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177-563: Islamic theology ( kalām ) regards Iblis as an example of attributes and actions which God punishes with hell ( Nār ). Regarding the origin and nature of Iblis, there are two different viewpoints. According to one, Iblis is an angel , and according to the other, he is the father of the jinn . Quranic exegesis ( tafsīr ) and the Stories of the Prophets ( Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ ) elaborate on Iblis' origin story in greater detail. In Islamic tradition, Iblis

354-642: A mutakallim (plural mutakallimun ), a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers and jurists . After its first beginnings in the late Umayyad period , the Kalām experienced its rise in the early Abbasid period, when the Caliph al-Mahdi commissioned Mutakallimūn to write books against the followers of Iranian religions, and the Barmakid vizier Yahya ibn Khalid held Kalām discussions with members of various religions and confessional groups in his house. Until

531-567: A Syriac intermediary. The name itself is not found in Arab literature before the Quran, suggesting it is not of pre-Islamic Arabian origin. The Quranic story of Iblis parallels extrabiblical sources, such as Life of Adam and Eve , about Satan's fall from heaven, preponderant in Eastern Christian circles. On a conceptual perspective, Iblis' theological function as a divinely appointed tempter parallels

708-537: A "speaker with a specific function". In the anonymous Aḫbār al-ʿAbbās wa-waladihī , which dates from the eighth century, it is reported that when Abu Muslim (d. 755) wanted to establish himself in Merv , he sent mutakallimūn from his followers into the city to win the population over to their cause and make it clear to them that they were following the Sunnah and acting according to the truth. Shlomo Pines has concluded that

885-469: A 5-volume book called ذم الكلام وأهله and Imam Ghazali wrote a book called تهافت الفلاسفة. Besides, Imam Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, among other Muslim scholars have discussed in detail that 'Ilmul Kalam' and 'Falsafa' do not represent the correct Islamic belief. Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of University of Sharjah and Umm al-Qura University ; that kalam science inherently contradicts

1062-563: A 760-page, tafsir -like exegetical work called Kur'an'daki Islam . Each chapter, which deals with one surah, is structured around certain verses of the surah, or words occurring in the text, which need to be explained. Edip Yüksel , Layth Saleh al-Shaiban, and Martha Schulte-Nafeh wrote Quran: A Reformist Translation, an English translation and commentary of the Qur'an. Yüksel is a follower of Rashad Khalifa . Ghulam Ahmed Perwez wrote Mafhoom-ul-Quran, translated into English as Exposition of

1239-430: A feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him in human form wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban and long sleeves, signifying long lasting devotion to God. Only in one, he wears traditional Islamic head covering. Most pictures show and describe Iblis at

1416-554: A few exceptions among Muslim scholars. The Qadariyya asserted that evil was introduced by disobedience to God, and Iblis was the first who disobeyed. This view is sometimes attributed to Hasan al-Basri. An extreme position among the Qadariyya asserts that Iblis was not even created by God, but this view is generally rejected as beliefs of the Manichaeans ( majūs ). Al-Māturīdī argued that such dualistic worldviews are irreconcilable with

1593-615: A god besides Him", they would be rewarded with Hell by Us [...] Sijjin , mentioned in Surah 83:7, is described as a prison in hell by Quranic exegetes (for example by, Tabari, Tha'labi, Nasafi). Iblis is chained at the bottom and sends his demons to the surface. There are different opinions regarding the origin of Iblis. This dispute is closely related to doctrinal differences regarding free will . Like humans, jinn are created on earth to "worship" (' abada ) God (51:56), and are capable of righteous and evil acts (11:119). If angels can sin or not

1770-553: A heterodox theological movement and extreme rationalists. The group would continue to exist and primarily follow Shia and Ibadi . The most influential work of the post-classical Kalām was the Kitāb al-Mawāqif by the Iranian Shafi'i theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355). It received a total of five commentaries and 32 supercommentaries and became part of the Dars al-Nizāmī curriculum in

1947-617: A martyr!". A demon called "Semum", from the eponymous 2008 Turkish Horror Movie Semum , embodies qualities attributed to both Iblis and his offspring. Alluding to the Quran, Semum blames God for abandoning demon-kind after creating humanity and vows to destroy God's newest creatures. Referring to the Quranic cycle of God creating and then destroying his creatures, the "Semum" argues that humanity will be eventually abandoned by God, and should worship Iblis instead. Kalam Ilm al-kalam or ilm al-lahut , often shortened to kalam ,

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2124-434: A paragon of self-sacrifice and devotion, stating: "Whoever doesn't learn monotheism from Satan is a heretic ( zindīq )." His student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir asserted that Iblis' disobedience was wanted by God, or God would be powerless and a powerless being cannot be attributed to God. Despite the positive receptions of the story, other theologians and Sufis disapproved of Satan's Monotheism . Ibn Ghanim argues that Iblis

2301-472: A person in this life and the hereafter. That way, any interpretation that threatens to compromise the preservation of religion, life, lineage, intellect or property may be discarded or ruled otherwise in order to secure these goals. Further, the socio-cultural environment may also taken into consideration. This includes understanding and interpreting the Quran while taking into account the cultural and social environment to which it has been revealed; or according to

2478-487: A prophet and a mere pretender to prophethood. Argument could not be distinguished from deceit and proof could not be distinguished from apparent proof. The art of the Kalam was preferable to every other art and education , which is why it was made the standard for all philosophical speculation and the basis of every syllogism . It was only held in such high esteem because every scholar needed it and could not do without it. Until

2655-703: A report quoted by Ibn Babawayh , Yahya ibn Khalid used to hold a discussion group (maǧlis) at his place on Sundays, in which mutakallimūn from every sect (firqa) and religious community (milla) participated, who then debated with each other about their religions and put forward arguments against each other. This discussion group is also mentioned by al-Masʿūdī . According to his report, many Islamic mutakallimūn participated in this discussion, including Muʿtazilites such as Abu l-Hudhail , Ibrahim al-Nazzam and Bishr ibn al-Muʿtamir , Imamites such as Hisham ibn al-Hakam , one Kharijite and one Murjite each , as well as representatives of other worldviews and faiths, including

2832-477: A seventeenth-century puritanical reformist religious movement in the Ottoman Empire , shared a lot of ideas with modern Islamic interpretations. Al-Shawkānī (1759–1834) has been understood retroperspective by many Muslim scholars as a salafi . A rationalistic approach, as proposed by Syed Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Abduh attempts to prove that the Quran and modern sciences do not contradict each other. This

3009-401: A short skirt. Similar to European arts depicting devils by traits of pagan deities, Islamic arts portray the devils with features often similar to that of Hindu deities. The complexity of Iblis' character from the Quranic story had lasting influence on Islamic literature. It elaborates on the necessity of evil and Iblis' disobedience in creative retelling of the exegetical tradition. Iblis and

3186-537: A slightly modified form, this definition was also adopted by the Ottoman scholar Tashköprüzāde (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (c. 1745). For al-Taftazani (d. 1390), Kalām is "the knowledge of religious dogmas based on certain evidence", for Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) "a science that includes the disputation of the dogmas of faith with rational arguments" and for Morteza Motahhari (d. 1979) "a science that discusses

3363-495: A special domain within hadith. Widening of the scope of tafsir and emergence of mufassirun in the age of the successors lead to the development of an independent discipline of tafsir . An author of a tafsir is called a mufassir ( Arabic : مُفسّر ; plural: Arabic : مفسّرون , romanized :  mufassirūn ). Mufassirs are required to master several disciplines such as linguistics , rhetoric , theology and jurisprudence before one can authoritatively interpret

3540-463: A state based on an idealized Muslim society. Among Salafis, the hermeneutics of ibn Taimiyya prevail. In the English language, an abridged version of Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm ( Tafsir Ibn Kathir ), under the editorship of Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman , gained widespread popularity, probably due to its salafistic approach but also a lack of alternative translations of traditional tafsirs . Similarly,

3717-408: A translation of Tabari's exegetical work has been published only as an abridged version, by Pierre Godé appeared in 1983. Tafsirs by Shia Muslims similarly deals with the issues concerned by Sunnis, and employs similar methodology as well, except for the adherence toward certain beliefs and creeds Shiism espouses. Distinctive features of Shia tafsirs include expounding of the concept of imamate ,

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3894-449: Is a great deal of Islamic pseudoscience attempting to reconcile this respect with religious beliefs. This is because, according to Edis, true criticism of the Quran is almost non-existent in the Muslim world. While Christianity is less prone to see its Holy Book as the direct word of God, fewer Muslims will compromise on this idea – causing them to believe that scientific truths must appear in

4071-521: Is actually envious of mankinds' exalted position. Hafez advises his audience not to reveal the secrets of love towards God to the imposter. Vathek , first composed in French (1782) by the English novelist William Beckford , in which the protagonists travel through, what he conceives as the supernatural world of the Orient. In their travels, they meet jinn, angels, faeries ( parī ), and prophets. The underworld

4248-505: Is against exterior one. Esoteric interpretations are found mainly in Sufism and in the sayings (hadiths) of Shi'a Imams and the teachings of the Isma'ili sect. But Muhammad and the imams gave importance to its exterior as much as to its interior; they were as much concerned with its revelation as they were with its interpretation. These are generally not independently written, however, they are found in

4425-619: Is also found in the catalogue of the Ottoman Palace Library from the beginning of the 16th century, where the section containing the books on kalām was entitled "Section of the Books of the Science of the Foundations of Religion, i.e. the Science of Kalām". This classification probably also influenced the Ottoman scholars Taşköprüzade and Saçaklızāde (d. 1732), who also equated kalām science and

4602-510: Is also found within the Zahiri school.; The modern Wahhabi and Salafi movements generally consider kalam to be an innovation and reject its usage. The Hanbali Sufi , Khwaja Abdullah Ansari wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam. Ibn al-Jawzi , 12th AD Hanbali scholar; has explained that that Ulama and Fiqh of his contemporary have considered kalam as "..useless discipline.." . He described

4779-514: Is based on Hindu and Greek philosophy. On the other hand, the main source of Tawheed is revelation. Moreover, Ilmul Kalam includes restlessness, imbalance, ignorance and doubt. That is why the Salaf Saleheen condemned Ilmul Kalam. And Tawheed is based on knowledge, conviction and faith,….. Another reason can be said that the foundation of philosophy is based on assumptions, false beliefs, imaginary thoughts and superstitious ideas". Imam Harawi wrote

4956-526: Is close to the tafsir 'ilmi (scientific interpretation of the Quran), which claims that the Quran miraculously predicted scientific discoveries . Although this trend has existed prior to the modern era, its popularity is new. Nontheless, this approach still faces a lot of opposition among Muslims. Yet another approach, represented by scholars such as Amin al-Khuli , aims to decodifies the Quran to understand its impact on

5133-455: Is considered established by the statement made in the Quran that Muhammad is responsible for explanation and guidance. While some narratives are of revelation origin, others can be the result of reasonings made by Muhammad. One important aspect of these narratives is their origin. Narratives used for tafsir , and in general, must be of authentic origin ( sahih ). Narratives of such origin are considered requisite for tafsir . Other source of

5310-649: Is disputed in Islam. Those who say that Iblis was not an angel, but a jinni, argue that only jinn (and humans), but not angels are capable of disobedience. This is the generally opinion among the Qadariyah and most Mu'tazilites . This view is also found to be prominent among many Salafis . The Sunni school holds on to the doctrine of predestination, al-Razi being an exception, and asserts that Iblis acts in obedience to his inner nature and God's plan, but in disobedience to God's command. The term for celestial beings in early Islam

5487-495: Is found in the Quran or the Hadīth, the commentator has recourse to what the Ṣaḥābah reported about various verses. These are generally considered above personal opinion, because these people grew up with everyday interaction with Muhammad, and had often asked about the meanings of verses or circumstances of their revelation; and they were very knowledgeable in both Arabic literature and Islamic thought. Another non-scripture based source of

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5664-476: Is hardly a Kalam scholar who understands more than the Kalam questions of a book, and the science of Kalam is limited to the study of the commentary on the ʿAqāʾid of Najm al-Dīn Abū Hafs an-Nasafī (d. 1142) and on the ʿAqāʾid of ʿAdud al-Dīn al-Īji (d. 1355). Mulla Sadra, 17th AD Twelver Shia philosopher and mystic; has felt that he owed to the greek philosophy, for the development of kalam as Islamic discourse. Modern philosopher Federico Campagna has suspected

5841-574: Is identified with ash-Shayṭān (" the Devil "), often followed by the epithet ar-Rajim (Arabic: ٱلرَجِيم , lit.   'the Accursed';). Shayṭān is usually applied to Iblis in order to denote his role as the tempter, while Iblīs is his proper name. Some Muslim scholars uphold a more ambivalent role for Iblis, considering him not simply a devil but also "the truest monotheist " ( Tawḥīd-i Iblīs ), because he would only bow before

6018-562: Is illustrated in a story attributed to Wahb ibn Munabbih . Accordingly, Moses met Iblis on the slopes of Sinai . When Moses asks Iblis for the reason behind his disobedience, Iblis replies that the command was a test. This story is mentioned in the Kitāb al-Tawāsīn by the Persian poet al-Hallaj , who also became known as one of Iblis' greatest defenders. The idea also inspired later famous theologians and Sufis, including Ahmad Ghazali and Attar of Nishapur . Ahmad Ghazali depicted Iblis as

6195-481: Is interpreted, and narrations are separated from tafsir into separate books and literature. Grammatical explanations and historical data are preserved within these books; personal opinions are recorded, whether accepted or rejected. During this time, a whole range of schools of tafsir came into existence in different scholastic centers, including Mecca , Medina and Iraq . Iraqi schools of tafsir came to be known for an approach relied on personal judgment aside from

6372-726: Is mentioned by various scholars of the Sunni tradition, including Muqatil , Tabari, Mas'udi , Kisa'i , and Tha'labi. The angels passing by him were scared. Most afraid was Iblis. To overcome his anxiety, he enters Adam and moves through the body. He concludes that "this is hollow clay", whereas Iblis is "fire". Since fire overcomes clay, he vows to destroy Adam like fire destroys clay: You are nothing – because of his ringing – and you were made for nothing! If I am to rule over you, I will kill you, and if you are to rule over me, I will rebel against you. Some scholars (among them Thala'bi, Tabarsi, Diyarbakri) explain, with slightly variations, Iblis' entry to

6549-446: Is much more selective and critical compared to earlier Quranic exegesis and features only a few personal remarks. Al-Suyuti's (1445–1505) tafsir ( Al-Dur al-Manthur ) uses a similar hermeneutic. Unlike ibn Kathir, his work is one of a few completely devoid of any personal comments. Yet, following the approach of ibn Taimiyya, he is selective about the inclusion of hadiths. However, contrarily to ibn Taimiyya and ibn Kathir, his tafsir

6726-459: Is not happy about humanity's obedience towards himself either; rather he longs for humans who resist him. Before a human who resisted him, he would be willing to prostrate himself, and he could finally achieve salvation. Egyptian novelist Tawfiq al-Hakim 's ash-Shahid (1953) describes the necessity of Iblis' evil for the world. As a reference to Iblis' predetermined fall, his protagonist Iblis consults religious authorities to embrace salvation, but

6903-443: Is not interpretation by mere opinion however, but rather opinions must be based on the main sources. Performing Quranic interpretation using solely one's own opinion is believed to be prohibited by some Muslims. This is based on an authenticated hadith of Muhammad which states "He who says (something) concerning the Qur'ân without knowledge, he has taken his seat of fire". However, this hadith can alternatively be interpreted to refer to

7080-696: Is now Mauritania . A particularly zealous follower of the Kalam was the Ash'arite scholar Muhammad ibn 'Umar al-Bartallī (d. 1696) in Walatah . A West African biography collection reports that he was one of the famous Mutakallimūn and was constantly busy reading, copying and teaching Kalam books. The Kalām was also promoted among the Volga-Ural Tatars in Russia . At the end of the 18th century, it became an integral part of madrasa scholarship in villages and small towns, even if it

7257-452: Is particularly evident in the philosophers al-Farabi (d. 950) and Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri (d. 992). The former sees it as a mental ability through which man can refute everything that contradicts the views and actions established by the founder of the religion, the latter as "the defence of religion with the tongue". In the definitions of the Ashʿarite scholar Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355),

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7434-620: Is particularly important to interpret verses according to how the Quran was revealed, when and under which circumstances, and much commentary was dedicated to history. The early tafsirs are considered to be some of the best sources for Islamic history . Classification of the place of revelation, whether it was revealed in Mecca or Medina , is important as well. This is because in general Meccan verses tend to have an iman (loosely translated as faith ) nature that includes believing in Allah, Muhammad, and

7611-438: Is referring to God's predetermined judgement as an excuse to cover his unbelief. Furthermore, similar to Ruzbihan Baqli , he argues that Satan's Monotheism is a subtle deception by Iblis, in order to evoke sympathies and doubt about God's message. Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (1207–1273) argues that God's determinism can not be an excuse for one's own demise and failure. He invokes the analogy between Adam and Iblis to highlight

7788-597: Is rejected each time, because the world would require him to be sinful. He consults the Pope , the Rabbi , and the Al-Azhar Mosque , each of them explain the necessity of Iblis' unbelief. Without Iblis' evil deeds, a large portion of revelation would become obsolete. Afterwards, Iblis visits the angel Gabriel, but is rejected again. Realizing that Iblis is both doomed as well as appointed by God, he descends from heaven shouting out: "I am

7965-501: Is sometimes seen as a transition point between the Classical and post-Classical exegesis, due to his unique hermeneutic method. Tafsirs are geneaological, they rely on the core of previous tafsirs . Ibn Taimiyya challenged this core tradition by asserting that the Quran should only be interpreted by the Quran alone or the sunnah . Ibn Kathir was the first who tried to use the hermeneutic method of his teacher ibn Taimiyya. By that, it

8142-487: Is the domain of Iblis, however, they meet him only in person at the end of the journey. Although there are similarities to Dante 's Satan in the Halls of Eblis , Beckford's Satan, clearly inspired by the figure of Iblis, is that of a young man with mixed traits of pride and despair, and not that of a monstrous being. In Muhammad Iqbal 's poetry, Iblis is critical about overstressed obedience, which caused his downfall. But Iblis

8319-414: Is the major opinion among Arab scholars, who maintain the tradition that the personal name of this being was ʿAzāzīl . Some Muslim teachers, such as al-Jili , relate this name to talbis meaning confusion, because God's command confused him. Another possibility is that the name is derived from Ancient Greek διάβολος ( diábolos ) (which is also the source of the English word ' devil ') via

8496-474: Is the method of commenting on the Quran using traditional sources. Tafsir bi'r-riwāyah connotes tafsir using another portion of the Quran, or sayings of Muhammad, or saying of his companions. This classical tafsir method is agreed upon by all scholars, and is the most used method throughout history, partly because other methods have been criticized. Criticism of non-riwaya method is mostly based on two grounds; for one, Muhammad has condemned those who interpret

8673-410: Is the scholastic, speculative, or rational study of Islamic theology ( aqida ). It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic faith ( usul al-din ), proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them. Kalām was born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islam against the philosophical doubters. A scholar of kalam is referred to as

8850-595: Is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions , and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking . There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines , such as Sunni Islam , Shia Islam , and Sufism . There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Muslim scholarship during

9027-409: Is usually malāk (angel). Tabarsi says that if Iblis were a jinni, he could not have been one of the custodians of paradise. Many of those who say that Iblis was an angel read Surah 18:50 as a nisba for the term jannāt , thus referring to Iblis' heavenly origin (this reading is preferred by – among others – Ash'ari , Suyuti , and Al-Tha'labi ). The Hanābila and Ash'arites argue that Iblis

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9204-418: Is without any personal comment. Further, despite using a similar methodology to ibn Taimiyya and ibn Kathir, he includes a wider range of hadiths . Not earlier than the mid-nineteenth century, the modern period of tafsir started. The modern approach is marked by a generally critical attitude towards much of the intellectual heritage of Islam, a declared intention to imitate the salaf , and an emphasis on

9381-678: The Arabic language , including morphology , eloquence, syntax are an integral part of tafsir , as they constitute the basis of understanding and interpretation. Arabic has a systematic way of shaping words so one can know the meaning by knowing the root and the form the word was coined from. If any word can be given a meaning that is compatible with the rules of grammar, Quranic text can be interpreted that way. In terms of historical resources, scholars may choose to interpret verses according to external factors, including their historical context and their place of revelation. Historical context ( Asbab al-nuzul )

9558-624: The Muʿtazila and the Qadariya , with Wasil ibn Ata again playing the decisive role. However, neither Wasil ibn Ata nor any other persons mentioned here have recorded book titles or sayings that indicate that they themselves used the term kalām as a name for a particular science or knowledge culture. According to a report quoted by al-Masudi (d. 956) in his work The Meadows of Gold , the Abbasid CaliphateAbbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785)

9735-610: The Muʿtazila . Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam: the Ahl al-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two. (Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām ", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites. ) In

9912-622: The Quran . An author of a tafsir is a mufassir ( Arabic : مُفسّر ; plural: Arabic : مفسّرون , romanized :  mufassirūn ). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God 's will in Islam . Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics , jurisprudence , and theology . In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which

10089-605: The Quranic text, by means of the Arabic language and one's own knowledge. According to American scholar Samuel Ross, there are 2,700 Qur’an commentaries extant in manuscript form, and 300 commentaries have been published. Considering that around 96% of the Arabic-language manuscripts remain unstudied, Ross argues that "by extrapolation there may be thousands of additional commentaries still waiting to be discovered." The first examples of tafsir can be traced back to Muhammad, who

10266-476: The Tunisia such as Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani and Abu al-Hassan al-Qabisi . In al-Andalus, Ash'arism was flourishing since the time of the theologian-philosopher Ibn Hazm (d. 1064). The theologian Abu Bakr al-Baqillani's works were widely circulated in the region, which helped fostered the growth of Ash'arite theology and sparked debates. Eventually, Mu'tazilite beliefs in the region were subdued. Shortly after,

10443-531: The Upanishads with Sufi cosmology. Qiṣaṣ is a form of exegesis by Muslim scholars focusing on establishing a coherent story from material of Islamic scripture (Quran, ḥadīṯ ). According to many of them, before Adam was created, the jinn, offspring of al-Jānn (الجان), lived on earth. First they were obedient but over time, immorality increased and, then they became infidels, God sent an army of angels, headed by Iblis, called "al-Jinn" (named after paradise, not

10620-424: The day of judgment , whether it be theological foundations or basic faith principles. On the other hand, Medinan verses constitute legislation, social obligations, and constitution of a state. On the more conceptual level, the idea of maqasid (goals or purpose) can be taken into account. Verses may be interpreted to preserve the general goals of shariah , which may be considered simply as bringing happiness to

10797-463: The formative ages of Islam , and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people. The word tafsīr is derived from the three-letter Arabic verbal root of ف-س-ر F - S - R ( fassara , 'interpreted'). In its literal meaning, the word refers to interpreting, explaining, expounding, or disclosing. In Islamic contexts, it is defined as understanding and uncovering God 's will which has been conveyed by

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10974-502: The ijaz movement has created a "global craze in Muslim societies", and has developed into an industry that is "widespread and well-funded". Individuals connected with the movement include Abdul Majeed al-Zindani , who established the Commission on Scientific Signs in the Quran and Sunnah ; Zakir Naik , the Indian televangelist; and Adnan Oktar , the Turkish creationist. Enthusiasts of

11151-415: The "science of the foundations of religion" in their Arabic scientific encyclopedias. At-Tahānawī explains this equation by saying that the Kalām is the basis of the religious legal sciences and that they are based on it. Some later scholars defined the kalām science of dogmas. For Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355), kalām is "the science of proving religious dogmas by citing arguments and removing doubts." In

11328-704: The 10th century, the Muʿtazilites were considered the real "masters of the Kalām". Later, two important Sunni Kalām schools emerged: the Ashʿariyya and the Maturidiyya . They positioned the Kalām particularly against the growing Neoplatonic and Aristotelian philosophy and elevated the "Kalām science" (ʿilm al-kalām) to the highest ranking science in Islam. Some of the arguments of the Mutakallimūn also found their way into Jewish and Christian theological discussions in

11505-512: The Aqeedah studies "Ilmul Kalam" and the philosophers called "Al-Falsafa al-Islamiyyah" or Islamic philosophy, "Al-Ilahiyat" and "Metaphysics" (supernaturalism). About the latter names, Dr. Nasser al-Aql and many others say that it is not pure to call the Islamic Aqeedah by these names. Explaining the reason, Muhammad Ibrahim Al Hamad said, "Because the source of Ilmul Kalam is human intellect, which

11682-474: The Ash'ari doctrine to the Holy Sanctuary of Mecca . Among the hundreds of Andalusi and Maghrebi pupils that Abu Dharr al-Harawi trained to become jurists and judges , and who helped Ash'arism expand to their home countries are Abu al-Walid al-Baji and Abu Imran al-Fasi . However, research shows that his students weren't the first to introduce Ash'arism as there were already known Ash'ari presence in

11859-701: The Ash'ari theology became the mainstream doctrine of the Maliki school. The Mu'tazila , also known as the Ahl al-Tawhid wal-'Adl, or the "People of Divine Unity and Justice," were originally the dominant school of kalam, but by the tenth century, two madhabs—the Ash'ariyya and the Maturidiyya—rose in fierce opposition to the Mu'tazila. Each school bore the names of its founders, Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi , and represented Ahl al-Sunnah (People of Prophetic ways). In

12036-777: The Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts. Al-Albani , prominent figure of Salafism and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the Islamic creed due to their Ta'til methodology, which consequently divesting the Names of God in Islam . Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the al-ʿAliyy (Most highest) attribute of God. Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD Bangladeshi Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria says about Ilmul Kalam, The Mutaqallimin called

12213-566: The Creator and not his creations, while preserving the term shayṭān exclusively for evil forces. The idea that Iblis is not evil but a necessity for the world is also used in Muslim literature . Others have strongly rejected sympathies with Iblis, considering it a form of deception to lead people astray. In Islamic traditions, Iblīs is known by many alternative names or titles, such as Abū Murrah ( Arabic : أَبُو مُرَّة , "Father of Bitterness") as

12390-477: The Garden of Eden by the aid of a serpent and a peacock. Some traditions have the Garden of Eden being warded by an angelic guardian . Thus, Iblis persuades a peacock to get help, by promising him that, if he enters the Garden, the beauty of the peacock will never decay thanks to the fruit of immortality. The peacock, unable to carry Iblis, persuades the serpent, who decides to slip Iblis by carrying him in his mouth. From

12567-457: The Holy Qur'an . According to M. Shamsher Ali , there are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena and many verses of the Quran ask mankind to study nature, and this has been interpreted to mean an encouragement for scientific inquiry and of the truth. Scholars deeply influenced by the natural and social sciences followed the materialists of Europe or the pragmatists. Under

12744-452: The Islamic creed of al-Burooj Quran   85:16 chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as omnipotent (al-Jabbār) ; which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only. Tafsir Tafsir ( Arabic : تفسير , romanized :  tafsīr [tafˈsiːr] ; English: explanation ) refers to an exegesis , or commentary, of

12921-422: The Islamic doctrine of tawḥīd . Some extreme positions went as far as to consider belief that actions are uncaused by God to be a form of širk (association), as it implies a second power independent from God. Iblis' disobedience is seen as an example and warning for the thaqalān (the two who are accountable for their deeds; i.e. humans and jinn). Those who say that Iblis was predestined to fall, say that he

13098-427: The Islamic dogmas [...] in such a way that it explains, proves and defends them". In Arabic , the term Kalām generally means "speech, conversation, debate." There are different theories as to why this term came to be used to describe the discipline that deals with the rational justification of one's own religious doctrines: According to Josef van Ess , the many explanations given by Arab scholars "clearly demonstrate

13275-503: The Kalam (aṣḥāb al-kalām) in Basra : the two Muʿtazilites Amr ibn Ubayd and Wasil ibn Ata , the poet Bashshar ibn Burd , Salih ibn Abd al-Quddus and Abdul Karim bin Abi Al-Awja', and a man from the tribe of Azd who was inclined towards Sumanīya, an Indian doctrine, and who made his house available to the group for their meetings. Since Wāsil died around 748, the Kalām must have existed in

13452-403: The Kalam, since the sole purpose of the Kalam was to silence the adversary and bring the stubborn to their knees. The great Mutakallimūn, on the other hand, drew their doctrines solely from the "lamp of prophethood". Such statements can also be found in al-Ghazali . Thus, in his work Jawahir al-Qur'an (The Jewels of the Qur'an ), he judged that the purpose of the science of kalam was "to protect

13629-524: The Kalām consists of "defensive apology" is also the declared leitmotif of the French handbook Introduction à la théologie musulmane , co-authored by Gardet and M.M Anawati in 1948. The Indian scholar ʿAbd an-Nabī al-Ahmadnagarī (d. 1759) even believed that the value of the Kalam was limited to this apologetic function alone. The great Mutakallimūn, he explains in his encyclopedia Dustūr al-ʿulamā, never justified or authenticated their doctrines with arguments from

13806-617: The Middle Ages. After the Kalām science in the early modern period was essentially limited to the study of manuals and commentaries, from the late 19th century onwards various reform thinkers appeared in British India and the Ottoman Empire who called for the founding of a "new Kalām". According to several of the definitions given above, kalām has an apologetic function: it serves to defend one's own religious views. This apologetic function

13983-581: The Mobed of the Zoroastrians . The Caliph al-Ma'mun also distinguished himself by promoting the Kalam. Al-Yaʿqūbī reports that he openly professed the "People of Monotheism and Justice" (Ahl al-Tawhid wal 'Adl), that is, the Muʿtazila, attracted Mutakallimūn to his court and paid them maintenance so that their numbers increased. Each one, explains al-Yaʿqūbī, wrote books to defend his own doctrine and to refute his opponents. Al-Jahiz (d. 869), who wrote one of

14160-473: The Mu'tazilites, when Iblis blames God for leading him astray in Surah 15:39 , these words belong to Iblis alone and cannot serve as a confirmation of God being the cause of Iblis' fall. Islamist writer Sayyid Qutb denies that angels could sin and thus, rejects readings which depict Iblis as an angelic being. Within Muslim thought, Iblis is generally not considered to be the originator of evil. However, there are

14337-447: The Ottoman scholar Taşköprüzade (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (around 1745), who worked in Iran, kalām has the task of averting doubts from religious dogmas or truths. Against the background of such definitions, the French orientalist Louis Gardet judged that the function of kalām as a defensive "apology" could not be overestimated. The view that the "fundamental character" of

14514-509: The Quran from their own point of view, and for two, most companions of Muhammad have refrained from presenting their own ideas. Some important examples of tafsir bi'r-riwāyah are Jāmiʿ al-Bayān by al-Tabari and Tafseer al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓeem by ibn Kathir . The sources used for tafsir bi'r-riwāyah can be ordered by the rank of authority, as the Quran, hadiths, the reports by the sahabah and tabi'iun , classical Arabic literature, and Isra'iliyat . The most authoritative source of

14691-540: The Quran was revealed to. According to Islamic belief, he recited the verses to his companions, usually explaining their meanings to teach them, as it was one of Muhammad's responsibilities. Elements of Muhammad's explanations including clarifying verses whose intents are not understood, the indication of names, places, times etc. which have not been mentioned in the verse, restriction of meanings which have been given as absolute and reconciliation of expressions which seem contradictory. Scholars debate if Muhammad commented on

14868-783: The Quran. The following criteria are in place to ensure a tafsir maintains fidelity. There are several frames of reference in which tafsir can be categorized. The main issue of framing constitutes its methodology. Tafsir can be broadly divided into two categories from the viewpoint of methodology employed in order to approach the interpretation. These categories are called tafsīr bi'l-ma'thūr ( Arabic : التفسير بالمأثور , lit.   'received tafsir', also known as tafsīr bi'r-riwāyah ( Arabic : تفسير بالرواية )) and tafsīr bi'r-ra'y ( Arabic : التفسير بالرأي , lit.   'tafsir by opinion', also known as tafsīr bi'd-dirayah Arabic : تفسير بالدراية ). Tafsir bi'l-ma'thur , or commonly known as Tafsir bi'r-riwāyah ,

15045-462: The Quran. Legal tafsir, or Tafsir al-Ahkam, derives legal rulings and principles from the Quran. Its practice was common in both the classical and modern periods. There is a dispute over the number of verses that contain jurisprudential guidance, with numbers ranging from 5 to 200 being reported. Works of legal tafsir were typically written from the perspectives of the madhhab of their respective authors. For example, Aḥkam al-Qur'an by al-Jassas

15222-456: The Quran. Muslim critics of the movement include Indian Islamic theologian Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanvi , Muslim historian Syed Nomanul Haq , Muzaffar Iqbal , president of Center for Islam and Science in Alberta, Canada, and Egyptian Muslim scholar Khaled Montaser. Taner Edis wrote many Muslims appreciate technology and respect the role that science plays in its creation. As a result, he says there

15399-449: The Quran. One example of the hadith which extensively employs this source of method is Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an by Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i . The authoritative source of method second to the Quran is Hadith, by using narratives of Muhammad to interpret the Quran. In this approach the most important external aids used are the collected oral traditions upon which Muslim scholars based Islamic history and law. Authority of this method

15576-410: The Quran. While some may be accurate, these narratives are not subject to hadith authenticity criteria, and are generally not favored for use. Tafsir bi'r-ra'y , or commonly known as tafsir bi-al-diraya , is the method of using one's independent rational reasoning and mind ( ijtihad ) to form an opinion-oriented interpretation. The most distinctive feature of tafsir bi-al-diraya is the inclusion of

15753-504: The Rationalists), and bayan muwafaqat al-'aql al-sarih li al-Naql as-Sahiha . Ibn Taymiyya even further criticize Ash'arite rationalists such as al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi , and al-Shahrastani for their method in discourses by abandoning the scripturalism way. In general, Ibn Taymiyya has detailed his criticism in Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin . Regarding al-Ghazali in particular, Through

15930-557: The South Asian madrasas . The book also played an important role in Ottoman schools . The Ottoman scholar Sāčaqlızāde recommended it to scholars in the Kalām section of his encyclopedia Tartīb al-ʿulūm , together with the Kitāb al-Maqāṣid by Saʿd ad-Dīn at-Taftāzānī , as a basis for teaching. The work contains an introductory chapter at the beginning in which the author discusses the definition, subject, utility, rank, problems and naming of

16107-436: The ability to attempt to mislead Adam and his descendants, whereupon God grants the request, thus depicting God as the power behind both the angels and devils. Surah al-Kahf states in reference to Iblis: [...] except Iblis, he was one of the jinni [...] (Arabic: إِلَّاۤ إِبۡلِیسَ كَانَ مِنَ ٱلۡجِنِّ " illā iblīsa kāna mina l-jinni ") (18:50) This led to a dispute among the mufassirūn (exegetes), who disagree on whether

16284-466: The aggregate, the story can be summarised as follows: When God created Adam, He ordered the angels to bow before the new creation. All of the angels bowed down, but Iblis refused to do so. He argued that since he was created from fire, he is superior to humans, who were made from clay-mud, and that he should not prostrate himself before Adam. As punishment for his haughtiness, God banished Iblis from heaven and condemned him to hell. Later, Iblis requested

16461-598: The angels feared that humanity will become as corrupt as the jinn. Some later traditions place Iblis among the genus of the jinn instead. In one narration of the Tarikh Khamis , among the masses of infidel jinn only Iblis dedicated his life to worship of God, withdrawing to a high mountain. The angels soon notice him and elavate him to the heavens, where he becomes one like them in worship. With reference to Surah 76:1, Islamic narrative tradition considers Adam to be created step by step, beginning as an inanimate body. The story

16638-513: The angels feature in Hafez's poetry (1325–1390), collected in The Divān of Hafez . Hafez iterates that angels are incapable of love. They can merely praise the creator but without the passion of a human-being. When Iblis protests, either because he considers Adam's offspring unworthy or himself devoted to God alone, he is described as an imposter ( mudda'ī ). He claims to act for the sake of God's love, but

16815-525: The beliefs of the masses from disruption by innovators". On the other hand, this science was never about "revealing the truths". Several Muslim authors defined kalām by its relationship to the "fundamentals of religion" (Uṣūl al-Dīn). For example, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi (d. 1023) described the science of kalām as "a way of contemplating the fundamentals of religion in which deliberation is based on reason alone." Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi (d. 1099) defined it as "the explanation of those questions which constitute

16992-452: The books of Sufis. Among the most significant Sunni Sufi tafsirs are: Quranists merely believe in the Qur'an and reject other oral traditions. Turkish Islamic theologian Yaşar Nuri Öztürk denounced contemporary Islamic practices as altered. He distinguished between what he defined as true Islam and what he saw as customs and traditions introduced in the Umayyad period . In 1992, he published

17169-429: The category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people. The early Muslim scholar al-Shafi'i held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people. Similarly, the Islamic scholar al-Ghazali held

17346-520: The circle of lā , they worship the nafs (carnal desires) instead of God. Only those who proceed to ʾillā 'llāh surprass Iblis, the divine chamberlain. As such, Iblis unknowingly symbolizes, suffers, and reflects the dark and wrathful aspect of God, uttering God's anger and executes God's justice. Due to the similarities in function between Iblis's web and the Hindu concept of māyā , the seventeenth-century Mughal prince Dara Shikoh sought to reconcile

17523-673: The city who were carrying heavy loads on their heads or backs and at the same time arguing about the interpretation of the Quran and questions of the Kalam. During the course of the 10th century, the Kalam also spread more widely to the eastern regions of the Islamic Empire. One of the early Kalam scholars representing the Mu'tazila in Khorasan was Abū al-Qāsim al-Balkhī (d. 931). Other Kalam scholars such as Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar (d. 1024) settled in Rayy . In

17700-599: The conflicts arising from the intricacies of the conflicts addressed in the school of kalam . In sum, there are two distinct interpretations of the role of Iblis within the Sufi tradition. The first interpretation holds that Iblis refused to bow before Adam because he would not prostrate himself before anyone but his creator, considering Iblis to be a "true monotheist " only bested by Muhammed , an idea known as "Satan's monotheism" ( tawḥīd-i Iblīs ). Oblivious to rewards and punishment, Iblis acts out of pure love and loyalty and disobey

17877-467: The conventional (in this context called exoteric) interpretations; instead, they discuss the inner levels of meaning of the Quran. A hadith from Muhammad which states that the Quran has an inner meaning, and that this inner meaning conceals a yet deeper inner meaning, and so on (up to seven levels of meaning), has sometimes been used in support of this view. Islamic opinion imposes strict limitations on esoteric interpretations especially when interior meaning

18054-507: The cosmos. Iblis is part of God's universe and does not form an exterior reality independent of God. He is God's veil, the visible universe itself, which hides the Godhead from the unworthy. 'Ayn al-Quzat links the cosmic structure to the Shahada : " Lā is the circle of negation. One must place his first step within this circle, but he should not stop here nor dwell here. (...)". Those who remain at

18231-418: The development of Arabic terminology itself". Louis Gardet and M.-M. Anawati considered the first possibility of derivation mentioned by Ibn at-Tilimsānī to be the most likely and suspected that kalām initially meant "speech about..." and then, through antonomasia, became "discourse" per se (about the things of God). W. Montgomery Watt took a similar path of explanation to Ibn Taymiyyah when he wrote about

18408-648: The difference between a believer and an unbeliever: While both Adam and Iblis were destined to fall, Iblis and his offspring blamed God, while Adam pleaded for forgiveness nontheless. He advises humans to do the same. In this context, Rumi declares that love is more important than intelligence and states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam." In his story of Mu'awiya , in his Masnavi (Book 2), Mu'awiya realizes that he cannot outsmart Iblis' excuses, thus seeking refuge in God's protection. Whereupon, Iblis confesses that he only attempts to trick people. Rumi reminds

18585-412: The disciples of Iblis, caught in the labyrinth of images and unable to discern the underlying, all-pervading divine principle. In his ignorance and damnation, Iblis hovers over the mere surface of visible things, and those he leads astray suffer the same fate. Other Sufi authors, including Sana'i, 'Ayn al-Quzat , Ruzbihan , Attar, and Rumi, independently conceptualized a similar image of Iblis' function in

18762-441: The doctrine closest with Sunnis of all Shia sects, produces tafsir resembling Sunni tafsir in its quality. Some Zaidi tafsirs are considered popular among Sunnis as well as shia. The Mu'tazila tradition of tafsir has received little attention in modern scholarship, owing to several reasons . First, several exegetical works by Mu'tazila scholars have been studied as books on theology rather than as works of tafsir . Secondly,

18939-651: The early 10th century, the Kalam was essentially limited to Iraq and Greater Khorasan . A very important center of the Kalam culture was the Muʿtazilite stronghold of ʿAskar Mukram in Khuzistan , the place of work of Al-Jubba'i and his son Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i . The geographer Ibn Hauqal (d. 977) reports that members of the common people also practiced the Kalam method here and achieved such mastery that they could compete with scholars from other cities. Ibn Hawqal reprots in his book Surat Al-Ard that he saw two porters in

19116-480: The eponymous founder of Māturīdī theology , argues that humans and jinn are tested on earth, but angels in heaven. If angels were not tested, the Quran would not compliment angels for obedience. The Mu'tazilites, absolving God from all negative associations, reject the notion that Iblis' function as a tempter was initiated by God. Al-Zamakhshari blames the Ahl al-Sunnah for ascribing negative attributes to God. According to

19293-448: The evil angel Mastema from the Book of Jubilees . Iblis is mentioned 11 times in the Quran by name, nine times related to his refusal against God's Command to prostrate himself before Adam . The term šayṭān is more prevalent, although Iblis is sometimes referred to as šayṭān ; the terms are not interchangeable. The different fragments of Iblis's story are scattered across the Quran. In

19470-473: The exoteric meaning. Certain Shia tafsirs are influenced by Mu'tazili thoughts as well, specifically on the theological issues. Some of the important examples of Shia mufassirs and their tafsir are Al-Tibbyan Fi Tafsir al-Quran by Shaykh Tusi (460/1067) and Majma al-Bayan lif'ulum al-Quran by Shaykh Tabarsi (d. 548/1153). On the other hand, tafsir by Zaidi school of jurisprudence, which espouses

19647-416: The explicit command and obey the hidden will of God. In a unio oppositorum , Iblis finds in his banishment proximity to God. The second interpretation disapproves of Iblis' refusal to prostrate himself before Adam. Adam, as a reflection of God's names, is more complete than the angels. Iblis, being blind to the hidden reality of Adam, refuses to bow due to his own spiritual ignorance. Satan's Monotheism

19824-448: The first audience. Accordingly, the focus is not about historical or scientific truths, but about conveying a message through the means of the Quran. Similarly, according to yet another trend, the Quran should not only be understood as for the first Muslims, but also executed as the first Muslims did. Famous adherences to this approach include Sayyid Qutb and Abul A'la Maududi . This approach often goes in hand with an attempt to establish

20001-426: The first treatises on the kalam, praised the art of the kalam as a "precious jewel" (juhar tamīn), as "the treasure that never perishes" (al-kanz allaḏī lā yafnā wa-lā yablā) and as the "companion who does not bore and does not deceive". It is the standard for every other art, the rein for every expression, the scales with which one can clarify the lack or excess of every thing, and the filter with which one can recognize

20178-403: The foundation for the Muslim community and a practice of interpreting the Quran. At this stage, tafsir was selective and concise regarding its coverage, and only certain words, phrases and verses were explained. By the time of the next generations ensuing the sahabah, scholars in the age of the successors ( tabi'in ) started using a wide range of sources for tafsir . The whole of the Quran

20355-480: The fundamentals of religion, which it is an individual duty to learn." Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233) in his book al-Lubāb fī Tahḏīb al-Ansāb was the first to define kalām science as "the science of the foundations of religion" (ʿilm Uṣūl al-Dīn). Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) and Siraj al-Din Urmavi (d. 1283) even equated kalām science with the foundations of religion itself. The equation of ʿilm al-kalām and ʿilm uṣūl al-dīn

20532-433: The genus) to defeat them. These angels were created from nār as-samūm , while the rest of the angels from light, and the genus of jinn from mārijin min nār (smokeless fire). In reference to the interpretation of the events in Surah 2:30-34, when the angels complain over mankinds' potential to shed blood and cause injustice, Islamic haggadic narratives relate this to the previous story. Tabari and al-Thaʿlabi explain that

20709-458: The heavier weight put on verses that considered to be the foundation of successorship to Muhammad within the Prophet's family begins with Ali , and the heavier authority put on interpretations attributed to The Twelve Imams . These characteristics result in distinction being made between the esoteric and the exoteric meaning of the Quran, and the esoteric meaning attributed to the imams preferred over

20886-451: The holy book. In 1983, Keith L. Moore , had a special edition published of his widely used textbook on Embryology ( The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology ), co-authored by Abdul Majeed al-Zindani with Islamic Additions, interspersed pages of "embryology-related Quranic verse and hadith" by al-Zindani into Moore's original work. Ali A. Rizvi studying the textbook of Moore and al-Zindani found himself "confused" by "why Moore

21063-496: The immanent aspect of God's attributes within Adam, and refuses to bow down. By his attempt to avoid idolatry, he becomes the supreme idolater, because he cannot see through idols (the exterior). Since he cannot perceive God's immanent aspect (love), he can only understand (and reflect) God's transcendent aspects (wrath). According to ibn Arabi and Jami , those who cannot comprehend the unity of God, and separate God from his Creation, are

21240-796: The importance of first properly studying and learning the Quran before attempting to teach or preach it to others. Accordingly, the method of independent reasoning ( ijtihad ) has several qualifications and conditions that need to be satisfied. Due to the nature of orientation toward opinions, this method is rejected by certain scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah , and prohibited by Wahhabi Islamic doctrine. Some important examples of such tafsirs include Anwar al-Tanzil by al-Baydawi and Mafatih al-Ghayb by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi . Some parameters used by these scholars including linguistic resources, historical sources, methodological concepts such as maqasid or socio-cultural environment taken into consideration. In terms of linguistic resources, literary elements of

21417-585: The important aspect of literal meanings, while it kept al-Ghazali busy with irrelevant semantic argumentations. Al-Shawkani , a 18th AD Atharism, Zahiri scholar, early Salafi movement figure, and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab contemporary; has expressed his view for literal theological interpretation and opposition to kalam (speculative theology) Siddiq Hasan Khan , 19th AD North Indian Salafi scholar, co-founder of Ahl-i Hadith movement, and also Nawab (viceroy) of Bhopal State ; has rejected kalam as he regards it as "full of speculations". It

21594-607: The influence of those secular theories, they declared that the religion's realities cannot go against scientific knowledge. Starting in the 1970s and 80s, the idea of presence of scientific evidence in the Quran became popularized as ijaz (miracle) literature, also called " Bucailleism ", and began to be distributed through Muslim bookstores and websites. The movement contends that the Quran abounds with "scientific facts" that appeared centuries before their discovery and promotes Islamic creationism . According to author Ziauddin Sardar ,

21771-502: The innquisition against the Sunnis be released. According to Al-Shahrastani , the golden age of the science of kalam began with the caliphs Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842), al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) and al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) and ended in the time of Sahib ibn Abbad , who served as vizier of the Buyids of Ray from 979 to 995. One of

21948-445: The interpretation includes the accounts of Ṣaḥābah , companions of Muhammad, or tabi‘un , the generation after sahabah, and Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in , the generation after tabi'un. Their authority is based on an account in hadith Sahih Bukhari , which accordingly, Muhammad said: The best people are those living in my generation, then those coming after them ( Tābi‘un ), and then those coming after (the third generation). If nothing

22125-628: The interpretation is Isra'iliyat , which is the body of narratives originating from Judeo-Christian traditions, rather than from other well-accepted sources. The Isra'iliyat are mostly non- biblical explanatory stories and traditions (Hebrew: midrashim ) giving extra information or interpretation about events or individuals recorded in the Hebrew scriptures. Scholars starting with the Sahabah have studied narrative accounts of other Abrahamic religions to further explain and clarify verses, especially parables, in

22302-446: The interpretation is classical Arabic literature . Classical Arabic poetry and the text of the Quran are two resources which can be used as foundational reference in ascertaining the meaning and signification of the remaining literal and figurative diction of the Quran and its style of expression. Using Arabic poetry for defining words is a long used practice, and very few scholars have not used this source. Less authoritative source of

22479-416: The interpretation is the Quran itself. Interpretation of the Quran employing other Quranic reference is very common because of the close interrelatedness of the verses of the Quran with one another. The Quranic verses explain and interpret one another, which leads many to believe that it has the highest level of authenticity. Many verses or words in the Quran are explained or further clarified in other verses of

22656-407: The interpretations of ibn Abbas and Hasan al-Basri respectively. Muslim scholars then followed one of these two interpretations. Iblis is arguably implicitly mentioned in Surah 21:29 ( al-’anbiyā) , claiming divinity for himself by inviting to follow egoistic desires ( nafs ), a position shared by Tabari, Suyuti, al-Nasafi , and al-Māturīdī among others: Whoever of them were to say, "I am

22833-422: The kalam scholars progression was at first "because they were exposed to foreign literatures about philosophy...", then in the end they established kalam, which in practice damaged their creed of Islam. Ibn Qudama , 13th AD Hanbali scholar; harshly criticized kalam as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized their scholars, the mutakallimūn , as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from

23010-476: The large Mu'tazilite tafsir at-Tahdib fi tafsir al-Qur'an by al-Hakim al-Jishumi has not been edited, and there is no complete copy of it available at any single location, which limits its accessibility to scholars. It is an interpretation of the Quran which includes attribution of esoteric or mystic meanings to the text by the interpreter. In this respect, its method is different from the conventional exegesis. Esoteric interpretations do not usually contradict

23187-678: The late 10th century, the two renowned Ash'ari Kalam scholars, Ibn Furak and Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini (d. 1027) having studied in Baghdad arrived to teach in Khurasan at this time. Some of the prominent Shafi'i families in Nishapur took up the cause of Ash'arism and it became well-established in the city, which developed into the main hub of Shafi'ite learning in the East. Ash'arism swiftly proliferated throughout Iran's other Shafi'ite communities. It developed into

23364-409: The late Umayyad period if this report is authentic. In two narrations cited by Abdullah Ansari (d. 1089), Amr ibn Ubayd is identified as the one who "invented these innovations of kalām". Abu Hanifa is said to have cursed ʿAmr ibn ʿUbaid for "opening the way for people to speak (kalām) about what it is not their business to speak about." Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), on the other hand, believed that

23541-494: The main leader of the Iranian Revolution ; has used kalam to facilitate his socio-religious revival of moral spirit of the masses. As he formulate the revolutionary system on his states building, Khomeini's political thoughts was closely linked with kalam discourse. Including: Although seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond

23718-601: The mainstream Shafi'ite ideology in the Islamic world during the Seljuk era . In the Maghreb and al-Andalus, on the other hand, the Kalam was not yet a topic of discussion until the early 11th century. Al-Baqillani a Maliki jurist contributed to the propagation of Ash'arism within the Maliki circles in North Africa. One of his students, Abu Dharr al-Harawi was the first to introduce

23895-485: The moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. In the manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘ Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil. In his demonic form, Iblis is portrayed similar to his cohorts ( shayāṭīn ) in Turko-Persian art as Asian demons ( Dīv ). They are bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by

24072-544: The most important tafsir works in Sunni Islam. This work provides exegetical material for the whole Quran, also contains conflicting information, which Tabari tries either to harmonize or argues in support of the one he feels more correct. Further he includes different readings, which according to him, both might be correct and gives his own opinion after each argumentation. Both linguistical and theological subjects are discussed throughout his work. The period of Ibn Taimiyya

24249-530: The most important promoters of kalam discussions in the early Abbasid period was the Barmakid Yahya ibn Khalid , who served as vizier under Harun al-Rashid . Al-Yaʿqūbī (d. after 905) reports that he loved kalam and discussion (Naẓar), and that in his days the mutakallimūn became numerous and they debated with each other and wrote books. Al-Yaʿqūbī cites Hisham ibn al-Hakam and Dirar ibn Amr (d. 815) as examples of mutakallimīn of this period. According to

24426-423: The mouth of the serpent, Iblis speaks to Adam and Ḥawwāʾ. Iblis is perhaps one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities in Islamic tradition and was depicted in multiple visual representations like the Quran and Manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari . Iblis was a unique individual, described as both a pious jinni and an angel before he fell from God's grace when he refused to bow before

24603-416: The movement argue that among the miracles found in the Quran are "everything, from relativity , quantum mechanics , Big Bang theory , black holes and pulsars , genetics , embryology , modern geology , thermodynamics , even the laser and hydrogen fuel cells ". Zafar Ishaq Ansari terms the modern trend of claiming the identification of "scientific truths" in the Quran as the "scientific exegesis" of

24780-451: The name stems from the word " murr" – meaning "bitter", ‘ aduww Allāh or ‘ aduwallah ( Arabic : عُدُوّ الله , "enemy or foe" of God) and Abū Al-Harith ( Arabic : أَبُو الْحَارِث , "the father of the plowmen"). The designation Iblīs ( Arabic : إِبْلِيس ) may be an epithet referencing an attribute , deriving from the Arabic verbal root BLS ب-ل-س (with the broad meaning of "remain in grief"). According to Ibn Manzur this

24957-404: The needs of their time. Islamic theology is divided into myriad of schools and branches , and each of the schools' comments on the Quran with their own point of view. The time of Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari marks the classical period, which encompassed important Sunni tafsirs , such as Tafsir al-Thalabi , Tafsir of Al-Zamakhshari and Tafsir al-Tabari . Tafsir al-Tabari is one of

25134-451: The one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions ) into some internal harmony". Other factors that might have led the establishment of kalam was an effort by some Islamic scholars to oppose

25311-460: The opinions of the commentator, thus forming the more objective view on Quranic verses. The relative paucity of traditional sources is also a practical reason why the scope of the methodology is augmented. This is considered sanctioned by the Quran itself, as written in the surah Sad verse 29: ˹This is˺ a blessed Book which We have revealed to you ˹O Prophet˺ so that they may contemplate its verses, and people of reason may be mindful. This method

25488-529: The people. Indeed, I love to speak with the Shia ." The fact that the verb kallama is used here for "to speak with", from which the word kalām is derived, is seen by Josef van Ess as an indication that the specifically theological meaning of the kalām concept may have already developed at this time. According to a report quoted in the Kitab al-Aghani by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967), there were six representatives of

25665-464: The perplexity of native philologists and theologians when faced with the term kalām ". As for Western scholarship, Tjitze de Boer and Duncan Black MacDonald suggested that the term kalām was derived from the Greek word logos. Arent Jan Wensinck , on the other hand, rejected the view that the term kalām could have anything to do with logos or its derivatives in 1932, and argued that it had arisen "through

25842-420: The point where the Quran and hadith would only be accepted if it aligned with their interpretation of rationalism. The Hanbali school and followers of Ahmed Ibn Hanbal would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an innovation, and only address it out of necessity. However, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also provided an episode of long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by

26019-413: The progenitor of tempters, known as the "father of the devils" ( Abū ash-Shayāṭīn ). Ḥādīth literature emphasizes their evil influences over humans rather than treating them as proper personalities. Muslims are advised to "seek refuge" from such influences and are recommended to recite duʿāʾ (prayers) for protection. Sufi formulations of mystical union derive from careful and sustained dedication to

26196-564: The prophet Adam . After this incident, Iblis turned into a shaytan . In visual appearance, Iblis' depiction was described in On the Monstrous in the Islamic Visual Tradition by Francesca Leoni as a being with a human-like body with flaming eyes, a tail, claws, and large horns on a grossly disproportionate large head. Illustrations of Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced,

26373-415: The purity or impurity of every thing. All scholars depend on it, and it is the tool and model for every acquisition. What could be more important than something without which one cannot prove the glory of God or prophethood, and without which one cannot distinguish the true argument from the false argument and the proof from the false proof. The kalam makes it possible to distinguish the community (jama'a) from

26550-469: The reader that the Quran emphasizes that Iblis is the enemy of humanity and thus, there is no reason to have sympathies for him. Within the context of Sufi cosmology , the al-Insān al-Kāmil is a manifestation of God's attributes, not in the sense of incarnation but as a mirror reflecting the divine attributes. God ordered the angels to bow down to acknowledge this special status given to Adam. Due to his defective spiritual insights, Iblis cannot comprehend

26727-404: The rejection that their discipline experiences in society, and for even being willing to accept the sacrifice of poverty and lack of career opportunities as a Qadi . In another writing, al-Jahiz stated that without the Kalam, there would be no religion for God and no one would be distinguished from the heretics . There would be no difference between falsehood and truth and no separation between

26904-624: The said matter about the nature of Quran. The Hanbali scholars and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as bid'ah (heresy). After the longtime persecution of Mihna towards the Ahl a-Hadith since the time of his great-grandfather, caliph al-Mutawakkil changed the caliphate policy by restoring them to favor, while abandoning Mu'tazilites led by Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad. The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of

27081-422: The scholars' own time. Often than not, the distinction can be made between the ' amm (general) verses that aimed at universal conditions for Muslims, and khass (specific) verses that applied to specific conditions, time or need. This is considered an integral part of analyzing the universality of the Quran. Scholars usually do not favor to confine verses to a single time interval, but rather interpret according to

27258-401: The science of Kalām. At the end of the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun believed that the science of Kalam was no longer necessary for students of his time, because the heretics and innovators had since perished and it was sufficient to study what the Sunni imams had written to defend themselves against them. However, the science of Kalam experienced a revival in the 17th and 18th centuries in what

27435-476: The scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as shifat (attribution) of God which championed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal , the founder of Hanbali school . Ibn Battah has recorded in his work, Al-Ibāna , that Ahmad ibn Hanbal has instructed his students of total academic boycott against the scholars of kalam. Furthermore, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and qadi of caliphate, Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad regarding

27612-489: The sect (firqa) and the Sunnah from the Bid'ah . Al-Jahiz also compares the kalam to a border fortress, the defence of which requires great personal commitment. It is like a border fortress because all people are hostile towards its followers. Whoever gives this science its due can expect a corresponding reward. [ 85 ] Al-Jāhiz praises the Mutakallimūn for remaining loyal to their discipline out of conviction of its high value, despite

27789-431: The seventh chapter of his book, Mi'yar Al-'Ilm , Ibn Taymiyyah wrote that although he recognized that al-Ghazali's intention are not inherently bad in his attempt to describe the limit of human's mind in metaphysical and esoterical concepts, as it was aimed to oppose the core idea of kalam scholars that everything must be grasped by logic; although he still held that such discourse are moot as it only distract al-Ghazali from

27966-526: The similarity between the unique cosmological kalam philosophy taught by Mulla Sadra with Hindu Vedic Upanishads philosophy. In retrospect, Muhammad Kamal from Islamic studies at the Melbourne institute has stated Mulla Sadra philosophy was influenced by Avicenna and Ibn Arabi . Ruhollah Khomeini , Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, religious leader who served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran , founder of modern day Islamic Republic of Iran and

28143-428: The simple and pious faith of the early Muslims. Al-Dhahabi, 14th AD Hanbali scholar and historian; has made his derogatory statement towards kalam scholar by comparing them with Abu Jahl , the reviled figure in Islam during the time of Muhammad. Ibn Taymiyya, 14th AD Hanbali scholar; was notable for his bold stance against the doctrines of Mutakallimin in his works such as ar-Radd 'ala al-mantiqiyyın (Refutation of

28320-496: The special type of argumentation that characterizes the Kalam first appeared at the beginning of the second Islamic century with Jaʿd ibn Dirham (d. 724) and Jahm bin Safwan (d. 746). From them it then reached Amr ibn Ubayd and Wasil ibn Ata . According to the Ottoman scholar Taşköprüzade (d. 1561), the spread of the Kalam began as early as the year 100 of the Hijra (= 718/19 AD) through

28497-465: The tenth and eleventh centuries, the Maturidites flourished in Khurasan and Central Asia, while the Ash'arites posed a threat to Mu'tazila hegemony in central Iraq and Iran. Both schools use kalam to defend what we now refer to as "orthodox Islam" or traditionalist Islamic theological doctrine. Mu'tazalism would eventually fall because of this. This is noted by Western historians, who label the Mu'tazila as

28674-497: The term is meant to be a nisbah to designate Iblis's heavenly origin (i.e. an angel) in contrast to the earthly Adam (and the jinn preceding him), or if the term is meant to set Iblis apart from the angels and that he is the progenitor of the jinn dwelling in paradise until his fall (comparable to how Adam fell when he sinned in the Garden). This dispute goes back to the formative stage of Islam. These two conflicting opinions are based on

28851-413: The term mutakalli : "Undoubtedly this was once a derisive name, perhaps creating the image of people 'who talk forever.' Eventually, however, it became accepted as a neutral term." In fact, the origins of the kalām are obscure. This is also due to the fact that the specifically theological meaning of the words kalām and mutakallim was very slow to gain acceptance. Mutakallim initially only referred to

29028-553: The term originally arose in Abū Muslim's army and referred to political and religious propagandists such as the Dawah . However, there are reports that indicate that the culture of kalām existed before this. The Arab historian Abu Zakariya al-Azdi (d. 945) cites a report according to which the Umayyad caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720) is said to have said: "I have argued and spoken with

29205-543: The thoughs of Zandaqa in the Islamic world. Later schools of Kalam like the Kullabis , Asharites and Matuiridis representing as Sunni Islam would develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in kalam in accordance to the Quran and Sunnah . This was unlike the Mutazilites , whose kalam instead prioritised reason over revelation to

29382-467: The times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam , according to historian Majid Fakhry. One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews". Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on

29559-487: The transmitted reports, and Jewish apocryphal reports were also widely employed. Notable compilers on this age including Sufyan al-Thawri . Until this age, tafsir had been transmitted orally and had not been collected independently in a book, rather, they had been gathered by muhaddithun (lit. scholars of hadith) in their hadith books, under the topic of tafsir , along with other narrations of Muhammad. This indicates that tafsir , in its formative age, used to be

29736-499: The unity of believers and a unified understanding of Islam. Other features may include, attempts to proof the rationality of the Quranic worldview, compatibility with modern sciences, liberalism, literary criticism, and making the message of the Quran emotional relevant for the believer. Although such modern approaches became a standard only late, their ideas were much earlier present in the Islamicate world. Kadizadeli ( Qādīzādali ),

29913-485: The view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi'i, he discouraged the masses from studying it and that only the most able do so. Despite the dominance of kalam as an intellectual tradition within Islam, some scholars were critical of its use. For example, Hanbali school and followers of Ahmed Ibn Hanbal would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an innovation . The same sentiments

30090-461: The whole of the Quran or just portions of it. After the death of Muhammad, his companions ( sahabah ) undertook the task of interpretation. They used the information received from the prophet and their own understanding. The companions were adept with the language of the Quran, social context of the revelation, the prophet's way of thinking, and the norms of the Arabs. This allowed the companions to set

30267-409: Was created in such a way that God can demonstrate his entire spectrum of attributes (for example; jalal (majesty)) in his eternal speech (i.e. the Quran), and teaching the consequences of sin. Three things to avoid are marked by the fall of Iblis: Transgression ( ma'siyah ), arrogance ( istikbār ), and comparison ( qiyās ) to another creature of God. Although not the cause of evil, Iblis is known as

30444-474: Was ignorant ( jahl ) and did not understand God's will ( irāda ). However, Iblis' unbelief ( kufr ) would be ultimately caused by God. Al-Maghrībī states that, when the angels questioned the creation of Adam, God opened the angels' eyes for the characteristics of Adam, but closed the eyes of Iblis, so he would remain in resistance ( iḥtijāj ). Therefore, Iblis would have been created as a disobedient angel and function as God's tempter. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi ,

30621-423: Was limited to commentaries and glosses. However, the early modern period was a phase of "frozen conservatism" for Kalām science, as Louis Gardet writes. Muslim scholars also diagnosed a decline in this discipline. The Ottoman-Turkish scholar İsmail Hakkı İzmirli (d. 1946), for example, complained that in his time there were very few people who really knew the Kalām problems and understood the Kalām riddles. There

30798-646: Was so 'astonished by'" the Quranic references, which Rizvi found "vague", and insofar as they were specific, preceded by the observations of Aristotle and the Ayr-veda , or easily explained by "common sense". Critics argue, verses that proponents say explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology , the origin and history of the Earth, and the evolution of human life , contain fallacies and are unscientific. As of 2008, both Muslims and non-Muslims have disputed whether there actually are "scientific miracles" in

30975-470: Was stated by himself that his opposition towards kalam were influenced by the thoughts of Al-Shawkani, Al-San'ani and Ibn Taymiyya. Rashid Rida , 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school; in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw

31152-433: Was the first ruler to commission Mutakallimūn representing Islam to write books against Mulhid from the circle of the Manichaeans , Bardesanites and Marcionites and to refute their arguments. The reason for this was that at that time writings of these groups had spread and were being translated from New Persian and Middle Persian into Arabic. In early Islam, the Ahl al-Kalām or "Kalamites" essentially referred to

31329-655: Was written according to the Hanafi Madhhab , Aḥkam al-Qur'an by Qaḍi Abū Bakr ibn al-'Arabī and al-Jaami' Li'Aḥkam al-Qur'an by al-Qurtubi were written according to the Maliki Madhhab , and Aḥkam al-Qur'an by Ilkiya was written according to the Shafi'i Madhhab. Some also cite Zad al-Maseer of ibn al-Jawzi as an example of a legal tafsir according to the Hanbali Madhhab . A newer work which incorporates and quotes

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