128-541: The Imouraren mine is a large mine located in the northern part of Niger in Agadez Region , about 80 km (50 mi) south of Arlit . Imouraren represents one of the largest uranium reserves in Niger having estimated reserves of 109.1 million tonnes of ore grading 0.06% uranium . It is the site of a uranium mining project involving French company Areva and SOPaMin (Société du Patrimoine des Mines du Niger on behalf of
256-656: A 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day. The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower soil moisture and vegetative cover ”. Dust storms can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more. They can pollute open water, reduce
384-531: A French-style semi-presidential system . This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year. The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs. After winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn into office on 22 December 1999 as
512-592: A Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed. Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later. Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under
640-522: A burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered. The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the Aïr Mountains , Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane , Mammanet and Dabous ; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'. By at least
768-405: A combination of natural processes and human activities. The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of
896-469: A further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to found the so-called 'Banza ( illegitimate ) Bakwai': Zamfara , Kebbi , Nupe , Gwari , Yauri , Ilorin and Kwararafa . A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni , centred on Birni-N'Konni . The Fulani (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s. During
1024-457: A group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion ), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000). The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for
1152-453: A large group of IS-GS militants assaulted a Nigerien military base at Chinagodrar, in Niger's Tillabéri Region , killing at least 89 Nigerien soldiers. On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a peaceful transition of power . No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. Per
1280-419: A major role in determining the biological composition of the soil , studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. Early studies argued one of
1408-468: A military unit in the capital, Niamey . Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected president Mohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident. On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger . Late on 26 July 2023, a coup by the military overthrew Bazoum, putting an end to
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#17328586958421536-567: A new military agreement, and the US agreed to withdraw troops from Niger following the termination of a Niger–US agreement that had allowed US personnel to be stationed in the country. Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to
1664-651: A number of changes such as the introduction of pottery (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli . As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out , forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east. Agriculture spread, including the planting of millet and sorghum , and pottery production. Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at Azawagh , Takedda , Marendet and
1792-489: A number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009. The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country. In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency , which was opposed by other political parties, and went against
1920-560: A number of smaller kingdoms. In c. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez . Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591. In
2048-437: A probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees. In Mongolia , the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources, the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve
2176-1011: A result of human activity and the effects of climate change . At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries , where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. Geographic areas most affected are located in Africa ( Sahel region), Asia ( Gobi Desert and Mongolia ) and parts of South America . Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. Effects of desertification include sand and dust storms , food insecurity , and poverty . Methods of mitigating or reversing desertification include improving soil quality , greening deserts , managing grazing , and tree-planting ( reforestation and afforestation ). Throughout geological history,
2304-498: A result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in sulfate emissions have caused a re-greening of the region. This has led some scholars to argue that agriculture-induced vegetation loss is a minor factor in desertification. Human population dynamics have a considerable impact on overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques have become unsustainable. There are multiple reasons farmers use intensive farming as opposed to extensive farming but
2432-519: A second language and by a minority of the population; ten indigenous languages have the status of national language , of which Hausa is the most spoken one. According to the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report of 2023, Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world. Some non-desert portions of the country undergo periodic drought and desertification . The economy is concentrated around subsistence agriculture , with some export agriculture in
2560-506: A series of droughts. While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction of groundnut cultivation. Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced. During the Second World War , during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany , Charles de Gaulle issued
2688-559: A six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996. Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign. Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an IMF and World Bank -approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by
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#17328586958422816-463: A year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested. Issoufou's time in office was marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict , an insurgency in western Niger by al-Qaeda and Islamic State , the spillover of Nigeria's Boko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger, and
2944-455: Is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs. Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity . Some countries have developed biodiversity action plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna . Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating
3072-608: Is broad consensus among linguists that it does not derive from the Latin niger ' black ' as was first erroneously believed. The standard pronunciation in English is / n iː ˈ ʒ ɛər / , while in some Anglophone media / ˈ n aɪ dʒ ər / is also used. Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous , Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region . Some of these finds have been linked with
3200-454: Is mostly due to the climate conditions before the growing season, which influence the rate of evapotranspiration and subsequent plant growth. The expansion of the Gobi is attributed mostly to human activities, locally driven by deforestation , overgrazing , and depletion of water resources, as well as to climate change . South America is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of
3328-466: Is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century, under the "moderate" and high-warming Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America,
3456-554: Is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely. To limit desertification, the Great Green Wall (Africa) initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 km, 15 km wide, involving 22 countries to 2030. The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to
3584-484: Is the Niger River , with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2,022 m (6,634 ft). Niger's terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes , with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north. Desertification Desertification is a type of gradual land degradation of fertile land into arid desert due to
3712-453: Is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many smallholder farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where subsistence farming is common. Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing subsidies to help encourage adoption of this technique. Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with
3840-411: Is useful is contour trenching . This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld. Enriching of
3968-464: Is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km or 594 mi), and Mali at 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km (390 mi) and Benin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km (220 mi). The lowest point in Niger
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4096-472: The Algerian War . Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception of Dahomey (Benin), owing to a border dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964. In
4224-638: The Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC. It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. During the prehistoric African humid period , the climate of the Sahara was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding. The Neolithic era, beginning circa 10,000 BC, saw
4352-513: The Bayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo. Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or ( Abu Yazid according to certain historians) who came from Baghdad . The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were: Daura (state of queen Daurama ), Kano , Rano , Zaria , Gobir , Katsina and Biram . An extension of the legend states that Bawo had
4480-596: The Nigerien Progressive Party ( Parti Progressiste Nigérien , or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or Rassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori , as was the left-wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA), led by Djibo Bakary . Following the Overseas Reform Act ( Loi Cadre ) of 23 July 1956 and
4608-778: The North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon , caused by an approximately 40,000-year cycle in which the axial tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°). Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long. Lake Chad , located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall. The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants. Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it
4736-453: The Oudney - Denham - Clapperton expedition (1822–25), Heinrich Barth (1850–55 with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg ), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865–1867), Gustav Nachtigal (1869–1874) and Parfait-Louis Monteil (1890–1892). Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of
4864-569: The Sahara . Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million lives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner along the namesake Niger River . Following the spread of Islam to the region, Niger was on the fringes of some states, including the Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Mali Empire before more significant parts of its territory became included in states such as
4992-540: The Sultanate of Agadez and the Songhai Empire . It was colonized by France during the Scramble for Africa as part of French West Africa , becoming a distinct colony in 1922. Since obtaining independence in 1960, Niger has experienced five coups d'état and four periods of military rule . Niger's seventh and most recent constitution was enacted in 2010, establishing a multiparty, unitary semi-presidential system. Following
5120-535: The Termit Massif . The Kiffian (circa 8000–6000 BC) and later Tenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period. Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the Bura culture (circa 200–1300 AD) named for the Bura archaeological site where
5248-568: The Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu —with the aim of linking France's African possessions. The three eventually met at Kousséri (in the far north of Cameroon ) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the Battle of Kousséri . The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger. On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for
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5376-474: The government of Niger ). The U3O8 ore grade at nearby SOMAIR is 14,000 tons at 0.3%, COMINAK is 29,000 t at 0.4% and Imouraren 120,000t at 0.15%. In 2009 an operating permit was issued and excavations began in 2012. However the project was suspended in 2015 due to low uranium prices in the wake of the Fukushima nuclear disaster . In early 2023, French nuclear fuel cycle company Orano started exploring
5504-399: The northeast , Chad to the east , Nigeria to the south , Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest , Mali to the west , and Algeria to the northwest . It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km (490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and the second largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in
5632-452: The 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery by Mossi , Wolof , Tuareg and Songhai peoples. A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s. The Songhai Empire was named for its main ethnic group, the Songhai or Sonrai , and was centred on
5760-601: The 1600s. As detailed in the Epic of Sundiata , Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the Sosso Empire which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire . Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240. From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during
5888-524: The 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were attached to Niger in 1926–1927, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–1947 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger; and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931. The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within
6016-529: The 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime. The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme , with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987. The first action of
6144-404: The 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert. This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and
6272-478: The Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold). The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them. The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to
6400-528: The Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised French Union . The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that
6528-479: The Earth. Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate. There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid- Holocene was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population. Research into desertification is complex, and there
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#17328586958426656-584: The Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing , reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city. In Mongolia , around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas. During
6784-542: The Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of what later became Niger. Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua ). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by
6912-404: The Mongolia government has listed forest fires , blights , unsustainable forestry and mining activities as leading causes of desertification in the country. The transition from sheep to goat farming in order to meet export demands for cashmere wool has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers. To mitigate
7040-550: The Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks. Another rebellion, led by dissatisfied Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country. In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into
7168-542: The Restoration of Democracy , headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011. Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and presidential elections a year later, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was then re-elected in 2016. The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished
7296-410: The Seventh Republic and the government of Prime Minister Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou . On 28 July, General Abdourahamane Tchiani was proclaimed as the de facto head of state of the country. Former finance minister Ali Lamine Zeine was declared the new Prime Minister of Niger . The coup was condemned by ECOWAS, which in the 2023 Nigerien crisis threatened to use military intervention to reinstate
7424-669: The bend of the Niger River in Mali . Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries; by the 11th century Gao (capital of the former Kingdom of Gao ) had become the empire's capital. From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375. Under king Sonni Ali (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during
7552-580: The blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905 – March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements. While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France
7680-701: The buildup to the August ECOWAS deadline, the junta requested help from the Russian Wagner Group , though Wagner mercenaries were not known to have entered the country as a result. In October the junta expelled French troops from the country, presenting the move as a step towards sovereignty from the former colonial power, and in December it suspended cooperation with the Francophonie alleging its promotion of French interests. UN resident coordinator Louise Aubin
7808-655: The colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy. The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger. Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region (1905–1906), led by
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#17328586958427936-471: The constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system , the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest. In a coup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led by Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term. The Supreme Council for
8064-458: The constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists. The north saw the outbreak of a Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice (MNJ). With
8192-644: The constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission. At the start of 2021 with the Tchoma Bangou and Zaroumdareye massacres , IS-GS began killing civilians en masse. On 21 March 2021, the IS-GS militants attacked several villages around Tillia , killing 141 people, mostly civilians. On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an attempted coup by
8320-407: The continent. This process, known as the ' Scramble for Africa ', culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River (roughly equivalent to the present territory of Mali and Niger). France then set about making a reality of their rule on
8448-612: The country. The origin of the river's name is uncertain. Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy wrote descriptions of the wadi Gir (in neighbouring modern Algeria ) and the Ni-Gir ' Lower Gir ' to the south, possibly referring to the Niger River. The modern spelling Niger was first recorded by Berber scholar Leo Africanus in 1550, possibly derived from the Tuareg phrase the (e)gărăw-n-gărăwăn meaning ' river of rivers ' . There
8576-532: The cultural-linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles what later became the Niger-Nigeria border . The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded. They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as
8704-569: The decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers. The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of
8832-666: The development of deserts has occurred naturally over long intervals of time. The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the 1980s drought in the Sahel . Desertification is a gradual process of increased soil aridity . Desertification has been defined in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities." Definition of Desert – That area of
8960-470: The earth where the sum of rain and snowfall is much less than other areas, where the annual average rainfall is less than 25CM. Definition by UNO (1995) – Land degradation in barren, humid and sub-humid areas due to climate change and human activities is called desertification. As of 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term desertification with more than 100 formal definitions in existence. The most widely accepted of these
9088-411: The effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation. Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse. Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten
9216-652: The establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community . On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance. On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960; Diori thus became
9344-508: The face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system . On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when
9472-702: The financial impact of desertification in Inner Mongolia , Bai Jingying teaches women how to do traditional embroidery, which they then sell to provide additional income. The Gobi Desert is expanding through desertification, most rapidly on the southern edge into China, which is seeing 3,600 km (1,390 sq mi) of grassland overtaken every year. Dust storms increased in frequency between 1996 and 2016, causing further damage to China's agriculture economy. However, in some areas desertification has been slowed or reversed. The northern and eastern boundaries between desert and grassland are constantly changing. This
9600-465: The first president of the country. For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation. Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in
9728-663: The first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin. In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey , Diffa , and Nguigmi , and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by
9856-543: The following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts. When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French ( see below ). To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for a period. It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in Njimi , north-east of
9984-528: The future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government ; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated
10112-659: The government of Bazoum if the coup leaders did not by 6 August. The deadline passed without military intervention, though ECOWAS imposed sanctions, including cuts of Nigerian energy exports to Niger which had previously provided 70–90% of Niger's power. In November the coup-led governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger formed the Alliance of Sahel States in opposition to potential military intervention. On 24 February 2024 several ECOWAS sanctions against Niger were dropped, reportedly for humanitarian and diplomatic reasons, and Nigeria agreed to resume electricity exports to Niger. In
10240-431: The government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups. The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane ,
10368-490: The gradual and rapid ecosystem changes caused by land use. The study found that, between 1982 and 2015, 6% of the world's drylands underwent desertification driven by unsustainable land use practices compounded by anthropogenic climate change. Despite an average global greening , anthropogenic climate change has degraded 12.6% (5.43 million km ) of drylands, contributing to desertification and affecting 213 million people, 93% of who live in developing economies . There has been
10496-654: The ground. In 1897, the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger. He reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898, and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo , the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and
10624-624: The head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly. President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying
10752-619: The inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries , where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to
10880-451: The inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil). The bioengineering of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as
11008-562: The invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr , it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France. Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom , a Zarma polity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states. In the 19th century, some European explorers travelled in the area that would become known as Niger, such as Mungo Park (in 1805–1806),
11136-474: The lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of the Sayfawa dynasty which began in c. 1075 under Mai (king) Hummay . The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, including Bilma and Kaouar ,
11264-723: The land is classified as drylands and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay, greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America, drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1,000 km of land have been lost yearly due to desertification. In Argentina , desertification has
11392-662: The land. Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates. There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN SDG 15 to combat desertification and restore affected lands. Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded,
11520-571: The later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio (from Gobir) declared a jihad in 1804. After conquering most of Hausaland (though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained independent), he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809. Some of
11648-407: The less arid south, and the export of raw materials , including uranium ore . It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, low literacy rate , jihadist insurgencies , and the world's highest fertility rates due to birth control not being used and the resulting rapid population growth . The name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of
11776-412: The life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall. Global food security is being threatened by desertification. The more that population grows , the more food that has to be grown. The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another. For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food. Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of
11904-442: The main reason is to maximize yields. By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread. Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in solar insolation due to orbital precession of
12032-661: The marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development. Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and slums . The number of these environmental refugees grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing
12160-410: The military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic. Maïnassara headed a Conseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out
12288-553: The military government was to address the food crisis. Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished. Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in Agadez Region . Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there
12416-535: The most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock. However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial. Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale sea surface temperature variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective sulphate particles ) and greenhouse gases. As
12544-404: The most recent coup in 2023 , the country is once again under a military junta . Its society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state. The Hausa are the country's largest ethnic group, making up more than half the population. French is the country's official language, although it is spoken mainly as
12672-448: The north and Chad to the east. Niger lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N , and longitudes 0° and 16°E . Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size of France , and the world's 21st largest country. Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border
12800-490: The northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia". Drylands cover 41% of the earth's land surface and include 45% of the world's agricultural land. These regions are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to anthropogenic climate and land use change and are under threat of desertification. An observation-based attribution study of desertification was carried out in 2020 which accounted for climate change, climate variability , CO 2 fertilization as well as both
12928-515: The option of opening the mine using the in-situ recovery (ISR) method of extraction, which uses a leaching solution pumped through boreholes drilled into the deposit. There are concerns this and other mines are a danger to the area's water supply. Niger Niger , officially the Republic of the Niger , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to
13056-546: The overall direction of a single party (the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement , or MNSD). A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989. General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989. President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in
13184-413: The period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C. The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia's land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change. In addition,
13312-586: The physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then. There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert". The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays
13440-511: The potential to disrupt the nation's food supply. Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing desertification. For some of these measures, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason. One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue
13568-485: The previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992. Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993. Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995, and an economic slump. The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting
13696-566: The project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region. Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over 3,600 square kilometres (1,400 square miles) of grassland into wasteland annually. Although
13824-468: The reign of Askia Mohammad I (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez which was conquered in 1496. The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into
13952-474: The resistance of queen Sarraounia , captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history". The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he
14080-446: The rule in the Sahel region. The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years; the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable. The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years, oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in
14208-477: The rule of Mai Idris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland. Circa 1730–40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram , centred on
14336-413: The rule of Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337). At this point parts of what are now Niger's Tillabéri Region fell under Malian rule. A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the hajj in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread of Islam in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion". The empire began "declining" in
14464-432: The soil , studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. This spread of arid areas is caused by a variety of factors, such as overexploitation of soil as
14592-402: The soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, succulents (such as Opuntia ), and food crops/trees as grains , barley , beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion. Another way to restore soil fertility
14720-444: The soil is often done through the use of shelter belts , woodlots and windbreaks . Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration . Some soils (for example, clay ), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops. Another technique that
14848-608: The south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906. The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony within French West Africa . The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by
14976-539: The spread of Islam . It was aided by the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south. Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires. The Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita (r. 1230–1255) in c. 1230 and existed until
15104-492: The total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometers, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification. The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the Sahel region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year). So, droughts are
15232-538: The town of Zinder . The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion. The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate ( see below ), and was later captured by the French in 1899. Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms , encompassing
15360-469: The trade unions. Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime. In unknown circumstances (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999. Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with
15488-646: The use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (often organised by people-smuggling gangs ). French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats. On 10 December 2019, a large group of fighters belonging to the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (IS-GS) attacked a military post in Inates , killing over seventy soldiers and kidnapping others. The attack was the deadliest single incident Niger's military has ever experienced. On 9 January 2020,
15616-472: The world's food production. Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing. In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria , Sudan , Mali and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change , land degradation and population growth . At least 90% of
15744-522: Was also expelled in October after the junta alleged "underhanded maneuvers" by U.N secretary-general António Guterres to prevent the country's participation in the UN General Assembly. In October the U.S. officially designated the takeover as a coup, suspending most Niger–US military cooperation as well as hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign assistance programs. In April 2024, Russian military trainers and equipment began to arrive in Niger under
15872-413: Was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish. In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime. The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and IMF -led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens. In 1985,
16000-466: Was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland , Klobb's former officer, and Lt. Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed. The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony (later Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey . The border with Britain's colony of Nigeria to
16128-605: Was that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation , drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture". This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification. However, this original understanding that desertification involved
16256-572: Was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906. Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916–1917, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen , with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan ; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed. A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by
16384-525: Was under Kanem's control in this period. Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries. Attacks by the Bulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on what is later the Niger-Nigeria border . Bornu "prospered" during
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