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129-529: Inuinnaqtun (Inuinnaqtun: ᐃᓄᐃᓐᓇᖅᑐᓐ‎ , IPA: [inuinːɑqtun] ; natively meaning 'like the real human beings/peoples'), is an Inuit language . It is spoken in the central Canadian Arctic . It is related very closely to Inuktitut , and some scholars, such as Richard Condon , believe that Inuinnaqtun is more appropriately classified as a dialect of Inuktitut. The government of Nunavut recognises Inuinnaqtun as an official language in addition to Inuktitut, and together sometimes referred to as Inuktut . It

258-645: A Patriote, George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the Quebec Resolutions , the foundation for Canadian Confederation. Recognized as a Father of Confederation , he successfully argued for the establishment of

387-486: A crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern Quebec sovereignty movement and resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the October Crisis of 1970. The meetings of

516-571: A diversity of plant (1000) and vertebrates (350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of the Laurentians , the Appalachians and the eastern lowland forests. The third most northern forest area is characterized by deciduous forests . Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600 vascular plants and 440 vertebrates. The total forest area of Quebec

645-416: A fairly closely linked set of languages which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language: The dialect of Igloolik versus the dialect of Iqaluit , for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of

774-506: A fully inflected verb: "he studies", but can also be interpreted as a noun: "student". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context. The morphology and syntax of the Inuit languages vary to some degree between dialects, and the article Inuit grammar describes primarily central Nunavut dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to Yupik languages as well. Both

903-564: A great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it. In Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called Kalaallisut . In other languages, it is often called Greenlandic or some cognate term. The Inuit languages of Alaska are called Inupiatun , but the variants of the Seward Peninsula are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them Qawiaraq , or for some dialects, Bering Strait Inupiatun . In Canada,

1032-657: A head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses Bill , a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838. This bill, resulting from the Baldwin - La Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of responsible government . In 1854,

1161-522: A part of Inuvialuktun. It is written using the Roman orthography except in Gjoa Haven, where Inuit syllabics are used (as for Natsilingmiutut ). Inuit languages The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional languages is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence. Greenland census estimates place

1290-522: A preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration. To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, Lester B. Pearson adopted a policy of open federalism. In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms. In 1967, President of France Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec, to attend Expo 67 . There, he addressed

1419-795: A root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other Indo-European languages do. This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example, in central Nunavut Inuktitut : tusaa- to hear -tsiaq- well -junnaq- be able to -nngit- not -tualuu- very much -junga 1SG . PRES . IND . NSP tusaa- -tsiaq- -junnaq- -nngit- -tualuu- -junga {to hear} well {be able to} not {very much} 1SG.PRES.IND. NSP I cannot hear very well. This sort of word construction

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1548-721: A royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system , and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics. In 1629, Quebec City surrendered , without battle, to English privateers during the Anglo-French War ; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Trois-Rivières was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634. Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now Montreal) in 1642. In 1663,

1677-463: A two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change". This government made reforms in social policy, education, health and economic development. It created the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec , Labour Code, Ministry of Social Affairs , Ministry of Education , Office québécois de la langue française , Régie des rentes and Société générale de financement . In 1962,

1806-734: Is based on three of its unique statutory documents: the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms , the Charter of the French Language , and the Civil Code of Quebec . Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada, law in Quebec is mixed: private law is exercised under a civil-law system, while public law is exercised under a common-law system. Quebec's official language is French; Québécois French

1935-633: Is estimated at 750,300 km (289,700 sq mi). From the Abitibi-Témiscamingue to the North Shore , the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as the Abies balsamea , the jack pine , the white spruce , the black spruce and the tamarack . The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the sugar maple , the red maple ,

2064-456: Is located in Central Canada . The province shares land borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast and a coastal border with the territory of Nunavut . To the north, it is flanked by major bodies of water such as James Bay , Hudson Bay , Hudson Strait , Ungava Bay , Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and in

2193-535: Is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, the Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb to snow , and 'aput', which means snow as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading. The Inuit languages can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify

2322-817: Is now called the Conscription Crisis of 1917 , which led to the Quebec riot  [ fr ] . In 1919, the prohibition of spirits was enacted following a provincial referendum . But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to the Alcoholic Beverages Act which created the Commission des liqueurs du Québec . In 1927, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador . However,

2451-567: Is pervasive in the Inuit languages and makes them very unlike English. In one large Canadian corpus – the Nunavut Hansard – 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of Zipf's law quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a part of speech can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit languages. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word ilisaijuq can be interpreted as

2580-528: Is spoken in the Northwest Territories as well and is recognised as an official language of the territory in addition to Inuvialuktun and Inuktitut. Inuinnaqtun is used primarily in the communities of Cambridge Bay , Kugluktuk and Gjoa Haven in the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut. Outside Nunavut, it is spoken in the hamlet of Ulukhaktok , where it is also known as Kangiryuarmiutun , forming

2709-462: Is the regional variety . Quebec is the only Francophone -majority province. The economy of Quebec is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of aeronautics , where it is the 6th largest worldwide seller, hydroelectricity , mining, pharmaceuticals , aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing maple syrup , for its comedy , and for making hockey one of

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2838-539: Is the tundra, whose flora is limited to lichen with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of the Canadian boreal forest , bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of

2967-668: Is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including the Labrador Peninsula , lies within the Canadian Shield . It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as the Laurentian Mountains in southern Quebec, the Otish Mountains in central Quebec and

3096-479: Is very sparsely populated. The most populous physiographic region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands . The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system. Quebec's topography

3225-466: The retroflex , which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects. In Natsilingmiutut, the voiced palatal stop /ɟ/ derives from a former retroflex. Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of

3354-590: The Arctic Archipelago , which had been occupied by people of the Dorset culture since the beginning of the 2nd millennium . By 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colonies in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastward migration that the Inuit language became distinct from

3483-636: The Battle of Saint-Denis . However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the Battle of Saint-Charles , and defeat in the Battle of Saint-Eustache . In response to the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare a report offering a solution to the British Parliament. Durham recommended that Canadiens be culturally assimilated , with English as their only official language. To do this,

3612-652: The Bloc Populaire emerged to fight conscription. The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the " Two Solitudes ". In the wake of the conscription crisis, Maurice Duplessis of the Union Nationale ascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as the Grande Noirceur . He focused on defending provincial autonomy , Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire liberalism instead of

3741-519: The Estates General of French Canada in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between francophones of America , and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown affected Quebec society's evolution. In 1968, class conflicts and changes in mentalities intensified. Option Quebec sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting federalist and sovereignist doctrines against each other. In 1969,

3870-749: The Great Peace of Montreal , which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars. From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the French and Indian Wars by Americans, and

3999-650: The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on "Representation by Population" . The British population began to use

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4128-539: The Lower Canada Rebellion began in 1837. In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the Patriotes . They made a Declaration of Independence in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination. Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and Upper Canada . The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle,

4257-696: The North-West Rebellion , the Manitoba Schools Question and Ontario's Regulation 17 turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of Henri Bourassa , symbols of national pride were developed, like the Flag of Carillon , and " O Canada " – a patriotic song composed for Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day . Many organizations went on to consecrate

4386-640: The Ohio Valley , as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists. In 1754, George Washington launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen , the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor Charles Lawrence and Officer Robert Monckton ordered the forceful explusion of the Acadians . In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe besieged and captured

4515-563: The Parti Québécois was brought to power in the 1976 Quebec general election . The Charter of the French Language came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the state of Quebec to be the nation's fundamental political milieu and for it to have the right to self-determination . In the 1980 referendum on sovereignty, 60% were against. After

4644-580: The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec in l'État québécois (the public authority of Quebec). The Government of Quebec functions within the context of a Westminster system and is both a liberal democracy and a constitutional monarchy . The Premier of Quebec acts as head of government . Independence debates have played a large role in Quebec politics . Quebec society's cohesion and specificity

4773-792: The Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. The public lands of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water. Protected areas can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment, national park , biodiversity reserve , wildlife reserve, zone d'exploitation contrôlée (ZEC), etc.). More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas. As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory. In general,

4902-605: The Seven Years' War , Canada became a British colony , first as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then Lower Canada (1791–1841), and lastly part of the Province of Canada (1841–1867) as a result of the Lower Canada Rebellion . It was confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick in 1867. Until the early 1960s , the Catholic Church played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However,

5031-650: The Torngat Mountains near Ungava Bay . While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in the Capitale-Nationale region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as Mount Caubvick . In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region of Nunavik includes

5160-655: The Uralic languages of western Siberia and northern Europe, in a proposed Uralo-Siberian grouping, or even to the Indo-European languages as part of a Nostratic superphylum. Some had previously lumped them in with the Paleosiberian languages , though that is a geographic rather than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language are believed to have been spoken by the Thule people , who migrated east from Beringia towards

5289-644: The federal elections of 1911 . In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912 , which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava . This extended the borders of Quebec northward to the Hudson Strait . When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel

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5418-561: The fur trade reignited French interest; New France became a colonial trading post . In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis

5547-435: The muskellunge , the Atlantic cod , the Arctic char , the brook trout , the Microgadus tomcod (tomcod), the Atlantic salmon , and the rainbow trout . Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are the American robin , the house sparrow , the red-winged blackbird , the mallard , the common grackle , the blue jay , the American crow , the black-capped chickadee , some warblers and swallows ,

5676-401: The provincial general elections . Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against the COVID-19 pandemic . In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premier François Legault , increased its parliamentary majority in the provincial general elections. Located in the eastern part of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size of France or Texas . Most of Quebec

5805-399: The white ash , the American beech , the butternut (white walnut) , the American elm , the basswood , the bitternut hickory and the northern red oak as well as some conifers such as the eastern white pine and the northern whitecedar . The distribution areas of the paper birch , the trembling aspen and the mountain ash cover more than half of Quebec's territory. Biodiversity of

5934-530: The 1920s, changes in lifestyle and serious epidemics like tuberculosis made the government of Canada interested in tracking the Inuit of Canada's Arctic. Traditionally Inuit names reflect what is important in Inuit culture: environment, landscape, seascape, family, animals, birds, spirits. However these traditional names were difficult for non-Inuit to parse. Also, the agglutinative nature of Inuit language meant that names seemed long and were difficult for southern bureaucrats and missionaries to pronounce. Thus, in

6063-417: The 1940s, the Inuit were given disc numbers , recorded on a special leather ID tag, like a dog tag . They were required to keep the tag with them always. (Some tags are now so old and worn that the number is polished out.) The numbers were assigned with a letter prefix that indicated location (E = east), community, and then the order in which the census-taker saw the individual. In some ways this state renaming

6192-435: The Americans in the Saratoga campaign of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size. Some United Empire Loyalists from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions. Dissatisfied with

6321-444: The Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people. As a result of confrontations between the lower clergy and the laity , state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of civil society began to be more secular. In 1965, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism wrote

6450-416: The Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor New Democratic Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave". After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader, Pauline Marois , became the first female premier of Quebec. The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014. In 2018, the Coalition Avenir Québec won

6579-420: The British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the Royal Proclamation . The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the British Empire and circumscribed to a region of the St. Lawrence Valley and Anticosti Island called the Province of Quebec . With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that

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6708-470: The British passed the Act of Union 1840 , which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the Province of Canada . Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated Canada East , and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated Canada West . This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in

6837-423: The British". Thus also began French military support to the Algonquian and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the Iroquois Wars and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King Henry IV , he founded the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City) and made it

6966-427: The Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 , which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to

7095-426: The Canadian constitution and made modifications to it. The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it. Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by the Mulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with the Meech Lake Accord of 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in

7224-459: The Canadiens might support what would become the American Revolution . To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their civil customs , return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador,

7353-429: The Company of New France ceded Canada to King Louis XIV , who made New France into a royal province of France. New France was now a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of New France from Quebec City. A governor-general , governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance. The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as " Canadiens " or " Habitants ". Though there

7482-424: The Danish state church) in Greenland. Several major dictionaries were created, beginning with Poul Egedes's Dictionarium Grönlandico-danico-latinum (1750) and culminating with Samuel Kleinschmidt's (1871) "Den grønlandske ordbog" (Transl. "The Greenlandic Dictionary"), which contained a Greenlandic grammatical system that has formed the basis of modern Greenlandic grammar. Together with the fact that until 1925 Danish

7611-444: The European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven Indigenous peoples : the Inuit and ten First Nations  – the Abenakis , Algonquins (or Anichinabés), Atikamekw , Cree , Huron-Wyandot , Maliseet , Miꞌkmaqs , Iroquois , Innu and Naskapis . Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing. Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along

7740-442: The Fortress of Louisbourg. This allowed him to control access to the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the Cabot Strait . In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from Île d'Orléans . Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . After a British victory, the king's lieutenant and Lord of Ramezay concluded the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec . During

7869-409: The Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, Illinois Country and the Indian Territory . As early as 1774, the Continental Congress of the separatist Thirteen Colonies attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, its military troops failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its Invasion of Quebec in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with

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7998-451: The Intercolonial Wars in Quebec. The first three were King William's War (1688–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht , the Duke of Orléans ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to Great Britain, but retained Île Saint-Jean , and Île-Royale where the Fortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay

8127-431: The Inuit language into specific member languages since it forms a dialect continuum . Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely its neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level. As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for its own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating

8256-478: The Inuit languages because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect

8385-452: The Inuit world: parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska. The Inuit languages, like other Eskimo–Aleut languages, have very rich morphological systems in which a succession of different morphemes are added to root words (like verb endings in European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require several words to express. (See also: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language ) All Inuit words begin with

8514-486: The Iñupiaq, with most of them over the age of 40. Alaskan Inupiat speak three distinct dialects, which have difficult mutual intelligibility: The Inuit languages are official in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut (the dominant language in the latter); have a high level of official support in Nunavik , a semi-autonomous portion of Quebec ; and are still spoken in some parts of Labrador . Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as Inuktitut , but

8643-454: The National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation". On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed a symbolic motion declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada." In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the 2011 Canadian federal elections , Quebec voters rejected

8772-421: The Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first premier . From Confederation until World War I, the Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, French, the Catholic Church and rural life. Events such as

8901-494: The Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in a boundary dispute which remains ongoing . The Statute of Westminster 1931 was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of the Dominions – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the Commonwealth . In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the Great Depression because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32

9030-415: The US instead of its labour force. In 1910, Armand Lavergne passed the Lavergne Law , the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec. Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in

9159-422: The Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic tundra inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion and the Central Canadian Shield forests . The Appalachian region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec. Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of fresh water , occupying 12% of its surface and representing 3% of

9288-615: The Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka. Until 1902, a possible enclave of the Dorset, the Sadlermiut (in modern Inuktitut spelling Sallirmiut ), existed on Southampton Island . Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a "strange dialect". This suggests that they also spoke an Inuit language, but one quite distinct from

9417-637: The affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the caisses populaires Desjardins in 1900, the Club de hockey Canadien in 1909, Le Devoir in 1910, the Congress on the French language in Canada in 1912, and L'Action nationale in 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the Parti national out of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of Louis Riel . In 1898,

9546-669: The article on Eskimo for more information on this word. The Inuit languages constitute a branch of the Eskimo–Aleut language family . They are closely related to the Yupik languages and more remotely to Aleut . These other languages are all spoken in western Alaska , United States, and eastern Chukotka , Russia. They are not discernibly related to other indigenous languages of the Americas or northeast Asia, although there have been some unsubstantiated proposals that they are distantly related to

9675-469: The capital of New France and its regions. The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing. Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City. Coureurs des bois and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts. The Compagnie des Cent-Associés , which had been granted

9804-615: The characteristics of that animal: "Nanuq" or "Nanoq" in Kalaallisut (polar-bear), "Uqalik" or "Ukaleq" in Kalaallisut (Arctic hare), and "Tiriaq" or "Teriaq" in Kalaallisut (mouse) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include "Itigaituk" (has no feet), "Anana" or "Anaana" (mother), "Piujuq" (beautiful) and "Tulimak" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members. In

9933-418: The climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences. Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas. During

10062-510: The coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays. In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . Around 1522–23, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established

10191-499: The colony. In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700. New France's territory grew to extend from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico , and would encompass the Great Lakes . In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded

10320-743: The creation of the Bloc Québécois . In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called a referendum on Quebec's independence from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes". In 1998, following the Supreme Court of Canada 's decision on the Reference Re Secession of Quebec , the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the legal frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003,

10449-591: The east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to Rupert's Land , and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on

10578-470: The emerging welfare state . However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, the baby boom , workers' conflicts , electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class , the rural exodus and urbanization , expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of motorways , renaissance of literature and poetry, and others. The Quiet Revolution

10707-504: The estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River includes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as the blue whale , the beluga , the minke whale and the harp seal (earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include the walrus and the narwhal . Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as the largemouth bass , the American pickerel , the walleye , the Acipenser oxyrinchus ,

10836-758: The federal Official Languages Act was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development. In 1973, the liberal government of Robert Bourassa initiated the James Bay Project on La Grande River . In 1974, it enacted the Official Language Act , which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement . Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by René Lévesque , materialized when

10965-449: The federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were against conscription, while 80% or more were for conscription in every other province, the federal government passed Bill 80 for overseas service. Protests exploded and

11094-477: The forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates: The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world. The Inuit languages are

11223-449: The government of Quebec dismantled the financial syndicates of Saint Jacques Street . Quebec began to nationalize its electricity . In order to buy out all the private electric companies and build new Hydro-Québec dams, Quebec was lent $ 300 million by the US in 1962, and $ 100 million by British Columbia in 1964. The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to

11352-568: The higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an arctic climate (Köppen ET ), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers. The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the Labrador Current ) and continental air masses from the High Arctic . The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low

11481-438: The language is called Inuttut or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name Labradorimiutut . Furthermore, Canadians – both Inuit and non-Inuit – sometimes use the word Inuktitut to refer to all Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland. The phrase "Inuit language" is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all

11610-415: The largest group outside of North America. Thus, the total population of Inuit speakers is about 100,000 people. The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other; some people do not think of it as a single language but rather a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking

11739-592: The legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the Constitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the Ottawa River : Upper Canada to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to

11868-560: The legend of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval ; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom. After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and religious wars. Around 1580, the rise of

11997-477: The local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. In Nunavut the government groups all dialects of Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun under the term Inuktut . Although many people refer to the Inuit language as Eskimo language , this is a broad term that also includes the Yupik languages , and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See

12126-461: The most popular sports in Canada . It is also renowned for its culture ; the province produces literature , music , films , TV shows , festivals , and more. The name Québec comes from an Algonquin word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'. The name originally referred to the area around Quebec City where the Saint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in

12255-690: The name New France for northeast North America. In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, Jacques Cartier became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in Gaspé on July 24, 1534. In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of Stadacona and named the village and its surrounding territories Canada (from kanata , 'village' in Iroquois ). Cartier returned to France with about 10 St. Lawrence Iroquoians , including Chief Donnacona . In 1540, Donnacona told

12384-588: The name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity. (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names: they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.) Common native names in Canada include "Ujarak" (rock), "Nuvuk" (headland), "Nasak" (hat, or hood), "Tupiq" or "Tupeq" in Kalaallisut (tent), and "Qajaq" ( kayak ). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of

12513-799: The names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. Iqaluit , for example, is simply the plural of the noun iqaluk "fish" ("Arctic char", "salmon" or "trout" depending on dialect ). Igloolik ( Iglulik ) means place with houses , a word that could be interpreted as simply town ; Inuvik is place of people ; Baffin Island , Qikiqtaaluk in Inuktitut, translates approximately to "big island". Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions. There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words. The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting

12642-574: The next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the Grande Hémorragie and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the revenge of the cradle policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal. Political unrest came to

12771-641: The north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the War of 1812 , Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of the Chateauguay . This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada. Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada , who represented

12900-487: The number of Inuit language speakers there at roughly 50,000. According to the 2021 Canadian census , the Inuit population of Canada is 70,540, of which 33,790 report Inuit as their first language. Greenland and Canada account for the bulk of Inuit speakers, although about 7,500 Alaskans speak some variety of an Inuit language out of a total population of over 13,000 Inuit. An estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in Denmark ,

13029-571: The people, came into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its appointed representatives . Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the Parti canadien . In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its 92 resolutions , political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the British monarchy . Discontentment intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, and

13158-742: The province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status. Following the London Conference of 1866 , the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the British North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. These last two came from splitting

13287-529: The referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, the Kitchen Accord took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night. Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the new Constitution Act, 1982 , which patriated

13416-429: The region codes (like knowing a telephone area code). Until Inuit began studying in the south, many did not know that numbers were not normal parts of Christian and English naming systems. Then in 1969, the government started Project Surname, headed by Abe Okpik , to replace number-names with patrilineal "family surnames". A popular belief exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for snow . This

13545-650: The results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a British military regime led by Governor James Murray . In 1762, Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill . France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta to Spain via the Treaty of Fontainebleau . On February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris concluded

13674-576: The same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on August 29, 1917. French Canadians protested in what

13803-607: The seigneurial system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was adopted. In 1864, negotiations began for Canadian Confederation between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the Charlottetown Conference and Quebec Conference . After having fought as

13932-586: The south, it shares a border with the United States . It is the second-largest province by population , with the majority of its population residing in the St. Lawrence River valley, which contains its most populous city of Montreal and the eponymous provincial capital of Quebec . Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the French colony of Canada and was the most developed colony in New France . Following

14061-569: The spelling included Québecq and Kébec . French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the administrative seat for New France . The Paleo-Indians , theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted roughly 11,000 years ago. From them, many ethnocultural groups emerged. By

14190-578: The spring of 1760, the Chevalier de Lévis besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the Battle of Sainte-Foy . However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the Battle of Restigouche marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony. Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8, 1760. While awaiting

14319-439: The summer and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter, Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc ). Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of

14448-465: The summer, severe weather patterns (such as tornadoes and severe thunderstorms ) occur occasionally. Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F). In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in

14577-615: The syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that English uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (e.g. "falling snow", "blowing snow", "snow on the ground", "snow drift", etc.) Quebec Quebec is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada . It is the largest province by area with an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of borders, in North America , Quebec

14706-485: The term " Canadian ", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with their ethnic community under the name " French Canadian " as they were a "French of Canada". As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the Clique du Château , an exodus of Canadiens towards New England began and went on for

14835-470: The terms Inuvialuktun , Inuinnaqtun , and Inuttut (also called Nunatsiavummiutut , Labradorimiutut or Inuttitut ) have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas. Greenland counts approximately 50,000 speakers of the Inuit languages, over 90% of whom speak west Greenlandic dialects at home. Greenlandic was strongly supported by the Danish Christian mission (conducted by

14964-448: The total area of Quebec. The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. The mixed forest is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest and deciduous forest . This area contains

15093-527: The unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the secours directs – the ancestor to Canada's Employment Insurance . French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939,

15222-430: The usages most seen in popular and technical literature. In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland Denmark , and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of Canada which are outside traditional Inuit lands. Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Iñupiat , as few as 3000 may still be able to speak

15351-477: The variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called Inuvialuktun and have in the past sometimes been called Inuktun . In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as Inuktitun to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called Inuttitut by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In Labrador ,

15480-574: The war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain. Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic clergy in refusing to take an oath to the British Crown . The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation . After

15609-415: The word Inuktitut is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories . However, one of the variants of western Nunavut, and the eastern Northwest Territories, is called Inuinnaqtun to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while

15738-610: The world's renewable fresh water . More than half a million lakes and 4,500 rivers empty into the Atlantic Ocean , through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Arctic Ocean , by James , Hudson , and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the Caniapiscau Reservoir ; Lake Mistassini is the largest natural lake. The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959,

15867-536: Was a period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior socioeconomic position , and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and Quebec nationalism . In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with

15996-451: Was abetted by the churches and missionaries, who viewed the traditional names and their calls to power as related to shamanism and paganism . They encouraged people to take Christian names. So a young woman who was known to her relatives as "Lutaaq, Pilitaq, Palluq, or Inusiq" and had been baptised as "Annie" was under this system to become Annie E7-121 . People adopted the number-names, their family members' numbers, etc., and learned all

16125-547: Was little immigration, the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates. In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men. To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ( King's Daughters ) to

16254-708: Was not taught in the public schools, these policies had the consequence that Greenlandic has always and continues to enjoy a very strong position in Greenland, both as a spoken as well as written language. Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen consonants and three vowels (which can be long or short). Consonants are arranged with five places of articulation : bilabial , alveolar , palatal , velar and uvular ; and three manners of articulation : voiceless stops , voiced continuants , and nasals , as well as two additional sounds—voiceless fricatives . The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation,

16383-516: Was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 Acadians . In the siege of Louisbourg (1745) , the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions. The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the Seven Years' War ("The War of the Conquest " in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In 1754, tensions escalated for control of

16512-412: Was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years. Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the tundra , the taiga , the Canadian boreal forest (coniferous), mixed forest and deciduous forest. On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait

16641-475: Was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F). The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres of snow in the area of Quebec City. March 1971, however, saw the " Century's Snowstorm " with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) in Mont Apica of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010

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