155-819: The International Boundaries Research Unit (IBRU) is a research centre at Durham University in the United Kingdom. It provides practical expertise in boundary-making, border management and territorial dispute resolution. IBRU was established in 1989. Its function involves the study of boundaries and their impact on international relations and borderland development. IBRU has organised international conferences to explore intellectual and practical questions relating to international boundaries and territorial dispute resolution. These international gatherings have included: IBRU's published works encompass 51 works in 86 works in 114 publications in 2 languages and 1,325 library holdings. This article relating to Durham University
310-578: A yeoman farmer. In 1636 Cromwell inherited control of various properties in Ely from his uncle on his mother's side, and his uncle's job as tithe -collector for Ely Cathedral . As a result, his income is likely to have risen to around £300–400 per year; by the end of the 1630s Cromwell had returned to the ranks of acknowledged gentry. He had become a committed Puritan and had established important family links to leading families in London and Essex . Cromwell became
465-663: A 257 ha (640-acre) estate of which 251 ha (620 acres) is in Durham. This contains part of the Durham Castle and Cathedral UNESCO World Heritage Site and multiple other heritage assets including three ancient monuments (the Maiden Castle Iron Age promontory fort , Cosin's Library and Divinity House ), four grade I listed buildings (including Kingsgate Bridge , the Exchequer Building on Palace Green ,
620-647: A Scottish Covenanter attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists. He was also charged with familism by Scottish Presbyterian Samuel Rutherford in response to his letter to the House of Commons in 1645. At the critical Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model Army smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing
775-596: A degree, immediately after his father's death. Early biographers claim that he then attended Lincoln's Inn , but the Inn's archives retain no record of him. Antonia Fraser concludes that it is likely that he did train at one of the London Inns of Court during this time. His grandfather, his father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn, and Cromwell sent his son Richard there in 1647. Cromwell probably returned home to Huntingdon after his father's death. As his mother
930-568: A famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland , urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken." The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary. His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first,
1085-518: A fundamental statute was passed by the Dean and Chapter, as governors of the university, setting up Convocation and laying down that Durham degrees would only be open to members of the Church of England. Regulations for degrees were finalised in 1836 and the university was incorporated by royal charter granted by William IV on 1 June 1837 as the "Warden, Masters and Scholars of the University of Durham", with
1240-520: A military dictator, while others view him a hero of liberty. He remains a controversial figure due to his use of military force to acquire and retain political power, his role in the execution of Charles I and the brutality of his 1649 campaign in Ireland . The debate over his historical reputation continues. First proposed in 1856, his statue outside the Houses of Parliament was not erected until 1895, most of
1395-570: A new charter for the town. As a result, he was called before the Privy Council in 1630. In 1631, likely as a result of the dispute, Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon and moved to a farmstead in nearby St Ives . This move, a significant step down in society for the Cromwells, also had significant emotional and spiritual impact on Cromwell; an extant 1638 letter from him to his cousin,
1550-546: A personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. In 1628 he was elected to Parliament from the Huntingdonshire county town of Huntingdon . Later that year, he sought treatment for a variety of physical and emotional ailments, including valde melancholicus (depression), from the Swiss-born London doctor Théodore de Mayerne . In 1629, Cromwell became involved in a dispute among the gentry of Huntingdon involving
1705-577: A pro- Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers ) who had invaded England. At Preston , in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, he won a decisive victory against an army twice as large. During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling
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#17328446395691860-409: A property franchise of £200 per annum in real or personal property value set as the minimum value which a male adult was to possess before he was eligible to vote for the representatives from the counties or shires in the House of Commons. The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by
2015-717: A role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, he put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill, and he later took a role in drafting the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy . Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the English Civil War . Before he joined Parliament's forces, Cromwell's only military experience
2170-500: A second hall along similar lines, Bishop Cosin's Hall , being founded in 1851, although this only survived until 1864. Elsewhere, the university expanded from Durham into Newcastle in 1852 when the medical school there (established in 1834) became a college of the university. This was joined in 1871 by the College of Physical Sciences (renamed the College of Science in 1884 and again renamed Armstrong College in 1904). St Cuthbert's Society
2325-512: A speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous". Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of
2480-516: A university in 1992, had difficulties in taking on its responsibilities for the college and withdrew in 1994, Durham taking over full responsibility for UCS and the degrees to be awarded there. A programme of integration with Durham began, with the Privy Council approving changes in Durham's statutes to make UCS a college of the University of Durham. Further integration of the Stockton development with
2635-442: A year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. In 1654, Cromwell said, "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity." Oliver Cromwell was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St John's Church , and attended Huntingdon Grammar School . He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge , then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking
2790-570: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Durham University Durham University (legally the University of Durham ) is a collegiate public research university in Durham , England , founded by an Act of Parliament in 1832 and incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It was the first recognised university to open in England for more than 600 years, after Oxford and Cambridge , and
2945-585: Is a former Catholic seminary that is a licensed hall of residence of the university. It hosts parts of the Business School and of the Centre for Catholic Studies, with the university having committed to leasing the East Wing until 2027 and to establishing a residential research library at Ushaw. Queen's Campus in the borough of Stockton-on-Tees ( Thornaby , North Yorkshire ) 30 miles from Durham City. Until 2017–18,
3100-638: Is also affiliated with the regional N8 Research Partnership and international university groups including the Matariki Network of Universities and the Coimbra Group . The university estate includes 83 listed buildings , ranging from the 11th-century Durham Castle to the 1960s brutalist students' union . The university also owns and manages the Durham World Heritage Site in partnership with Durham Cathedral . The university's ownership of
3255-524: Is planned to become Durham's 18th college. The Waterside Building, home of the business school 's Department of Management and Marketing from 2024, is on the east bank of the River Wear north (downstream) of the city centre. Boldon House in Pity Me will house some professional services from 2025. The university published a strategy document in 2017 setting out (among other things) a roadmap for development of
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#17328446395693410-487: Is thus the third-oldest university in England . As a collegiate university, its main functions are divided between the academic departments of the university and its 17 colleges . In general, the departments perform research and provide teaching to students, while the colleges are responsible for their domestic arrangements and welfare. The university is a member of the Russell Group of British research universities and
3565-549: The Banbury mutiny occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, he departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July. Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649 to 1650. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of
3720-679: The Bill Bryson Library (named after the writer Bill Bryson , chancellor of the university 2005–2012), Development in the 21st century has included the Arthur Holmes Building (2003; earth sciences; named after Arthur Holmes , Professor of Geology), the Calman Learning Centre (2007; named after Kenneth Calman , vice-chancellor and warden 1998–2006), the Palatine Centre (2012; law and the university's administration),
3875-604: The Bishops' Wars , lack of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge , but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the Short Parliament . Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640. A second Parliament was called later the same year and became known as the Long Parliament . Cromwell was again returned as member for Cambridge. As with
4030-594: The Commonwealth of England . The "Rump Parliament" exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the council. In the early months after Charles's execution, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original "Royal Independents" led by St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before
4185-650: The Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow consisted mostly of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside, with English troops suffering from attacks by Irish toráidhe (guerilla fighters). The last Catholic-held town, Galway , surrendered in April 1652 and
4340-620: The Daniel Libeskind -designed Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics (2016), and the Lower Mountjoy Teaching and Learning Centre (2019), the only part of the site west of South Road. In October 2013, a geological sculpture of the British Isles titled What Lies Beneath Us – a map with the geology of each location shown by a sample of the rock found at that location (and, for most areas, from that location) – by artist John de Pauley
4495-887: The Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester . Cromwell gained experience in successful actions in East Anglia in 1643, notably at the Battle of Gainsborough on 28 July. He was subsequently appointed governor of the Isle of Ely and a colonel in the Eastern Association. By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of lieutenant general of horse in Manchester's army. His cavalry's success in breaking
4650-567: The Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. Thus weakened, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump Parliament , agreed that Charles should be tried for treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for
4805-616: The Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the Royalist alliance, and Protestant Royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in
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4960-439: The Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (US), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Tübingen (Germany), University of Western Australia and Uppsala University (Sweden). In 2012, Durham (along with York , Exeter and Queen Mary, University of London ) joined the Russell Group of research-intensive British universities. Between 2010 and 2012
5115-669: The Orient and Levant to the Far East and the Indian Sub-continent , with over a third of the collection relating to China. The Chinese collection and the Egyptian collection were granted Designated Status as collections of national importance by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council in 2008. Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658)
5270-597: The P being an abbreviation for Protector , and soon others started to address Cromwell as "Your Highness". As Protector, he had to secure a majority vote in the Council of State. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year (equivalent to £20,500,000 in 2023). Although Cromwell stated that "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," he believed that social issues should be prioritised. The social priorities did not include any meaningful attempt to reform
5425-575: The Province of Maryland , and islands in the West Indies . Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb other Puritans who had seized control of Maryland Colony at Severn battle , by his confirming the former Roman Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during
5580-449: The Queen granted the title "Queen's Campus" to the Stockton site. By 2005, Queen's Campus, Stockton, accounted for around 18 per cent of the total university student population. In 2005, the university unveiled a re-branded logotype and introduced the trading name of Durham University, although the legal name of the institution remained the University of Durham and the official coat of arms
5735-594: The Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees . One of the major public attractions in Durham City is the 10 ha (25-acre) Botanic Gardens , established (on the current site) in 1970, with over 80,000 visitors annually. As of 2021, the university estate contains over 380 buildings with a floor area of 424,600 square metres (4,570,000 sq ft), including 189,400 square metres (2,039,000 sq ft) of residential area in 170 residential buildings (not including
5890-660: The Reformation had not gone far enough, that much of England was still living in sin, and that Catholic beliefs and practices must be fully removed from the church. It appears that in 1634 Cromwell attempted to emigrate to what became the Connecticut Colony in the Americas, but was prevented by the government from leaving. Along with his brother Henry, Cromwell had kept a smallholding of chickens and sheep, selling eggs and wool to support himself, his lifestyle resembling that of
6045-709: The Royal Academy of Engineering and 2 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences . Durham graduates have long used the Latin post-nominal letters Dunelm after their degree, from Dunelmensis (of, belonging to, or from Durham). Between around 1286 and 1291 the Benedictine monks of Durham established a hall at Oxford University to provide them with a seat of learning. In 1381 this received an endowment from Thomas Hatfield , Bishop of Durham, becoming Durham College . Durham College
6200-547: The Siege of Drogheda in September 1649, his troops killed nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests. Cromwell wrote afterwards: I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent
6355-676: The St Cuthbert Gospel , for the nation for £9 million. It is displayed equally in London and Durham, being shown at the university's Palace Green Library for the first time as part of the Lindisfarne Gospels Durham exhibition in 2013. In addition to the central library system, many colleges maintain their own libraries, such as the Bettenson, Brewis, Williams and Fenton Libraries of St Chad's College, which contain over 38,000 volumes. Durham staff and students can also access
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6510-501: The University of Newcastle upon Tyne , leaving Durham University based solely in its home city. By the time of the separation from Newcastle the Elvet Hill site was well established; with the first of the new colleges being founded in 1959, Grey College , named after the second Earl Grey who was the prime minister when the university was founded. Expansion up Elvet Hill continued, with Van Mildert College , Trevelyan College (1966), and Collingwood College (1972) all being added to
6665-531: The University of Sierra Leone while Codrington College became affiliated to the University of the West Indies in 1965. The first debating society in Durham was founded in 1835, but may have closed by 1839. The Durham University Union was established in 1842, and revived and moved to Palace Green in 1872–3 as the Durham Union Society . Notable past presidents of the Durham Union have included Richard Dannatt , Sir Edward Leigh , and Crispin Blunt . The Durham Colleges Students Representative Council (SRC)
6820-450: The "Grandees" disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should extend only to the landowners. In the Putney Debates of 1647, the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. Rebellions and mutinies followed the debates, and in 1649, the Bishopsgate mutiny resulted in Leveller Robert Lockyer 's execution by firing squad. The next month,
6975-401: The 32.4 ha (80 acres) of Great High Wood, Hollingside Wood and Blaid's Wood additionally designated as Ancient Semi-Natural Woodlands , Sites of Nature Conservation Importance and Sites of Ecological Value ), 53 ha (130 acres) of farming and grazing land, and 27 ha (67 acres) of amenity grassland, alongside 51.4 ha (127 acres) of built environment. The estate also includes
7130-561: The Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in continental Europe . Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by Irish ("Gaels") and Old English in Ireland , and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for
7285-437: The Chemistry Building (chemistry), the Maths building (temporary home of the school of education), the West Building (geography), the Rochester Building (physics, named after George Rochester , Professor of Physics), the Christopherson Building (engineering, named after Derman Christopherson , vice-chancellor and warden 1960–1979), the Higginson Building (engineering, named after Gordon Higginson , Professor of Engineering), and
7440-439: The Church of England until the Universities Tests Act 1871 . However, "dissenters" were able to attend Durham and then sit the examinations for degrees of the University of London , which were not subject to any religious test. Following the grant of a supplemental charter in 1895 allowing women to receive degrees of the university, the Women's Hostel ( St Mary's College from 1919) was founded in 1899. The Newcastle division of
7595-404: The Civil Wars, Cromwell believed that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval and defeats as signs that God was pointing him in another direction. In December 1648, in an episode that became known as Pride's Purge , a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of
7750-399: The Crown for himself around this time, though the evidence for this is retrospective and problematic. Ultimately, he demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government in April 1653 of 40 members drawn from the Rump and the army, and then abdicate; but the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. Cromwell was so angered by this that he cleared the chamber and dissolved
7905-403: The King at the Treaty of Newport , that convinced him that God had spoken against both the King and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. The episode shows Cromwell's firm belief in Providentialism —that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). During
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#17328446395698060-406: The King would acquiesce to if his authority was restored. The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement. Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the " Heads of Proposals " pleased Cromwell in principle and allowed for further negotiations. It was designed to check
8215-427: The King's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars. Cromwell approved Thomas Brook's address to the House of Commons, which justified the trial and the King's execution on the basis of the Book of Numbers, chapter 35 and particularly verse 33 ("The land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it."). Charles's death warrant
8370-424: The Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagu family of Hinchingbrooke House . He made little impression: parliamentary records show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop Richard Neile ), which was poorly received. After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next 11 years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion in
8525-578: The Mountjoy site include Applebey (West Building; capacity 275; named after Malcolm Applebey, chair of the Durham Colleges Council 1937–1955); Scarbrough (Chemistry Building; capacity 264; named after Roger Lumley, 11th Earl of Scarbrough , chancellor of the university 1958–1969); Dawson (Dawson Building; capacity 228); the Calman Learning Centre lecture theatres: Arnold Wolfendate (capacity 400, named after Sir Arnold Wolfendale , Astronomer Royal and Professor of Physics), Rosemary Cramp (capacity 260, named after Dame Rosemary Cramp , first female professor at
8680-454: The Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics, designed by Daniel Libeskind . The new building, named after alumnus Peter Ogden , provides extra laboratories and office space for 140 staff. In May 2017 the university announced a new ten-year strategy that proposed investing £700m in improving the campus, creating 300 new academic posts, increasing the size of the university to 21,500 students while attracting more international students, and expanding
8835-537: The Parliament by force on 20 April 1653, supported by about 40 musketeers. Several accounts exist of this incident; in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". At least two accounts agree that he snatched up the ceremonial mace , symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the " bauble " be taken away. His troops were commanded by Charles Worsley , later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted
8990-408: The Parliament of 1628–29, it is likely that he owed his position to the patronage of others, which might explain why in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of John Lilburne , who had become a Puritan cause célèbre after his arrest for importing religious tracts from the Netherlands. For the Long Parliament's first two years, Cromwell was linked to
9145-485: The Parliament of Saints, or more commonly and denigratingly called Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone , was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what
9300-409: The Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament . However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. Later, the Parliament initiated radical reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. The First Protectorate Parliament had
9455-647: The Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress Basing House , later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300-man Royalist garrison after its surrender. He also took part in successful sieges at Bridgwater , Sherborne , Bristol, Devizes , and Winchester , then spent
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#17328446395699610-484: The Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. According to the parliamentarian lawyer Bulstrode Whitelocke , Cromwell began to contemplate taking
9765-477: The Scottish capital of Edinburgh . The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people". The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made an attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651, and his forces destroyed
9920-408: The Senate to choose to move to Newcastle after this. This was blocked by John Taylor , MP for Chester-le-Street , with the support of graduates of the Durham colleges, until the bill was modified to establish a federal university with its seat fixed in Durham, as well as greater representation for the graduates (including that the chancellor would be appointed by convocation, as remains the case) and
10075-423: The Universities of Durham and Teesside (JUCOT) established at Thornaby-on-Tees in the borough of Stockton-on-Tees and the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, 30 miles (48 km) to the south of Durham. It opened under the name of University College Stockton (UCS) in 1992. UCS was initially intended to grant joint degrees validated by both institutions (BAs and BScs). However, Teesside, which had only become
10230-439: The Warden of the Durham Division and the Rector of the Newcastle Division, the chief academic and administrative officers of the two divisions under the 1937 statutes. The executive head of Durham University continues to use the title of "Vice-Chancellor and Warden". After World War II, the Durham division expanded rapidly. St Aidan's Society ( St Aidan's College from 1961) was founded in 1947 to cater for non-resident women and
10385-474: The abolition of ad eundem degrees. This reform also removed the university from the authority of the Dean and Chapter of Durham Cathedral , who had been the governors of the university since its foundation. Thirty years after this, the Royal Commission of 1937 recommended changes in the constitution of the federal university, resulting in the merger of the two colleges in the Newcastle Division to form King's College. The vice-chancellorship alternated between
10540-414: The aldermen and councilors of the boroughs. Cromwell's second objective was reforms on the field of morality and religion. As a Protectorate, he established trials for the future parish ministers, and dismissed unqualified ministers and rectors. These triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see
10695-509: The area around Howlands Farm (Josephine Butler and Stephenson colleges), the Leazes Road site (Hild Bede College), and the Business School site on Mill Hill as possible locations for new accommodation development (i.e., new colleges). A 'strategy refresh' was approved in 2023, which included establishing a new cultural quarter on the old swimming baths site in Elvet and developing interdisciplinary science research and laboratory facilities at Upper Mountjoy. Ushaw College , 5 miles west of Durham,
10850-413: The biological sciences building in 1993 (now biosciences). The mathematical sciences and computer sciences building opened in 2021 and also includes the Hazan Venture Lab, intended to equip students for entrepreneurship and to encourage student start-ups. The local NHS administrative offices are also located in John Snow House in Upper Mountjoy. Large lecture theatres with a capacity of over 200 on
11005-414: The business school and the departments of law, politics, English and history to reach "critical research mass". In 2018 the university announced that a consortium led by Interserve would design, build and operate two colleges at Mount Oswald (new buildings for John Snow College and one new college ) for £105 million. The project company (in which the university has a 15 per cent stake) financed
11160-499: The campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie . Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar . However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar , killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner, and then capturing
11315-495: The campus was home to around 2,000 full-time students in two colleges ( John Snow and Stephenson Colleges ) and the Wolfson Research Institute , with a bus connecting Queen's Campus to Durham City. The colleges and academic departments were relocated between 2017 and 2018, and Queen's Campus became an International Study Centre (ISC) run by Study Group , preparing non-EU foreign students to enter degree courses at
11470-480: The college to confer degrees met with opposition from Oxford and Cambridge universities, and the whole scheme was abandoned at the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Consequently, it was not until 1832 when Parliament , at the instigation of Archdeacon Charles Thorp and with the support of the Bishop of Durham, William van Mildert , passed "an Act to enable the Dean and Chapter of Durham Cathedral to appropriate part of
11625-643: The constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a Royalist uprising in March 1655 , led by Sir John Penruddock , Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by army major generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security , but also viewed as Cromwell's serious effort in exerting his religious conviction. Their position
11780-524: The construction via a £90 million 46-year bond issue. The two colleges opened in 2020. Separately, the university announced that it had raised £225 million to fund its estate masterplan through the private sale of long-term bonds to British and US investors. In 2021 it was reported that there was a culture of sexism and bullying at Durham, and that the university had been reluctant to address structural problems, thereby enabling this culture to develop relatively unchallenged. Durham University owns
11935-482: The decision was made to expand further on Elvet Hill (where the science site had been established in the 1920s), relocating St Mary's College, building new men's colleges, vastly expanding the existing pure science provision in Durham, and adding applied science (1960) and engineering (1965). In 1947, the foundation stones for the new St Mary's College building on Elvet Hill were laid by Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II ). The new building opened in 1952. In
12090-582: The department of Government and International Affairs, as well as the Teikyo University of Japan in Durham and the Oriental Museum . Ustinov College, Durham's postgraduate college, is located in Sheraton Park, beyond Elvet Hill. Rushford Court , owned by Unite Students , is the temporary home of Hild Bede College as of 2024 and was also used by John Snow College in 2019–20. In the longer term, it
12245-572: The departments in the faculty of social science and health. Development of what is now Lower Mountjoy began in 1923 with the Dawson Building (originally the Science Building until 1952, when it was named after Sir Arthur James Dawson, a northeast educator). This building is now home to the departments of archaeology and anthropology, but has also housed chemistry, geology, physics, biology, botany and zoology. Later 20th century development included
12400-467: The effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret. At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of
12555-468: The estate over the period to 2027, including the development of a new home for the business school at Elvet Waterside (Old Elvet), to open in 2021, the redevelopment of the arts and humanities facilities at Elvet Riverside (New Elvet), opening from 2022, the construction of four to six new colleges, and the continued development of the Mountjoy site. The university's Estate Masterplan for 2017–2027 identified
12710-676: The famous chief minister to Henry VIII. The Cromwells acquired great wealth as occasional beneficiaries of Thomas's administration of the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Morgan ap William was a son of William ap Yevan of Wales. The family line continued through Richard Williams (alias Cromwell) , ( c. 1500–1544), Henry Williams (alias Cromwell) , ( c. 1524 – 6 January 1604), then to Oliver's father Robert Williams, alias Cromwell ( c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward ( c. 1564–1654), probably in 1591. They had ten children, but Oliver,
12865-417: The fifth child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Cromwell's paternal grandfather, Sir Henry Williams, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire . Cromwell's father was of modest means but still a member of the landed gentry . As a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300
13020-551: The final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under George Monck sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children. Scotland was ruled from England during the Commonwealth and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-Royalist uprising in 1653–55, which
13175-693: The first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall . Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War . Cromwell and Fairfax took the Royalists' formal surrender at Oxford in June. In February 1647, Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time he recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over
13330-526: The first students graduating a week later. At the opening of the university, accommodation was provided in the Archdeacon's Inn (now Cosin's Hall ); in 1837 an order of the Queen-in-Council was issued granting the university use of Durham Castle , which had previously been a palace of the Bishop of Durham, for further accommodation. In 1846, Bishop Hatfield 's Hall (later to become Hatfield College )
13485-497: The funds being privately supplied by Prime Minister Lord Rosebery . Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William Steward. The family's estate derived from Oliver's great-great-grandfather Morgan ap William, a brewer from Glamorgan , Wales, who settled at Putney and married Katherine Cromwell (born 1482), the sister of Thomas Cromwell , who would become
13640-490: The gatehouse, keep, north range and west range of Durham Castle , and multiple listings covering surviving sections of the castle walls around the north of the castle and along the top of the river bank behind Hatfield College and St Cuthbert's Society ) and 79 grade II or II* listed buildings. As of 2023, the estate in Durham includes 112 ha (280 acres) of woodland scrub (with 46 ha (110 acres) of woodland designated as Areas of High Landscape Value, including
13795-545: The godly group of aristocrats in the House of Lords and Members of the House of Commons with whom he had established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the Earls of Essex , Warwick and Bedford , Oliver St John and Viscount Saye and Sele . At this stage, the group had an agenda of reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken
13950-673: The hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on Matthew 23 :37–39 and Romans 11 . At the Whitehall conference of December 1655, he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. The Presbyterian William Prynne , in contrast to the Congregationalist Cromwell,
14105-417: The independent St Chad's and St John's colleges, which are not owned by the university). The insurance reinstatement value was estimated as close to £850 million in 2014. Durham City is the main location of the university and contains all of the colleges and academic departments. The Durham City estate is spread across several different sites. The Bailey and Palace Green form the historic centre of
14260-420: The influence of the Earls of Warwick and Holland . A place in this influential network proved crucial to Cromwell's military and political career. The couple had nine children: Little evidence exists of Cromwell's religion in his early years. His 1626 letter to Henry Downhall, an Arminian minister, suggests that he had yet to be influenced by radical Puritanism. But there is evidence that Cromwell underwent
14415-415: The issue of the King. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by Parliament's failure to pay
14570-564: The land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. On four occasions in letters in 1648 he referred to the story of Gideon 's defeat of the Midianites at Ain Harod. These letters suggest that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with
14725-656: The last Irish Catholic troops capitulated in April 1653 in County Cavan . In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest of the island of Ireland, public practice of Roman Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured. All Catholic-owned land was confiscated under the Act for the Settlement of Ireland of 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. Remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in
14880-524: The last major Scottish Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester . Charles II barely escaped capture and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until 1660. To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi-pronged coordinated attack on Worcester, his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning them. He switched his reserves from one side of
15035-478: The last men's college, became mixed; followed by the women's college of Trevelyan in 1992, leaving the original women's college of St Mary's as the last single-sex college. In 1989 the university opened a fund-raising and alumni office, with a virtual community for alumni. In 1991, a joint venture between the university and the University of Teesside saw the Joint University College on Teesside of
15190-502: The libraries of Durham Cathedral and Ushaw College . Some departments, such as classics and ancient history, also have their own libraries. In February 2017, the university announced a £2 million investment to establish the first residential research library at a UK university in collaboration with Ushaw College and Durham Cathedral and offering access to the collections of all three institutions. The university's Museums, Galleries and Exhibitions manages three museums open to
15345-400: The mace. After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a " sanhedrin " of saints . Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic , Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he
15500-487: The mid 19th century, University of Durham degrees were subject to a religion test and could only be taken by members of the established church. Medical degrees in Newcastle were exempt from this requirement from the start of the affiliation of the medical school, but in Durham it lasted until the revision of the statutes in 1865. Despite the opening of degrees, staff and members of Convocation were still required to be members of
15655-492: The non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end
15810-591: The north bank of the Wear, opposite the Racecourse playing fields and Old Elvet, was home to the School of Education and Hild Bede College. As of 2024, this site is being redeveloped and refurbished with the aim that a 19th college will be established adjacent to Hild Bede. In preparation for redevelopment, departments and facilities were relocated from Leazes Road in 2022, and Hild Bede college moved temporarily to Rushford Court in
15965-498: The north of England for the Parliamentarians but failed to end Royalist resistance. The indecisive outcome of the Second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644 the war still showed no sign of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of
16120-401: The order for the actual beheading, so they brought their dispute to Cromwell...Oliver seized a pen and scribbled out the order, and handed the pen to the second officer, Colonel Hacker who stooped to sign it. The execution could now proceed." Although Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign, Charles I was executed on 30 January 1649. After the King's execution, a republic was declared, known as
16275-484: The other. The Putney Debates broke up without reaching a resolution. The failure to conclude a political agreement with the King led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne , winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing
16430-459: The outbreak of civil war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. Only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish known as Confederate Catholics . In March, the Rump chose Cromwell to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied him in
16585-537: The powers of the executive , to set up regularly elected parliaments, and to restore a non-compulsory episcopalian settlement. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne , thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on
16740-420: The property of their church to the establishment of a University in connection therewith" ( 2 & 3 Will. 4 . c. 19 ) that the university came into being. The act received royal assent from King William IV on 4 July 1832. The university opened on 28 October 1833. In 1834 all but two of the bishops of the Church of England confirmed that they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination. In 1835
16895-487: The province of Connacht . Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as King. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians , some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived". He made
17050-568: The public, all accredited by Arts Council England through the UK Museum Accreditation Scheme, as well as two non-public collections. Total holdings are over 100,000 pieces. Built in the 1960s, the Durham University Oriental Museum grew predominantly from the acquisitions of the university's former School of Oriental Studies. The collection contains over 30,000 objects from Asian art to antiquities, covering
17205-680: The radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly. After Barebone's Parliament was dissolved, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government , closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals . This made Cromwell undertake the "chief magistracy and the administration of government". Later he was sworn as Lord Protector on 16 December, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. Cromwell also changed his signature to 'Oliver P', with
17360-509: The ranks of the Royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment but returning to help secure the victory. After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor, he wrote a famous letter to his brother-in-law . Marston Moor secured
17515-455: The right to private worship of those who fell outside Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I , in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars. There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was
17670-540: The river Severn to the other and then back again. The editor of the Great Rebellion article of the Encyclopædia Britannica (eleventh edition) notes that Worcester was a battle of manoeuvre compared to the early Civil War Battle of Turnham Green , which the English parliamentary armies were unable to execute at the start of the war, and he suggests that it was a prototype for the Battle of Sedan (1870) . In
17825-538: The same year, tensions surfaced again over the Durham–Newcastle divide, with the university court putting forward a proposal to change the name of the university to the "University of Durham and Newcastle". This motion was defeated in convocation (the assembly of members of the university) by 135 votes to 129. Eleven years later, with the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act 1963, King's College became
17980-681: The school of modern languages and cultures and parts of the department of English studies. Durham Students' Union is based in Dunelm House, just north of Elvet Riverside, linked to the peninsula area by Kingsgate Bridge. The Racecourse has university playing fields, including the main cricket ground. While no colleges are based in the Elvet area, it does contain the Parson's Field accommodation for St Cuthbert's Society and Hatfield College's James Barber House and Palmer's Garth accommodation. The Leazes Road site on
18135-654: The social order. Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Tax slightly decreased, and he prioritised peace and ending the First Anglo-Dutch War . England's overseas possessions in this period included Newfoundland , the New England Confederation , the Providence Plantation , the Virginia Colony ,
18290-638: The special and heritage collections. In 2005, designated status was granted by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council to two of the special collections: Bishop Cosin's Library on Palace Green (founded in 1669 and including medieval manuscripts and early printed books) and the Sudan Archive, held in Palace Green Library. In 2012 the university, together with the British Library and Durham Cathedral , purchased Europe's oldest intact book,
18445-505: The subsequent months. In the latter part of the 1640s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in the New Model Army . The Leveller or Agitator movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. These sentiments were expressed in the 1647 manifesto: Agreement of the People . Cromwell and the rest of
18600-406: The surrender of Tenby . The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning; the much stronger castle at Pembroke fell only after an eight-week siege. Cromwell dealt leniently with ex-Royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had formerly been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. Cromwell then marched north to deal with
18755-516: The town surrendered. One of Cromwell's major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery , he persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament. At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II (son of Charles I ) had landed in Scotland from exile in France and been proclaimed King by
18910-470: The town. After taking Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford , Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny put up a fierce defence but was eventually forced to surrender on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow , but Cromwell failed to take Waterford , and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before
19065-595: The university and Professor of Archaeology) and Ken Wade (capacity 260, named after Kenneth Wade , Professor of Chemistry); and the 250 and 500 capacity Lower Mountjoy Teaching and Learning Centre lecture theatres. Elvet Hill, south of the Mountjoy site, has ten of the colleges as well as the Botanic Garden and the vice-chancellor's residence in Hollingside House. It is also home to the Business School and
19220-658: The university and contain five colleges as well as the departments of music, history, classics and ancient history, and theology and religion, the Institute of Advanced Study, Palace Green Library (housing the university's special collections), the archaeological museum , the Durham Union Society , and the Assembly Rooms Theatre . The Bailey is linked to Dunelm House , home of Durham Students' Union in New Elvet, by
19375-427: The university and graduates of St Hild's were the first female graduates from Durham in 1898. During its expansion phase the university also became the first English university to establish relationships with overseas institutions; firstly in 1875 with Codrington College , Barbados, and secondly in early 1876 with Fourah Bay College , Sierra Leone. Under the arrangements the two colleges became affiliated colleges of
19530-473: The university led to the formation of the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC) in 1998 and the separation of teaching responsibilities from UCS. In 2001, two new colleges, John Snow and George Stephenson (after the physician and the engineer ) were established at Stockton, replacing UCS, and the new medical school (operating in association with the University of Newcastle upon Tyne ) accepted its first students. In 2002, her golden jubilee year,
19685-730: The university was criticised for accepting funds from controversial sources, including the government of Iran, the US State Department , the prime minister of Kuwait, and British American Tobacco . The university announced in 2016 that it would relocate the colleges and academic activities currently at the Queen's Campus to Durham City from 2017; with the School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health being transferred to Newcastle University . The Queen's Campus became an International Study Centre to prepare overseas students to study at Durham, run by Study Group . In March 2017 Lord Rees opened
19840-529: The university with their students sitting examinations for and receiving Durham degrees. The landmark event was not met with universal applause, with the London Times stating "it would not be much longer before the University of Durham was affiliated to the Zoo". After nearly a century of affiliation and with the prevailing winds of decolonisation, Fourah Bay became independent of the university in 1968 to form part of
19995-459: The university's Kingsgate Bridge . The Elvet area contains the departments of English studies and philosophy along with the school of modern languages and cultures in the faculty of arts as well as departments of sociology and sport and exercise sciences of the faculty of social sciences and health. While many of the departments are in converted houses, the Elvet Riverside complex is home to
20150-516: The university, along with the relocation of the botanic garden (1970) and the business school (1977). These were not the only developments in the university, however. The Graduate Society, catering for postgraduate students, was founded in 1965 (renamed Ustinov College in 2003) and the Roman Catholic seminary of Ushaw College , which had been in Durham since 1808, was licensed as a hall of residence in 1968 (closed 2011). In 1988 Hatfield,
20305-678: The university, from September 2017. The former John Snow College buildings were sold in 2020 and, from 2022, only the Ebsworth building has been used by the ISC. Durham University Library was founded in January 1833 at Palace Green with a 160-volume donation by the Bishop of Durham, William Van Mildert, and now holds over 1.5 million printed items across four branches: Bill Bryson Library (the main library), Queen's Campus Library, Durham University Business School Library and Palace Green Library, which holds
20460-417: The university, which comprised both Armstrong College (named after Lord Armstrong) and Durham University College of Medicine, quickly grew to outnumber the Durham colleges, despite the addition of two independent Anglican foundations: St Chad's College (1904) and St John's College (1909). A parliamentary bill proposed in 1907 would have fixed the seat of the university in Durham for only ten years, allowing
20615-459: The viaduct area in summer 2024. UPP were announced in May 2024 as the preferred bidders to deliver the refurbishment of Hild Bede and the building of the new 19th college under a design, build, fund and operate model. The Mountjoy site (formerly the Science site) south of New Elvet contains many of the university's departments, including all of the departments in the faculty of science and most of
20770-518: The wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May 1647 Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the King from Parliament's imprisonment. With the King now present, Cromwell was eager to find out what conditions
20925-510: The war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held outposts only in Dublin and Derry . When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After he landed at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the Battle of Rathmines ), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At
21080-459: The war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them ... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General Lawrence Crawford ,
21235-476: The wife of Oliver St John, gives an account of his spiritual awakening at this time. In the letter, Cromwell, describing himself as having been the "chief of sinners", describes his calling as among "the congregation of the firstborn". The letter's language, particularly the inclusion of numerous biblical quotations, shows Cromwell's belief that he was saved from his previous sins by God's mercy, and indicates his religiously Independent beliefs, chief among them that
21390-523: The world heritage site includes Durham Castle, Palace Green and the surrounding buildings including the historic Cosin's Library . Current and emeritus academics as of 2018 included 15 Fellows of the Royal Society , 18 Fellows of the British Academy , 16 Fellows of the Academy of Social Sciences , 5 Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , 3 Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts , 2 Fellows of
21545-565: The wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime. In late 1654, Cromwell launched the Western Design armada against the Spanish West Indies , and in May 1655 captured Jamaica . As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the Jewish community's involvement in the economics of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of
21700-587: Was an English statesman, politician, and soldier, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in British history. He came to prominence during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , initially as a senior commander in the Parliamentarian army and latterly as a politician. A leading advocate of the execution of Charles I in January 1649, which led to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England , he ruled as Lord Protector from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. Although elected MP for Huntingdon in 1628 , much of Cromwell's life prior to 1640
21855-442: Was appointed commander of the New Model Army cavalry under Sir Thomas Fairfax , and played a key role in winning the English Civil War . The death of Charles I and exile of his son , followed by military victories in Ireland and Scotland , firmly established the Commonwealth and Cromwell's dominance of the new regime. In December 1653, he was named Lord Protector, a position he retained until his death in September 1658, when he
22010-438: Was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech during the assembly on 4 July, Cromwell thanked God's providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time." The Nominated Assembly, sometimes known as
22165-425: Was founded around 1900 after the model of the College of Medicine SRC (in Newcastle). The Durham University SRC was formed in 1907 with representatives from the Durham Colleges, the College of Medicine, and Armstrong College (also in Newcastle). In 1963, after the creation of Newcastle University , the Durham Colleges SRC became the Durham University SRC, and was renamed as the Durham Students' Union in 1970. Until
22320-411: Was founded in 1888 for non-collegiate, mostly mature, male students as a non-residential society run by the students themselves. Two teacher-training colleges – St Hild's for women, established in 1858, and The College of the Venerable Bede for men, established in 1839, also existed in the city and these merged to form the mixed College of St Hild and St Bede in 1975. From 1896 these were associated with
22475-411: Was founded, providing the opportunity for students to obtain affordable lodgings with fully catered communal eating, a revolutionary idea at the time, endorsed by a Royal Commission in 1862 and later spread to other universities. Those attending University College were expected to bring a servant with them to deal with cooking, cleaning and so on. The level of applications to Bishop Hatfield's Hall led to
22630-432: Was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament —instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened
22785-423: Was in the trained bands, the local county militia. He recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of silver plate from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the King. Cromwell and his troop then rode to, but arrived too late to take part in, the indecisive Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642–43, making up part of
22940-447: Was marked by failure. He briefly contemplated emigration to New England , but became a religious Independent in the 1630s and thereafter believed his successes were the result of divine providence . In 1640, Cromwell was returned as MP for Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments . He joined the Parliamentarian army when the First English Civil War began in August 1642 and quickly demonstrated his military abilities. In 1645, he
23095-454: Was put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there. Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish Church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously. Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of 1649 until 1651, and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their "common cause". Cromwell tried to galvanise
23250-415: Was signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (the third to sign it). Though it was not unprecedented, execution of the King, or regicide , was controversial, if for no other reason than the doctrine of the divine right of kings . Thus, even after a trial, it was difficult to get ordinary men to go along with it: "None of the officers charged with supervising the execution wanted to sign
23405-429: Was succeeded by his son Richard , whose weakness led to a power vacuum . This culminated in the 1660 Stuart Restoration , after which Cromwell's body was removed from Westminster Abbey and displayed at Tyburn . His head was placed on a spike outside the Tower of London , where it remained for 30 years, and ultimately reburied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge , in 1960. Winston Churchill described Cromwell as
23560-399: Was surrendered to the Crown in 1545 following the Reformation. The strong tradition of theological teaching in Durham gave rise to various attempts to form a university within the city itself, notably under King Henry VIII and then under Oliver Cromwell , who issued letters patent and nominated a proctor and fellows for the establishment of a college in 1657 . However, a proposal to allow
23715-404: Was unchanged. The same year, St Mary's College had its first mixed undergraduate intake. In October 2006, Josephine Butler College opened its doors to students as Durham's newest college – the first purpose-built self-catering college for students within Durham. This was the first new college to open in Durham itself since the creation of Collingwood in the 1970s. In May 2010, Durham joined
23870-449: Was unveiled by Iain Stewart at the pedestrian entrance to Lower Mountjoy at the junction of South Road and Stockton Road, near the Bill Bryson Library. Development of the Upper Mountjoy site started with construction of the psychology building in 1970, followed by the Mountjoy Research Centre, built in 1984 for the University of Durham Industrial Research Laboratories (now the Mountjoy Centre, housing university service departments), and
24025-532: Was widowed, and his seven sisters unmarried, he would have been needed at home to help his family. Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665) on 22 August 1620 at St Giles-without-Cripplegate , Fore Street, London. Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather-merchant who owned extensive lands in Essex and had strong connections with Puritan gentry families there. The marriage brought Cromwell into contact with Oliver St John and leading members of London's merchant community, and behind them
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