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88-706: The Ibom or Mbot Abasi Kingdom was a kingdom by the Ibibio people with its seat of government in Obot Okon Ita . The Mbot Abasi kingdom was located in present day Arochukwu , Abia State in Nigeria . Around 1630, a group of Igbo from Abiriba known as the Eze Agwu arrived in Ibom. This caused long term conflict and a stalemate known as the Aro-Ibibio Wars . Before Igbo arrival in

176-407: A certain point in the size devolution of the manilla. Mkporo are made of brass. The weight correspondence of the oval-foot Nkobnkob with the high end of the round-foot range suggests that it is either the earlier variety, or contemporary with the earliest round-foots. The exclusive presence of the 'square-foot' variety of French Popo, normally scarce among circulation groups of Popos, suggests that this

264-543: A convenient way, but are not a new form of expression. Substances such as the atido were used for eyelid decoration long before modern eye shadow. As in many other cultures around the world, Ibibio women generally put heavy emphasis on the eye when it comes to make-up. Hair styles are another way for the Ibibio to symbolically mark certain occasions. Styles of hair in Ibibioland include both elaborate braiding with and without

352-547: A form of commodity money , usually made of bronze or copper , which were used in West Africa . They were produced in large numbers in a wide range of designs, sizes, and weights. Originating before the colonial period, perhaps as the result of trade with the Portuguese Empire , manillas continued to serve as money and decorative objects until the late 1940s and are still sometimes used as decoration on arms, legs and around

440-618: A part of the Eastern Nigeria of Nigeria under British colonial rule. During the Nigerian Civil War , the Eastern region was split into three states. The then-Southeastern State of Nigeria was where the Ibibio were located, it was created from the original twelve states of Nigeria after Nigerian independence. The "Southeastern State" was later renamed Cross River State . On 23 September 1987, by Military Decree No.24, Akwa Ibom State

528-746: A pre-funeral "dying ceremony." Unlike the smaller money-manillas, their range was not confined to west Africa. A distinctive brass type with four flat facets and slightly bulging square ends, ranging from about 50 ounces (1,400 g)-150 ounces (4,300 g), was produced by the Jonga of Zaire and called 'Onganda', or 'onglese', phonetic French for "English.". Other types which are often called manillas include early twisted heavy-gauge wire pieces (with and without "knots") of probable Calabar origin, and heavy, multi-coil copper pieces with bulging ends from Nigeria. The Native Currency Proclamation of 1902 in Nigeria prohibited

616-446: A red substance. People's palms, feet, legs, and faces are decorated with the pigment. The Ibibio use it partially for its bleaching effect. After continuous usage, it produces a smooth and light skin complexion. Modern versions of face and body decoration such as eye shadow, lipstick, and eyeliner are used by contemporary Ibibio people. Body decoration has a long history in the Ibibio and these products help their cultural expression in

704-408: A single evolving Birmingham product. An important hoard had a group of 72 pieces with similar patination and soil crusting, suggesting common burial. There were 7 Mkporo; 19 Nkobnkob-round foot; 9 Nkobnkob-oval foot; and 37 Popo-square foot. The lightest 'Nkobnkobs' in the hoard were 108 gm and 114 gm, while they are routinely found (called Onoudu) under 80 gm, this implies that the group was buried at

792-457: A six-month period of withdrawal. People were permitted to keep a maximum of 200 for ceremonies such as marriages and burials. Only Okpoho , Okombo and abi were officially recognised and they were 'bought in' at 3d., 1d. and a halfpenny respectively. 32.5 million Okpoho , 250,000 okombo , and 50,000 abi were handed in and exchanged. A metal dealer in Europe purchased 2,460 tons of manillas, but

880-573: A subgroup of the Ekoi people (the Ejagham). This was premised on the fact that among the Ibibio people, Usak Edet is popularly known as Edit Afaha (Afaha's Creek) which reflects the fact that Ibibio people originated from Usak Edet. After the first bulk of the people arrived in what later became Nigeria, they settled first at Ibom. It is believed that the Ibibio were the aboriginal people of Ibom settlement, founded by their forefathers, Ibom , after whom they named

968-468: A thoroughgoing mechanism for self-rule, maintenance of law and order, and effective political organization : Using some elements of culture and socio-religious organizations such as Ekpo , Ebre, Ibaan Isong, Ekong, Ikpa—udoh and many others to enforce law and order and to put the masses of the population under control. The Ibibio people are found predominantly in Akwa Ibom State and are related to

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1056-603: Is 80 leagues (sic) long by 40 leagues (sic) broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper manillas. By 1522 in Benin a female slave 16 years of age cost 50 manillas; the King of Portugal put a limit of 40 manillas per slave to stop this inflation. Earliest report on the use of Manillas in Africa points to its origin in Calabar

1144-499: Is a general understanding of their opposing relationship. Feminine masks are decorated with light colors such as white. Their features are delicate to emphasize their femininity. On the other hand, masculine masks use dark colors to represent the mystic forces of the forest. These masks often have large features and are created to be intentionally ugly. They achieve this by distorting the features in unnatural manners such as having bulging eyes or misplaced mouths. Many deformities present in

1232-489: Is a town in Nigeria known for its marketplace in which crafts are sold to both tourists and middle-class Nigerians. While the Ibibio are not known for metalworking , there is a significant number of craftspeople making this type of art to be sold. Most metalwork objects produced have a practical purpose rather than a decorative one. Despite this, Ibibio coffins tend to be highly decorative. They feature ornamental painted metal motifs, colorful plastic sheets, and glass panels on

1320-404: Is called Ukpong Ikot, or bush-soul. The shadow is not thought to be connected with the ethereal body but to be an emanation of the soul and therefore to be directly affected by any action on it. The majority of the Ibibio believe that a person's soul can be invoked into his shadow, which is made to appear in a basin of water. The shadow is then speared, his blood is seen in the water in the basin and

1408-568: Is of no coincidence that their ancient Kingdom was originally known as Akwa Akpa . The words Akwa, Aqua, Kwa, Qua are common names for places, rivers, in both Akwa Ibom State and in Cross River State. Today, one of the towns in Arochukwu , Abia state is called Ibom . Ibom is also where the famous Ibini Ukpabi oracle is located. Ibibio people The Annang , Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and traditions with

1496-408: Is open to all Ibibio males, but one must have access to wealth to move into the politically influential grades. The main purpose of Ekpo is to protect its people and act as a defense against potential attackers. They are concerned with issues and emergencies that pertain to the safety of the town as a whole. In addition, it serves as an outlet for men to productively use energy to benefit everyone. In

1584-719: Is referred to as Ikono Ibom Uyo, a clan carved out of the main Ikono Ibom. Iman Ibom moved to Ekom Iman, now in Etinan Local Government Area and Nsit Ibom moved to Afia Nsit now in Nsit Ibom . The three regards themselves as blood brothers and children of Ibom . The three children of Ibom upon their final settlement, Etefia who is the principal actor in Ikono Ibom Uyo clan, settled in Ikot Oku Ikono and founded

1672-509: Is that Nigerian fishermen brought them up in their nets from the shipwrecks of European wrecks or made them from the copper 'pins' used in wooden sailing ships wrecked in the Bight of Benin. One theory is that if indigenous, they copied a splayed-end Raffia cloth bracelet worn by women, another that the Yoruba mondua with its bulbous ends inspired the manilla shape. Metal bracelets and leg bands were

1760-437: Is the earliest variety. The earliest French manillas as likely to be contemporaries of the earliest British pieces. Sometimes distinguished from manillas mainly by their wearability are a large number of regional types called 'Bracelet' monies and 'Legband' monies. Some are fairly uniform in size and weight and served as monies of account like manillas, but others were actually worn as wealth display. The less well off would mimic

1848-566: Is well versed in Greek. The masks and accoutrements of the Ekpo society make up the greatest works of art in Ibibio society. Ibibio often purposefully play with proportions in their masks to distort the face. A component that appears often in Ibibio masks is an articulated lower jaw. Ibibio people have an overarching theme of contrasting male and female masks by using dark and light colors respectively. These masks are not always performed together, but there

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1936-610: The Ikpaisong . The Obong Ikpaisong ruled with the Mbong Ekpuk ('head of the families'), which together with the heads of the cults and societies constitute the Afe, Asan, or Esop Ikpaisong ('traditional council, shrine, or court'). The decisions of the Obong Ikpaisong were enforced by members of the Ekpo or Obon society who act as messengers of the spirits and the military and police of

2024-551: The Annang community, the Ibibio community and the Eket , although other groups usually understand the Ibibio language . Because of the larger population of the Ibibio people, they hold political control over Akwa Ibom State, but the government is shared with the Annangs, Eket and Oron. The political system follows the traditional method of consensus . Even though elections are held, practically,

2112-705: The Green Sahara . The gradual movement of the Proto Ibibio to the Cross River Region may have been associated with the expansion of Sahel agriculture in the African Neolithic period, following the desiccation of the Sahara in c. 3500 BCE . The Ibibio people are reputed to be one of the earliest inhabitants of southern Nigeria . It is estimated that they arrived at their present home around 1000 B.C. In spite of

2200-421: The 1940s would be killed by members of the Ekpo. It is known as a secret society despite the fact that the purpose and activities are widely known by the village. This is due to the fact that everyone must abide by certain laws during Ekpo season. The most important secrets are a series of code words and dance steps taught to initiates and used by members. Knowing these secrets allows members to travel freely during

2288-647: The Aro territory, a group of proto Ibibio migrated to the area and established the Ibom Kingdom during the Bantu expansion . This proto Ibibio group originally came from Usak Edet ( Isanguele ), a segment of the Ejagham in present-day Southern Cameroon . Ibom is an old word used by the Efik / Ibibio / Annang / Eket people of Nigeria meaning the ancient universe, the cradle earth, or

2376-505: The Birmingham types and have a gradual, rather than sudden, flare to the ends. A class of heavier, more elongated pieces, probably produced in Africa, are often labelled by collectors as "King" or "Queen" manillas. Usually with flared ends and more often copper than brass, they show a wide range of faceting and design patterns. Plainer types were apparently bullion monies, but the fancier ones were owned by royalty and used as bride price and in

2464-574: The Dutch came to dominate the Africa trade, they are likely to have switched manufacture from Antwerp to Amsterdam , continuing the "brass" manillas, although, as stated, we have as yet no way to positively identify Dutch manillas. Trader and traveler accounts are both plentiful and specific as to names and relative values, but no drawings or detailed descriptions seem to have survived which could link these accounts to specific manilla types found today. The metals preferred were originally copper, then brass at about

2552-460: The Ekpo society. This process is commonly used among women. It is often done after the birth of a child. The stains that are left afterwards can stay on the skin for up to three months. Professionals are typically the ones who paint others, and the process may take from five to eight hours to complete. Iduot is another form of body painting which symbolizes fertility. The pigment is taken from crushed camwood and then added to water which produces

2640-739: The God of the Heaven (Abasi Enyong) and the God of the Earth (Abasi Isong) through various invisible or spiritual entities (me Ndem) of the various Ibibio Division such as Atakpo Ndem Uruan Inyang, Etefia Ikono, Awa Itam, etc. The Priests of these Deities (me Ndem) were the Temple Chief Priests/Priestesses of the various Ibibio Divisions. A particular Ibibio Division could consist of many interrelated autonomous communities or kingdoms ruled by an autonomous Priest-King called Obong-Ikpaisong, assisted by heads of

2728-461: The Ibibio, and speak closely related varieties (dialects) of Ibibio which are more or less mutually intelligible . The Ekpo and societies are a significant part of the Ibibio political system . They use a variety of masks to execute social control . Body art plays a major role in Ibibio art. The predominant paternal haplogroup among the Ibibio is E1b1a1-M2 . The ancestors of the Ibibio originally came from Northeast Africa and moved around

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2816-587: The Ibom. Following the Aro-Igbo-Ibibio war of 1550 A.D, the Ibibio's moved southward and found a virgin and empty land, their present place. The Ibibio first settled in Ikono from where they migrated or dispersed to further places becoming the aboriginal people of the present Ibibio lands. It is at this juncture that Ikono Ibom moved to Ikot Oku Ikono village now in the Uyo Local Government Area, which

2904-510: The Ikono Anyaan and Ikot Ekpeyak Ikono are stock and children of Ikono Ibom, they have shared and similar social, traditional and cultural Milieu. By Ekom Iman is a place which Iman Ibom settled and planted the Ekom tree (coula edulis) from which the name of the settlement is derived, Ekom (coula edulis) planted by Iman one of the sons of Ibom. Iman had children and some of them migrated to expand

2992-495: The Iman Ibom clan such villages like Ikot Obioinyang, Afagha Effiate and the entire Iman Ibom clan. Upon the death of Iman Ibom, his spirit metamorphose into the Iman Ibom clan deity “The Itina Iman deity” and oyot is the clan deity – totem hence it is a taboo to kill or eat such mythical beast and Ebre is the totem of Ikono Ibom clan, they forbid the killing or maiming of this mythical animal. Nsit Ibom moved to Afia Nsit where there

3080-523: The Mbia Idiong told him what the things were and he had offered them as sacrifices to Mother Earth, the Ibibio believed the situation would be reversed; otherwise, he would remain childless. The Ibibio were introduced to Christianity through the work of early missionaries in the nineteenth century. Samuel Bill started his work at Ibeno. He established the Qua Iboe Church which later spread places in

3168-743: The Office concern. In reference to the Obong-Ikpaisong, the word 'Obong' means 'King'. In reference to the Village Head, the word means 'Chief'. In reference to the Head of the Families (Obong Ekpuk), the word means 'Head' In reference to God, the word means 'Lord'. In reference to the Head of the various societies - e.g. 'Obong Obon', the word means 'Head or Leader'. Scattered throughout each village were sacred lands, akai (forest). They were called akai because no one

3256-635: The Supreme Being (Abasi Ibom) by the Constitutional and Religious King/Head of a particular Ibibio Community who was known from the ancient times as the Obong-Ikpaisong (the word 'Obong Ikpaisong' directly interpreted means King of the Principalities of the Earth' or 'King of the Earth and the Principalities' or Traditional Ruler ). The second dimension of Ibibio Religion centered on the worship, consultation, invocation, sacrifice, appeasement, etc. of

3344-439: The animals which abounded in the forests. The explanation is simple. If non-members were allowed to enter any secret society akai they might in due course discover the secrets of their time-honoured society, and wicked people might even desecrate the graves of their ancestors hence the ban. Like many Ibibio words, Ukpong ('soul') has four meanings. First, ethereal body, secondly, soul, thirdly, spirit, and fourthly, over-soul;

3432-685: The capital city of the Cross River State of coastal Southeastern Nigeria. It has been documented that in 1505 at Calabar, (Nigeria) Manillas were being used as a medium of exchange, one manilla being worth a big elephant tooth, and a slave cost between eight and ten manillas. They were also in use on the Benin river in 1589 and again in Calabar in 1688, where Dutch traders bought slaves against payment in rough grey copper armlets which had to be very well made or they would be quickly rejected. In addition to

3520-453: The capital of Akwa Ibom. Published by the 200-year-old, American based International Bible Society (Biblica), the publishers of the NIV Version. The Ibibio Bible was translated by Ibibio professors, including Professors Margaret Mary Okon, Bassey Okon, Eno-Abasi Urua, Inimbom Akpan, Udo Etuk, as well as Dr. Paulinus Noah, Dr. Effiong Ekpenyong and Rev. Fr. Dr. Donatus Udoette, a theologian who

3608-422: The community. The chief will send masked individuals to confront a rule-breaker if the need arises. Ekpo members Ekpo Masquerades are always masked when performing their policing duties. Although their identities are almost always known, fear of retribution from the ancestors prevents most people from accusing those members who overstep their social boundaries, effectively committing police brutality. Membership

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3696-542: The cradle, original or ancient community from which others sprang forth. The word Ibom symbolizes the ancestral, the origin, the cradle, the source and the ancient community or place or area from which other communities or people sprang forth or originated. The Efik were originally from the Ibom Kingdom and might have left before or during the Aro-Ibibio Wars. Akwa Ibom State is one of the present two states created from

3784-405: The dead are transported there. The land of the dead, like that of the living, is believed to be divided into various countries, towns, villages and lineages where different communities of people live as on earth. At death every man goes to the particular part inhabited by his people. The Ibibio believe in obot , that is, the individual creation of persons by God. If someone is wild, they say he

3872-570: The dimensions and weight were reduced to about 250 grams (8.8 oz)-280 grams (9.9 oz). In many places brass, which is cheaper and easier to cast, was preferred to copper, so the Portuguese introduced smaller, yellow manillas made of copper and lead with traces of zinc and other metals. In Benin, Royal Art of Africa , by Armand Duchateau, is a massive manilla of 25 centimetres (9.8 in) across and 4.5 centimetres (1.8 in) gauge, crudely cast with scoop-faceted sides, and well worn. It could be

3960-490: The earliest report, the origin of manillas from Calabar for use in Africa and particularly Nigeria is also confirmed by the African and universal other name for Manillas as Òkpòhò , which is an ( Efik ) word for money which is used throughout this report and in the titles of images in this report. By the early 16th century it was common in the slave trade for bearers to carry manillas to Africa's coast, and gradually manillas became

4048-529: The end of the 15th century and finally bronze in about 1630. Early in the 18th century, Bristol , with companies such as R. & W. King (one of the companies later incorporated into the United African Company), and then Birmingham , became the most significant European brass manufacturing city. It is likely that most types of brass manillas were made there, including the "middle period" Nkobnkob-Onoudu whose weight apparently decreased over time, and

4136-658: The exercise still cost the taxpayer somewhere in the region of £284,000. As curios for the tourist trade and internal 'non-monetary' uses they are still made, often of more modern metals such as aluminium, but the designs are still largely traditional ones. Manillas may be occasionally still used in a few remote villages in Burkina Faso (2000). Internally, manillas were the first true general-purpose currency known in West Africa, being used for ordinary market purchases, bride price, payment of fines, compensation of diviners, and for

4224-409: The forehead, wrists, and ankles as a way to mark mediation. When worn by a diviner , it may mark a connection with himself and the gods as well as his people. Members of a ritual may wear it to symbolize peace, humility, as well as acceptance. Odung is a type of body painting that is used for events such as marriage, childbirth, coming-of-age, and death. It may also be used to show a man's status in

4312-558: The formation of Akwa Ibom settlements in their present location. The most accepted version of Ibibio history described that the Cameroon will offer a more concise explanation of their origin. This was corroborated by oral testimonies by field workers who say that the core Ibibio people were of the Afaha lineage whose original home was Usak Edet in the Cameroons . The Uşak Edet ( Isanguele ) are

4400-534: The goal is to emphasize rather than obscure the wearer's face or other parts of the body. The symbol of the dot plays a key role in the understanding of beauty. Okon Umetuk in his article "Body Art in Ibibio Culture", states that; A 'dot' is regarded as the only perfect mark to indicate and summarize beauty in Ibibio culture. Evidence of this is found in the abundance of dots that appear on the faces and bodies of decorated individuals. An 'X' symbol may be applied to

4488-474: The heaviest (no weight given) and earliest manilla known. However, in the same book is a plaque with a European holding two pieces of very different form, crescent-shaped without flared ends, though apparently heavy if the proportions are correct. Today, pieces of this size and blunt form are associated with the Congo . Between 1504 and 1507, Portuguese traders imported 287,813 manillas from Portugal into Guinea via

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4576-600: The historical account, it is not clear when the Ibibio arrived at the state. According to some scholars, they might have come from the central Benue Valley , particularly, the Jukun influence in the old Calabar at some historical time period. Another pointer is the widespread use of the manila , a popular currency used by the Jukuns. Coupled with this, is the Jukun southern drive to the coast which appears to have been recently compared with

4664-592: The import of manillas except with the permission of the High Commissioner. This was done to encourage the use of coined money. They were still in regular use however and constituted an administrative problem in the late 1940s. The Ibo tribe still used them prior to this and at Wukai a deep bowl of corn was considered equal to one large manilla and a cup-shaped receptacle filled with salt was worth one small manilla . Although manillas were legal tender, they floated against British and French West African currencies and

4752-631: The kingdom of Okrika; the Finniman Fawfinna was passable in Juju Town and Qua Market, but only half the worth of the Antony ; and the Cutta Antony was valued by the people at Umballa . The proliferation of African names is probably due more to regional customs than actual manufacturing specialization. The 'Mkporo' is likely a Dutch or British manilla and the 'Popo' is French, but the rest are examples of

4840-466: The last always lives in the house of Abasi Ibom and it is quite separate from the individuality which between incarnations stays in the country of the dead. Though over-soul and spirit are combined, much of the Spirit is contained in that portion of the ego which is incarnated. According to Talbot, it is the soul proper that spends part of its time as a were-animal or in a bush-beast in the forest or water and

4928-805: The leadership of the Northern Region of Nigeria was able to keep the "Northwestern section" during the plebiscite that is now today's Nigerian Adamawa and Taraba States . Ibibio people are found in all Nigerian states and is one of the Nigerian ethnic group living outside of Nigeria after Yoruba and Igbo. Hence, significant number of Ibibio people reside in Europe and North America as well as other countries. In addition to their state of origin, Akwa Ibom State , significant number of Ibibio are found in: Traditionally Ibibio society consists of communities that are made up of large families with blood affinity each ruled by their constitutional and religious head, known as

5016-466: The man dies. The Ibibio believe that after death the same kind of existence is led as during life on earth; for example, farmers, blacksmiths, hunters, and fishermen will continue with their former occupations while social intercourse and amusements will also proceed as before. The scenery, houses, crops and animals of the next world have the same appearance as in this world but only those beasts, plants and foodstuffs which have been sacrificed in honour of

5104-508: The mask is secured to the wearer's head with a rope, and a horizontal piece of wood may be inserted into the mask in order to bite into. In addition to the raffia on the mask itself, performers also wear a knee-length raffia skirt. The lower legs, arms, and hands are painted with charcoal. New raffia is added to the mask each season, and is displayed in the off-season in a family or village shrine. The Ibibio are known for their woodcarvings , raffia -weavings, and pottery making. Ikot Ekpene

5192-415: The masks come from naturally occurring human diseases and illnesses. One that is often depicted is gangosa , a part of yaws . Signs of baldness and walking sticks also show up often in order to portray symbols of karma and old age. Men's costumes incorporate natural materials from the wilderness such as raffia , and seed pod rattles. Women's costumes use materials such as light colored cloth to represent

5280-407: The mid-19th century, slaves were also slaughtered by the hundreds upon the death of important chiefs, with the belief that they would serve the deceased chief in the afterlife. Ibibio religion (Inam) was of two dimensions, which centered on the pouring of libation , sacrifice, worship, consultation, communication and invocation of the God of Heaven (Abasi Enyong), God of the Earth (Abasi Isong) and

5368-399: The middle belt of Nigeria. Later, other churches were also introduced e.g. The Apostolic church. Independent churches such as Deeper Life Bible Church , came into the area in the second part of the twentieth century. Today Ibibio people are predominantly Christian. History was made on the 27th day of August 2020 that the first-ever Ibibio Bible translation was presented at Ibom Hall in Uyo,

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5456-409: The months of June through December, the Ekpo society plays a large role in the community's life. Many activities such as farming, shopping, and obtaining food and water are prohibited on days in which the masks are out and being performed. Crimes also carry heavier consequences during this time period. While the punishments are lighter today, a person caught stealing during the days of the Ekpo season in

5544-432: The movements of the 'better off' who were so encumbered by the weight of manillas that they moved in a very characteristic way. The larger manillas had a much more open shape. Some sources attribute their introduction to the ancient Phoenicians who traded along the west coast of Africa or even early Carthaginian explorers and traders. The Egyptians have also been suggested as they used penannular money. One suggestion

5632-469: The neck. In popular culture, they are particularly associated with the Atlantic slave trade . The name manilla is said to derive from the Spanish for a 'bracelet' manilla , the Portuguese for 'hand-ring' manilha , or after the Latin manus (hand) or from monilia , plural of monile (necklace). They are usually horseshoe-shaped , with terminations that face each other and are roughly lozenge -shaped. The earliest use of manillas

5720-447: The needs of the next world, as burial money. Cowrie shells , valued at a small fraction of a manilla, were used for small purchases. In regions outside coastal west Africa and the Niger River a variety of other currencies, such as bracelets of more complex native design, iron units often derived from tools, copper rods, themselves often bent into bracelets, and the well-known Handa ( Katanga cross ) all served as special-purpose monies. As

5808-430: The old Akwa Akpa kingdom, Cross River State being the sister state. The people of the Ibom Kingdom also called themselves Mbot Abasi (the people of God). Abasi is the supreme creator god of the Efik, Ibibio, and Annang people. Akwa also spelled Aqua, meaning The Great One or The Essential One is believed to be the ancestor of the people of Ibibio and Efik . Kwa or Qua therefore means Essential One or Great One. It

5896-719: The order of living in the village. The masks of the Ekpo societies were used to elicit fear and execute social control . The most common type of mask is one made for the face with waist-length raffia attached. The effect of the masks and their intimidating quality is part of what gives them their power, in addition to the long history of the Ekpo. To put on an Ekpo mask is to surrender earthly identity and assume an ancestral one. Masks used may be ones owned by deceased ancestors, ones made to look like ancestors, or ones made to resemble to village heroes. Many are carved from lightweight wood called ukot (palm wine tree). This makes them easier to wear and move around in. For additional support,

5984-445: The palm-oil trading companies manipulated their value to advantage during the market season. The British undertook a major recall dubbed "operation manilla" in 1948 to replace them with British West African currency. The campaign was largely successful and over 32 million pieces were bought up and resold as scrap. The manilla, a lingering reminder of the slave trade, ceased to be legal tender in British West Africa on April 1, 1949 after

6072-426: The political leaders are pre-discussed in a manner that is benefiting to all. The Ibibio people are located in eastern part of South-South Nigeria. Prior to the existence of Nigeria as a nation, the Ibibio people were self-governed. Ibibio people and their brothers (the Annang, Oron and Eket) were part of the enclave called Bight of Biafra before the British creation of Eastern Nigeria. The Ibibio people became

6160-526: The principal 'money' and they were usually worn by women to display their husband's wealth. Early Portuguese traders thus found a preexisting and very convenient willingness to accept unlimited numbers of these 'bracelets', and they are referred to by Duarte Pacheco Pereira who made voyages in the 1490s to buy ivory tusks, slaves, and pepper. Describing the exchange, with the Kingdom of Benin , in his, 1508, Esmeraldo de situ orbis : The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which

6248-445: The principal currency of this trade. The Portuguese were soon supplanted aside by the British, French, and Dutch, all of whom had labor-intensive plantations in the West Indies, and later by the Americans. A typical voyage took manillas and utilitarian brass objects such as pans and basins to Western Africa, where they were exchanged for slaves. The price of a slave, expressed in manillas varied considerably according to time, place, and

6336-650: The season, and being caught traveling without knowing the secret terms and dance will result in being arrested. Prior to the gradual abolition of slavery in Nigeria by British colonial authorities beginning in the mid-1880s, Ibibio society ranked people, in descending order, as freeborn ( amanisong ), strangers or later immigrants ( ududung ), and slaves ( ifn ). Slaves were purchased in slave markets or captured through intergroup wars. Often people gave themselves or their children up as slaves when they could no longer provide for themselves or their families. Slaves were used as offerings in regular ritual human sacrifice, and through

6424-469: The sides. Many people who carve Ekpo masks live in Ikot Ekpene. Both temporary and permanent body modifications are used. Rhythm and nature are both considerable motifs at play in the designs. Hairdressing, body painting, and body modification are the main focus of body art performed by the Ibibio. Intentional fattening of young women is another culturally important aspect of the Ibibio. In painting,

6512-521: The slave trade wound down in the 19th century so did manilla production, which was already becoming unprofitable. By the 1890s their use in the export economy centered around the palm-oil trade. Many manillas were melted down by African craftsmen to produce artworks. Manillas were often hung over a grave to show the wealth of the deceased and in the Degema area of Benin some women still wear large manillas around their necks at funerals, which are later laid on

6600-625: The specific type of manilla offered. Copper was the "red gold" of Africa and had been both mined there and traded across the Sahara by Italian and Arab merchants. It is not known for certain what the Portuguese or the Dutch manillas looked like. From contemporary records, we know the earliest Portuguese were made in Antwerp for the monarch and possibly other places, and are about 240 millimetres (9.4 in) long, about 13 millimetres (0.51 in) gauge, weighing 600 grams (21 oz) in 1529, though by 1548

6688-633: The still lighter "late period" types such as Okpoho (from the Efik word for brass) and those salvaged from the Duoro wreck of 1843. Among the late period types, specimen weights overlap type distinctions suggesting contemporary manufacture rather than a progression of types. The Popos, whose weight distribution places them at the transition point between Nkobnkob and Onoudu, were made in Nantes, France, possibly Birmingham as well and were too small to be worn. They are wider than

6776-553: The trading station of São Jorge da Mina . The Portuguese trade increasing over the following decades, with 150,000 manillas a year being exported to the like of their trading fort at Elmina , on the Gold Coast, between 1519 and 1522, and an order for 1.4 million manillas being placed, in 1548, with a German merchant of the Fugger family, to support the trade. The order stipulating the supply of both 250g Guinea and 312g Mina type manilla. As

6864-608: The types they would accept. Manillas were partly differentiated and valued by the sound they made when struck. A report by the British Consul of Fernando Po in 1856 listed five different patterns of manillas in use in Nigeria . The Antony Manilla was good in all interior markets; the Congo Simgolo or 'bottle-necked' was good only at Opungo market; the Onadoo was best for Old Calabar , Igbo country between Bonny New Kalabari and

6952-464: The use of thread. Some styles are symbolic of stories or events that have occurred in the wearer's life. If a married woman has unkempt hair, this indicates that someone she is close to, typically her husband, a child, or another relative, has died. Other styles may be indicative of age, marital status, or social standing. There also exists hairstyles without any meaning that are simply worn for fashion purposes. Manilla (money) Manillas are

7040-634: The various large families (Mbong Ekpuk) which make up the Community. These have been the ancient political and religious system of Ibibio people from time immemorial. Tradition, interpreted in Ibibio Language, is 'Ikpaisong'. Tradition (Ikpaisong) in Ibibio Custom embodies the Religious and Political System. The word 'Obong' in Ibibio language means 'Ruler, King, Lord, Chief, Head' and is applied depending on

7128-731: The village, Ibom . Now in Arochukwu, where they settled for a very long time and worshiped the God of the Sky called Abasi Ibom enyon . They also worshiped Ibini Ukpabi (Ibritam). As a result of clashes with the Igbo people who were moving southward, culminating in the Ibibio War which took place about 1630 and 1720 A.D., they left Ibom Kingdom and moved to the present day Ibibioland. Some village settlement had already been established in their current location alongside

7216-495: The worsening situation. If the instructions were strictly followed, the position could be reversed, they believed. For instance, if a person had no issue a diviner might tell him that he had killed innocent children in his previous incarnation, and that the parents of the deceased and the general public had cursed him, saying that he would not have any issue and would continue to kill innocent children throughout his incarnations unless he gave certain things as sacrificial offerings. When

7304-458: Was carved out of the then Cross Rivers State as a separate state. Cross Rivers State remains as a neighboring and mothering state of Akwa Ibom State. Southwestern Cameroon was a part of the present Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. During the then Eastern Region of Nigeria, parts were partitioned united with Cameroon in a 1961 plebiscite. This resulted in the Ibibio and Annang being divided between Nigeria and Cameroon. However,

7392-459: Was created that way; if he is kind, again that is how he was created by God to be; if he is poor or rich, that was his lot, and so on; effectively, there was nothing anyone could do to alter his lot, for he was moulded that way. The Ibibio also believe in the same way in destiny, essien emana or uwa . For instance, if a person died accidentally, this was how he had died in his previous incarnation and therefore he had to die that way. If he

7480-531: Was in West Africa. As a means of exchange they originated in Calabar . Calabar was the chief city of the ancient southeast Nigerian coastal kingdom of that name. It was here in 1505 that a slave could be bought for 8–10 manillas, and an elephant’s tusk for one copper manila. Manillas bear some resemblance to torcs in being rigid and circular and open-ended at the front. Africans of each region had names for each variety of manilla, probably varying locally. They valued them differently, and were very particular about

7568-467: Was permitted to clear them for cultivation. All burial grounds, shrines for the village deities and spots for secret societies such as Ekpo Onyoho, Ekoong, Idiong, Ekong, were sacred. Everything in these places were equally sacred. Non-members of the secret societies were not permitted to enter the spots set aside for such secret societies, even for the collection of firewood, sticks, fruits (like mkpook), vegetables (like afang and odusa) or snails, or to hunt

7656-422: Was rich, he was so in his previous incarnation and must be so now; if he was brilliant, that was how he was destined to be, etc. He could, however, reverse the situation if he consulted the Mbia Idiong, who alone could tell him what to do. The diviners could help him pin-point what it was he had done in his previous incarnation which was affecting his present life. They could then prescribe to him what to do to remedy

7744-472: Was water and settled there, and his children spread to Mbak Nsit and other places of that clan. The Nsit Ibom totem is Iyak Anyan – the Anyan Nsit deity. They all have shared a similar characteristics of social, traditional as well as cultural Milieu and formed the center of this study. The brothers settled close to each other and formed pact and ally or an affinity with each other and had children and devised

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