tall , was an Islamic reformer originating from Fuuta Tooro . Beginning in Futa Jallon , he led an army that conquered Massina, Segou, and Kaarta , but he died fighting against rebels in 1864. At that point

3360-680: The Inland Niger Delta has been an ideal location for the mass production of staples such as rice, millet and vegetables due to its predictable floods and summer rains. Many believe this area was the leader in African rice domestication, however more research is needed. Along with this, evidence for domestic cow, sheep and goat cultivation is present at the site. The land surrounding Djenné-Djenno lent itself to such high-yielding crops due to its mixture of highland and floodplain soils at different elevations that allowed floodwater farming of rice. Moreover,

3444-635: The Mediterranean and other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. No doubt the towns proximity to other large urban centers such as Timbuktu also helped this trade network thrive. Specifically, glass beads found at the site have been dated to as early as the third century BC and appear to originate from Asia to the Mediterranean Near East . Copper ornaments have also been found in early Phase II deposits, which shows these trade networks date to earlier than previously thought. These discoveries lend support to

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3528-801: The Prime Minister of Mali, Boubou Cisse and the Wife of Vice President of Ghana Samira Bawumia . They also occupy positions in major international institutions, such as the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations , Amina J. Mohammed ; the 74th President of the United Nations General Assembly , Tijjani Muhammad-Bande ; and the Secretary-General of OPEC , Mohammed Sanusi Barkindo . There are many names (and spellings of

3612-654: The Seediayanke royal lineage, (the Soriya and the Alphaya ), a system for the rotation of office between these branches was set up. This led to an almost permanent state of civil strife since none of the parties was inclined to respect the system, which considerably weakened the power of the political centre. A jihad in Futa Toro between 1769 and 1776 led by Sulayman Bal threw out the ruling Denianke Dynasty. Sulayman died in 1776 and

3696-570: The area around Nioro du Sahel ; Fuuta Keyri , 'New Fuuta', includes Futa Djallon , Massina , Sokoto , and the Adamawa Region ; Fuuta Jula is the diaspora of Fula traders and emigrants in other regions. The Fula, living on the edge of the Sahara, were among the first sub-Saharan groups to adopt Islam. According to David Levison, adopting Islam made the Fulani feel a "cultural and religious superiority to surrounding peoples, and that adoption became

3780-673: The areas occupied by the Sokoto Caliphate , which includes what is now southern Niger and northern Nigeria (such as Adamawa , Tahoua , Katsina , Sokoto , Kebbi , Zinder , Bauchi , Diffa , Yobe , Gombe , and further east, into the Benue River valley systems of north eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon). This is the area known as the Fombina/Hombina , literally meaning 'the south' in Adamawa Fulfulde , because it represented

3864-519: The areas they occupy. Although within each region, there are even further divisions and sub-groupings as well. Below is a list of the main Fulɓe groups. Fuua Tooro -Massinakoore transitional Fuuta Tooro – Fuuta Jallon transitional Typically, Fulɓe belonging to the same affinity bloc tend to cluster together in culture, customs, and dialectal variety with the Eastern Fulɓe sub-groups tending to be more similar to each other than to other sub-groups, and

3948-510: The bend of the Niger; and Birnin Kebbi , Katsina , Gombe , Yola , Digil , Jalingo , Bauchi, Misau, Jama'are, Mayo Belwa , Mubi , Maroua , Ngaoundere , Azare , Dukku , Kumo, Girei , Damaturu, Bertoua, and Garoua in the countries of Cameroon and Nigeria. In most of these communities, the Fulani are usually perceived as a ruling class . Fulani communities are sometimes grouped and named based on

4032-402: The central Senegal River valley speak Fulfulde / Pulaar and refer to themselves as Haalpulaaren , or those who speak Pulaar. The supposed distinction between them was invented by French ethnographers in the 19th century who differentiated between supposedly sedentary, agricultural, fanatical, and anti-European Toucouleurs on one hand and nomadic, pastoralist, docile and cooperative Peulhs on

4116-570: The city of Djenné-Djenno and was widely exported to nearby centers (including Timbuktu ). Many believe that domestic rice was introduced from areas outside the Delta, but the idea that it could not have been manipulated all over the region should not be rejected without further evidence. It is hypothesized that after the decline in aquatic resources we see being exploited in phase I, people adapted by cultivating rice, causing this population explosion. The Djenné-Djenno urban complex consists of 40 mounds within

4200-510: The common Fula surnames like those previously mentioned, you will find surnames like Cissé and Touré. Though these names are commonly associated with the Manding tribes, some in Mali have adopted the Fula culture and language through centuries of coexistence, and thus now consider themselves as part of the Fula ethnic group. A notable example of this is Amadou Toumani Touré , the former president of Mali. The Fula people are widely distributed, across

4284-446: The communities to specialize further leading to the prosperity of the community as a whole. It is hypothesized that clusters held people of similar ethnic groups and craft specializations, which would set the city up for extensive trade and growth. Djenné-Djenno likely grew to such a vast size as a result of regional and local trade. For many years, it was assumed that complex societies, art and long distance trade came to this region with

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4368-644: The creation of the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property , which by agreement placed all such cultural property under protection. Conflict between ownership and control of artifacts still remains a problem in the region as well as in many other parts of the world as there is a difference between prohibitions and actual, domestic laws and international laws and treaties governing

4452-462: The eleventh and the fourteenth centuries. By the 15th century, there was a steady flow of Fulɓe immigrants into Hausaland and, later on, Bornu . Their presence in Baghirmi was recorded early in the 16th century. By the end of the 18th century, Fulani settlements were dotted all along the Benue River valley and its tributaries. They spread eastwards towards Garoua and Rey Bouba , and southwards towards

4536-475: The emirate was divided into three states, each ruled by one of his sons. These three states had their capitals respectively in the towns of Nioro , Segou and Bandiagara . Within 30 years, all three had been conquered and colonized by the French. The Fulani, migrant Arabs and Hausa people have taken some influences from each other's cultures. Upon the success recorded in the 1804 Fulani War of Usman dan Fodio , many formerly nomadic Fulɓe subsequently joined

4620-454: The exhumation, rights to ownership, export and import of such material. For instance, the US government only affected a ban on the importation of Malian antiquities in 1993. a b Other sculptures in West Africa have faced similar challenges. In Nigeria, Nok culture figurines dating back as far as 800 BC also became popular in black market trade in the 1990s. The US and Nigeria signed a bi-lateral agreement on this matter only in 2022. While it

4704-510: The existence of sporadic contacts between West and North Africa throughout the first millennium AD. Susan McIntosh Susan McIntosh is an American anthropologist and archaeologist and has been the Herbert S. Autrey Professor of Anthropology at Rice University since 2012. She is known for her work at Djenné-Djenno in Mali and for her advocacy against looting of cultural artifacts. McIntosh began her undergraduate studies at Wellesley College and received her BA in anthropology from

4788-539: The field. Early in her tenure as dean, McIntosh noted the value of former dean Lyn Ragsdale 's mentorship. McIntosh presided over the 2020 opening of Kraft Hall, a 78,000-square-foot addition to the School of Social Sciences. Fula people The Fula , Fulani , or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara , Sahel and West Africa , widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa , South Sudan , Darfur , and regions near

4872-418: The first evidence for large-scale rice cultivation and population rise. All of these attributes are commonly associated with complex, state-level societies. It is believed that these artifacts posed ritual function as opposed to a domestic function. Some of these clay figurines are similar to those made by modern Fulani pastoralists for children, which might be evidence for the importance of domesticated cows at

4956-402: The former President of Nigeria, Muhammadu Buhari ; the first president of Cameroon Ahmadou Ahidjo ; the former President of Senegal, Macky Sall ; the President and the vice president of Gambia, Adama Barrow and Muhammad B.S.Jallow; the President of Guinea-Bissau, Umaro Sissoco Embaló ; the Vice President of Sierra Leone, Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh ; the prime minister of Guinea conakry, Bah Oury;

5040-435: The looting of artifacts from archaeological sites destroys their historical context and clouds their integrity. One may also reasonably argue that objects left in the ground are under continuous pressure from floods, shifting earth and construction activities. It has been suggested by many to have a blackout of information on those figurines that were not excavated scientifically, which primarily includes black market items, as it

5124-453: The modern-day town of Mamou . The town became the political capital of the newly formed Imamate, with the religious capital was located in Fugumba . The Council of Elders of the Futa Jallon state were also based in Fugumba, acting as a brake on the Almami's powers. The newly formed imamate was mostly located mainly in present-day Guinea, but also spanned parts of modern-day Guinea Bissau, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. This emirate was, in fact,

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5208-419: The most southern and eastern reaches of Fulɓe hegemonic dominance in West Africa . In this area, Fulfulde is the local lingua franca, and language of cross cultural communication. Further east of this area, Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic, and exist at less organized social systems. These are the areas of the Chari-Baguirmi Region and its river systems, in Chad and the Central African Republic,

5292-409: The names) used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe . Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term. Fula , from Manding languages , is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fullah . Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa. The French borrowed the Wolof term Pël , which is variously spelled: Peul , Peulh , and even Peuhl . More recently

5376-521: The nomadic-pastoral or Mbororo , the semi-nomadic, and the settled or "town" Fulani. The pastoral Fulani move around with their cattle throughout the year. Typically, they do not stay around for long stretches (not more than 2–4 months at a time). The semi-nomadic Fulani can either be Fulɓe families who happen to settle down temporarily at particular times of the year or Fulɓe families who do not "browse" around past their immediate surroundings, and even though they possess livestock, they do not wander away from

5460-444: The northernmost reaches of Sierra Leone; the Futa Tooro savannah grasslands of Senegal and southern Mauritania; the Macina inland Niger river delta system around Central Mali; and especially in the regions around Mopti and the Nioro Du Sahel in the Kayes region; the Borgu settlements of Benin, Togo, and west-central Nigeria; the northern parts of Burkina Faso in the Sahel region 's provinces of Seno , Wadalan , and Soum ; and

5544-623: The other, but the dichotomy is false. Common Fulani family names in Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia , Gambia , Guinea Bissau and Southern Senegal are: Diallo (French speaking regions), Jallow or Jalloh (English speaking regions), Djalo (Cap Verde and Guinea Bissau), Sow, Barry, Bah or Ba, Baldé, and Diouldé. Other Fulani (Toucouleur) family names in Guinea and northern Senegal are: Tall, Sall, Diengue, Sy, Anne, Ly, Wann, Dia and others. Although most Fulbe of Nigeria , Niger and Cameroon use their father's given name as surnames, there are some common Fulani last names such as Bello (likely from

5628-474: The presence of permanent mud brick architecture, including a city wall, probably built during the latter half of the first millennium AD using the cylindrical brick technology, "which was 3.7 meters wide at its base and ran almost two kilometers around the town". It is inferred from this that rice domestication might have led to higher population, or higher populations led to the domestication of rice in this period. Phase III dates from about 300 to 900 AD and

5712-707: The purpose of which was to ensure a constant flow of tax revenue and commodities to the state apparatus and the standing army, especially for the cavalry. The freedom for pastoralists to move around was curtailed to ensure the smooth functioning of other production activities, such as cereal cultivation and, in the case of Maasina, of fishing activities. There was considerable resistance to the forced acceptance of Islam. Conversion to Islam meant not only changing one's religion but also submitting to rules dealing with every aspect of social, political and cultural life, intrusions with which many nomadic Fulbe were not comfortable. In 1690, Torodbe cleric Malick Sy came to Bundu, in what

5796-423: The region consisted mostly of swampland at that time. Groups only began permanently occupying the area after a dry episode in which annual flooding receded and decreased the size of the swamps. Faunal remains at the site from this occupation have included catfish and Nile perch, but mostly cow, leading to the assumption that this first phase might be associated with hunter-gatherer or pastoral modes of subsistence. It

5880-571: The ruling classes of the many emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate . The Fulɓe of Hausaland dress in the clothing and speak the language of their Hausa neighbours (see Hausa–Fulani ). Because they became the dominant ethnic group in these lands, the Fulɓe in the emirates outside Hausaland , like parts of Kanem-Bornu , Adamawa and Gombe , still retain much of their Fulani culture even still speaking Fulfulde as their first language. The Fulɓe who didn't settle during this period and their descendants, however, still keep an obvious distinct identity from that of

5964-475: The same applies to most western groups. Culturally speaking, the central Fulɓe sub-groups are roughly in between the western and eastern Fulani cultural niches. For example, the Massina Fulɓe share similarities both dialectally and culturally to Nigerian or Cameroonian (Eastern) (both of which end interrogative questions with " na ?"), as well as Senegalese and Guinean (western) Fulɓe cultures (who do not end interrogative questions with such mannerism). Accordingly,

6048-548: The site (which lasted from 250 BC to 50 AD) is known as Phase I and is some of the earliest evidence for iron production in West Africa. This initial phase is not associated with the Later Stone Age , and there has never been an occupation from this period at the site, or evidence for it has never been found. Until 250 BC, the area surrounding Djenné-Djenno was either uninhabited or visited by nomadic groups that stayed for short periods. Geomorphological data show that

6132-438: The site is known to have been occupied from 250 BC to 900 AD. Previously, scholars did not believe that advanced trade networks and complex societies developed in West Africa until traders started coming from the north. However, sites such as Djenné-Djenno disprove this, as these traditions in West Africa flourished long before. More recently, scholars have concluded that the egalitarian civilization of Djenne-Djenno

6216-404: The site. One human statuette in particular has been the cause of much debate. It was found on a house floor around small bowls full of suspected offerings. Two others have been found in similar context 11 kilometers away from the site of Djenné-Djenno and it is hypothesized that they are the representations of a household spirit, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in the area as late as

6300-513: The sites of Djenné-Djenno (Mali), Sincu Bara (Senegal), and Cubalel (Senegal). In 1999 President Bill Clinton appointed McIntosh to the Cultural Property Advisory Committee, on which she served until 2003. (The committee is a State Department body which oversees protection and preservation of cultural artifacts. ) McIntosh has a reputation as a proponent of heterarchy and for challenging Western intellectual biases. She

6384-554: The state. Abdul Kader defeated the emirates of Trarza and Brakna to the north, but was defeated and captured when he attacked the Wolof states of Cayor and Waalo around 1797. After his release the jihad impetus had been lost. By the time of Abdul Kader's death in 1806 the state was dominated by a few elite Torodbe families. The Sokoto Caliphate was by far the largest and most successful legacy of Fulani power in Western Africa. It

6468-751: The valley who were "essentially Serer ", Dominated first by Wagadu and later by the Lamtuna , the Mali Empire and the Jolof Empire , in the early 16th century the area was conquered by Koli Tenguella , who founded the Empire of Great Fulo . The Fulani were cattle-keeping farmers who shared their lands with other nearby groups, like the Soninke, who contributed to the rise of ancient Ghana, with eastward and westward expansion being led by nomadic groups of cattle breeders or

6552-545: The vicinity of the tri-border point of present-day Mali, Senegal, and Mauritania, they are now, after centuries of gradual migrations and conquests, spread throughout a wide band of West and Central Africa. The Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal east–west band immediately south of the Sahara, and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps. There are estimates of more than 25 million Fulani people. There are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns, viz:

6636-521: The western groups are the most divergent from the eastern groups and vice versa. Overall, however, all share most cultural practices to a large extent. In Ghana, the exact number of Fulani is unknown due to systematic oppression that includes not counting the Fulani in the Ghanaian census. This reflects widespread discrimination and negative stereotypes about the Fulani. The origins of the Fulani people are unclear and various theories have been postulated. As

6720-546: Was established by the Fulbe jihad led by Seku Amadu in 1818, rebelling against the Bamana Empire , a political power that controlled the region from Segou . This jihad was inspired by Usman Dan Fodio and his jihad in Sokoto. This state appears to have had tight control over its core area, as evidenced by the fact that its political and economic organization is still manifested today in the organization of agricultural production in

6804-631: Was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people . Their habitation of the site spanned the period from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. While Djenne-Djenno is among the oldest urban sites in the Niger basin, a similar settlement at Dia existed from around 900 BC and reached a peak around 600 BC. Oral traditions hold that Djenne-Djenno was founded by immigrants from Dia. Radiocarbon dating has estimated that people first settled at Djenne-Jeno permanently in about 250 BC. This first occupation of

6888-603: Was succeeded by Abdul Kader ('Abd al-Qadir), a learned teacher and judge who had studied in Cayor . Abdul Kader became the first Almamy of the theocratic Almamyate of Futa Toro. He encouraged construction of mosques, and pursued an aggressive policy towards his neighbors. The Torodbe prohibited the trade in slaves on the river. In 1785 they obtained an agreement from the French to stop trading in Muslim slaves and to pay customs duties to

6972-466: Was surrounded by 69 hillocks, and created by its people through the building and rebuilding of their houses. Throughout the site's occupations, pottery fragments are abundant. Some of the more interesting clay artifacts begin in Phase II with terra-cotta statuettes and representations of humans and animals on pottery. These statuettes are important to the understanding of Phase II because along with this art,

7056-673: Was the largest, as well as the most well-organized, of the Fulani Jihad states. Throughout the 19th century, Sokoto was one of the largest and most powerful empires in West Africa until 1903, when defeated by European colonial forces. The Sokoto Caliphate included several emirates, the largest of which was Adamawa , although the Kano Emirate was the most populated. Others included, but are not limited to: Gombe Emirate , Gwandu Emirate , Bauchi Emirate , Katsina Emirate , Zazzau Emirate , Hadejia Emirate , and Muri Emirate . The Maasina Emirate

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