Misplaced Pages

#556443

78-481: His influential three-volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, published posthumously, introduced new frameworks for understanding Islam's global and cultural dimensions. Hodgson's work continues to be foundational in Islamic studies and has influenced approaches to world history, especially through his critique of Eurocentrism and his concept of the "Islamicate." Marshall Hodgson

156-496: A Second European colonization wave . The assumption of European exceptionalism is widely reflected in popular genres of literature, especially in literature for young adults (for example, Rudyard Kipling 's 1901 novel Kim ) and in adventure-literature in general. Portrayal of European colonialism in such literature has been analysed in terms of Eurocentrism in retrospect, such as presenting idealised and often exaggeratedly masculine Western heroes, who conquered "savage" peoples in

234-531: A broader social and cultural complex within the Muslim world, even when found among non-Muslims. In this work, Hodgson used "Islamicate" to describe cultural aspects rooted in an Arabic and Persian literary tradition yet encompassing a broader social and cultural complex within the Muslim world, even when found among non-Muslims. For example, he classified wine poetry as "Islamicate" rather than strictly "Islamic." The terminology has been both influential and debated within

312-554: A discourse that is implicitly counter-productive to the anti-Eurocentric values they advocate." [Africa] is no historical part of the World, it has no movement or development to exhibit. Historical movements in it- that is in the northern part- belong to the Atlantic or European World. Carthage displayed there an important transitionary phase of civilization; but, as a Phoenician colony, it belongs to Asia. Egypt will be considered in reference to

390-458: A global context. Hodgson’s concept of the "Islamicate" was one of his most distinctive contributions, developed to describe cultural elements influenced by Islamic civilization but not confined to religious practices. Historian Bruce B. Lawrence has described Hodgson as a scholar with a "moral vision of world history" and highlighted how the concept of the "Islamicate" challenged conventional Eurocentric frameworks, reframing Islamic civilization as

468-504: A key component within wider, interconnected world history. Lawrence argues that Hodgson's approach reoriented the focus on the West as the central axis of global civilization, instead presenting Islamicate civilization as influential in shaping modernity. Historian Richard Maxwell Eaton observed that while Hodgson aimed to decentralize Islamic studies, his “cores” and “peripheries” model introduced inconsistencies. By emphasizing certain regions as

546-670: A large population of Chinese people . European women are ranked below Chinese women in the female beauty hierarchy. According to the author, the blonde hair of Swedish women reduced their femininity, because it was racialized as a Western trait. The authors also noted that these women's Swedish husbands were highly attracted to local East Asian women, which further reduced the self-esteem of the blonde Swedish women living in Singapore. The use of European female models has actually declined within Japan, and some Japanese skincare companies have discontinued

624-488: A multidisciplinary approach and their growing legitimacy in historiography, contemporary historians are still tasked with decolonising African historiography , building the institutional frameworks incorporating African epistemologies , and representing an African perspective. Eurocentrism affected Latin America through colonial domination and expansion. This occurred through the application of new criteria meant to "impose

702-451: A new social classification of the world population on a global scale". Based on this occurrence, a new social-historic identities were newly produced, although already produced in America. Some of these names include; 'Whites', 'Negroes', 'Blacks', 'Yellows', 'Olives', 'Indians', and 'Mestizos'. With the advantage of being located in the Atlantic basin, 'Whites' were in a privileged to control gold and silver production. The work which created

780-479: A new understanding of them not as psychologically damaged dupes, but instead as agential experts in children's culture." In 2012, Mexicans recreated the doll test. Mexico's National Council to Prevent Discrimination presented a video where children had to pick the "good doll", and the doll that looks like them. By doing this experiment, the researchers sought to analyse the degree to which Mexican children are influenced by modern-day media accessible to them. Most of

858-786: A role in the 2000s to 2010s in the context of the academic discourse on race in the United States and critical whiteness studies , aiming to expose white supremacism and white privilege . Afrocentrist scholars, such as Molefi Kete Asante , have argued that there is a prevalence of Eurocentric thought in the processing of much of academia on African affairs. Similarly, the Asiacentric scholar, Yoshitaka Miike, has critiqued theoretical, methodological, and comparative Eurocentrism in knowledge production about Asian societies and cultures. In contrast, in an article, 'Eurocentrism and Academic Imperialism' by Professor Seyed Mohammad Marandi , from

SECTION 10

#1732845688557

936-547: A show of positive leadership). In both forms of Eurocentrism, the discourse performs "the West" as the main actor capable of organising the world in its image. European exceptionalism remains the same—although, from the postcolonial Eurocentric view, Europe is not considered to be the best actor ever, but the worst.' Arab journalists detected Eurocentrism in western media coverage of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, when

1014-491: A substantial impact on the fields of Islamic studies and world history, influencing generations of scholars and continuing to be viewed as foundational. His work largely avoided later ideological debates within Middle Eastern studies, allowing it to be assessed on its scholarly merits. The New York Times characterized Hodgson’s approach to Islamic studies as focused on understanding Islam’s broad historical contributions within

1092-416: Is also considered to be the primary "proactive" subject of world politics—but, in this case, by being described as the leading edge of global oppression, not progress. Indeed, according to postcolonial Eurocentrism, European capacity to homogenise the world according to its own standards of unification is considered to be a malevolent process (i.e. the destruction of diversity) rather than a benevolent one (i.e.

1170-687: Is an American historian , currently working as a professor of history at the University of Arizona . He is known for having written the notable books on the history of India before 1800. He is also credited for his work on the social roles of Sufis , slavery , and cultural history of pre-modern India. His research is focused on the Deccan , the Bengal frontier, and Islam in India . Some of his notable works include Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States and India in

1248-475: Is better. Donna Goldstein's book Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown also addresses how whiteness influences beauty in Brazil. Goldstein notes that in Brazil, there is a hierarchy for beauty that places being mixed race at the top and pure, un-admixed black characteristics at the bottom, calling them ugly. Richard Maxwell Eaton Richard Maxwell Eaton (born 1940)

1326-484: Is by looking at their hair, nose, then mouth before considering skin colour. Edmonds focuses on the popularity of plastic surgery in Brazilian culture. Plastic surgeons usually applaud and flatter mixtures when emulating aesthetics for performing surgery, and the more popular mixture is African and European. This shapes beauty standards by racialising biological and popular beauty ideals to suggest that mixture with whiteness

1404-581: Is characteristic of three misconceptions manifested by self-centerment, the fixed development of Oriental countries and linear progress. There has been some debate on whether historical Eurocentrism qualifies as "just another ethnocentrism ", as it is found in most of the world's cultures, especially in cultures with imperial aspirations, as in the Sinocentrism in China; in the Empire of Japan (c. 1868–1945), or during

1482-721: Is clearly the most important of the five continents, over which it has gained a most influential government both in material and even more so in cultural aspects". European exceptionalism thus grew out of the Great Divergence of the Early Modern period , due to the combined effects of the Scientific Revolution , the Commercial Revolution , and the rise of colonial empires , the Industrial Revolution and

1560-499: Is dramatic. It is a conflict between natural and artificial contexts." Indigenous scholars Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Linco state that "in some ways, the epistemological critique initiated by Indigenous knowledge is more radical than other sociopolitical critiques of the West, for the Indigenous critique questions the very foundations of Western ways of knowing and being." The terms Afrocentrism vs. Eurocentrism have come to play

1638-504: Is preserved at the University of Chicago Library’s Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center. Spanning from 1940 to 1971, this archive includes correspondence, teaching materials, research notes, and writings that reflect his contributions to Islamic and world history. Eurocentrism Eurocentrism (also Eurocentricity or Western-centrism ) refers to viewing the West as

SECTION 20

#1732845688557

1716-539: Is shown in the latter, as the nature of manifest Orientalism is to be altered with new findings, which leaves it vulnerable to the warping of its refiner's ideals and principles. In this state, eurocentrism has used orientalism to portray the Orient as "backwards" and bolster the superiority of the Western world and continue the undermining of their cultures to further the agenda of racial inequality. With those wanting to represent

1794-501: Is the morena ; a mixed-race brown woman who is supposed to represent the best characteristics of every racial group in Brazil. According to Alexander Edmond's book Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex, and Plastic Surgery in Brazil , whiteness plays a role in Latin American, specifically Brazilian, beauty standards, but it is not necessarily distinguished based on skin colour. Edmonds said the main ways to define whiteness in people in Brazil

1872-494: Is the speciality of Europe, because Oriental countries such as India and China do not contain the factors which would enable them to develop capitalism in a sufficient manner. Weber wrote and published many treatises in which he emphasized the distinctiveness of Europe. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), he wrote that the "rational" capitalism, manifested by its enterprises and mechanisms, only appeared in

1950-592: The American Century . James M. Blaut (2000) argued that Eurocentrism indeed went beyond other ethnocentrisms, as the scale of European colonial expansion was historically unprecedented and resulted in the formation of a "colonizer's model of the world". Indigenous philosophies have been noted to greatly contrast with Eurocentric thought. Indigenous scholar James (Sákéj) Youngblood Henderson states that Eurocentricism contrasts greatly with Indigenous worldviews: "the discord between Aboriginal and Eurocentric worldviews

2028-439: The University of Tehran , states that Eurocentric thought exists in almost all aspects of academia in many parts of the world, especially in the humanities. Edgar Alfred Bowring states that in the West, self-regard, self-congratulation and denigration of the 'Other' run more deeply and those tendencies have infected more aspects of their thinking, laws and policy than anywhere else. Luke Clossey and Nicholas Guyatt have measured

2106-458: The whole surface of the globe ; Western scholars carried out fundamental research into all the languages of the world and established the sciences of archaeology and anthropology . During the European colonial era , encyclopaedias often sought to give a rationale for the predominance of European rule during the colonial period by referring to a special position taken by Europe compared to

2184-457: The 1920s. The term was popularised (in French as européocentrique ) in the context of decolonization and internationalism in the mid-20th century. English usage of Eurocentric as an ideological term in identity politics was current by the mid-1980s. The abstract noun Eurocentrism (French eurocentrisme , earlier europocentrisme ) as the term for an ideology was coined in the 1970s by

2262-612: The 19th century. The coinage of Western-centrism is younger, attested in the late 1990s, and specific to English. According to historian Enrique Dussel , Eurocentrism has its roots in Hellenocentrism . Art historian and critic Christopher Allen points out that since antiquity, the outward-looking spirit of Western civilization has been more curious about other peoples and more open about learning about them than any other: Herodotus and Strabo travelled through Ancient Egypt and wrote about it in detail; Western explorers mapped

2340-568: The Civil War era. Bernstein posits that the choices made by the subjects of the Clark doll tests were not necessarily an indication of black self-hatred. Instead, it was a cultural choice between two different toys—one that was to be loved and one that was to be physically harassed, as exemplified in performance and popular media. According to Bernstein, this argument "redeems the Clarks' child subjects by offering

2418-685: The Egyptian Marxian economist Samir Amin , then director of the African Institute for Economic Development and Planning of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa . Amin used the term in the context of a global, core–periphery or dependency model of capitalist development. English usage of Eurocentrism is recorded by 1979. According to Amin, Eurocentrism dates back to the Rennaisance, and did not flourish until

Marshall Hodgson - Misplaced Pages Continue

2496-598: The Islamic world . Stemming from Eurocentrism's innate bias towards Western civilization came the creation of the concept of the "European Society," which favoured the components (mainly Christianity) of European civilization and allowed eurocentrists to brand diverging societies and cultures as "uncivilized". Prevalent during the nineteenth century, the labelling of uncivilised in the eyes of eurocentrists enabled Western countries to classify non-European and non-white countries as inferior, and limit their inclusion and contribution in actions like international law. This exclusion

2574-478: The Protestant western countries, and a series of generalised and universal cultural phenomena only appear in the west. Even the state, with a written constitution and a government organised by trained administrators and constrained by rational law, only appears in the West, even though other regimes can also comprise states. ("Rationality" is a multi-layered term whose connotations are developed and escalated as with

2652-553: The West, underscoring the significance of his terms like "Islamdom" and "Islamicate" for advancing a nuanced understanding of Islamic civilization. Posthumously, Hodgson was awarded the Ralph Waldo Emerson Award by the Phi Beta Kappa Society. Scholars like Edmund Burke III continue to engage with Hodgson’s ideas, contributing to the ongoing development of his intellectual legacy. A collection of Hodgson’s papers

2730-497: The academic community. Hodgson’s contributions to world history, particularly his critiques of Eurocentrism and Orientalism , were rediscovered and later published under the title Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History , edited by Edmund Burke III . In this work, he argued that the “Rise of Europe” was not unique but rather the outcome of long-term developments across Eurasian civilizations. He proposed that other regions, like 12th-century China, were on

2808-616: The birthplace of the “Great Western Transmutation.” By attributing modernity solely to Europe, Eaton contends that Hodgson may have inadvertently reinforced Eurocentric views, potentially establishing a dichotomy between Islam and Europe that Hodgson originally sought to counter. Hodgson’s terms "Islamdom" and "Islamicate," coined to distinguish between religious and cultural elements of Islamic civilization, have received mixed responses. While some scholars consider these constructs innovative, Eaton argues that such terms might territorialize Islamic civilization, imposing rigid boundaries that overlook

2886-512: The brink of an industrial revolution that was interrupted by events like the Mongol invasions. He wrote: The two most significant influences on Hodgson’s thought were the French orientalist and priest Louis Massignon , who instilled in him empathy and respect for Islam, and the 18th-century American Quaker John Woolman , whose views on Eurocentrism and ethics mirrored Hodgson’s Quaker ideals. Hodgson’s work, particularly The Venture of Islam , has had

2964-632: The center of world events or superior to all other cultures. The exact scope of Eurocentrism varies from the entire Western world to just the continent of Europe or even more narrowly, to Western Europe (especially during the Cold War ). When the term is applied historically, it may be used in reference to the presentation of the European perspective on history as objective or absolute, or to an apologetic stance toward European colonialism and other forms of imperialism . The term "Eurocentrism" dates back to

3042-518: The children chose the white doll; they also stated that it looked like them. The people who carried out the study noted that Eurocentrism is deeply rooted in different cultures, including Latin cultures. Skin lightening has become a common practice in some countries. A 2011 study found that, in Tanzania , motivation for the use of skin lightening products is to look more 'European'. However, in East Asia,

3120-425: The concept of eurocentrism has evolved. Alina Sajed and John Hobson point to the emergence of a critical eurocentrism, stressing that 'while [critical IR theory] is certainly critical of the West, nevertheless its tendency towards "Eurofetishism" –by which Western agency is reified at the expense of non-Western agency– leads it into a "critical Eurocentrism". Expanding on their work, Audrey Alejandro has put forward

3198-453: The core of Islamic civilization, Hodgson’s framework inadvertently reasserts traditional geographic hierarchies. Eaton suggests that this approach may create an inconsistency within Hodgson’s otherwise inclusive framework, which intended to highlight Islam's role as a dynamic, cross-regional civilization. Eaton also critiqued Hodgson’s treatment of modernity, particularly his emphasis on Europe as

Marshall Hodgson - Misplaced Pages Continue

3276-449: The cultures and civilizations of the Islamic world, but also the aspects and ideas of Orientalism , a cultural idea that distinguished the "Orient" of the East from the " Occidental " Western societies of Europe and North America, and which was originally created so that the social and cultural milestones of the Islamic and Oriental world would be recognised. This effect began to take place during

3354-433: The degree of Eurocentrism in the research programs of top history departments. Some authors have focused on how scholars who denounce Eurocentrism often inadvertently reproduce Eurocentrism through culturally bias norm's. The methodologist Audrey Alejandro refers to this process as a "recursive paradox": "It is a methodo-epistemological recursive paradox that [International Relations] critical scholars experience, producing

3432-502: The depth and scope of coverage and concern contrasted with that devoted to longer-running contemporary wars outside Europe such as those in Syria and in Yemen . Eurocentrism has been a particularly important concept in development studies . Brohman (1995) argued that Eurocentrism "perpetuated intellectual dependence on a restricted group of prestigious Western academic institutions that determine

3510-643: The development of capitalism and early industrialization. As a result, by the 19th century European powers dominated world trade and world politics . In Lectures on the Philosophy of History , published in 1837, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw world history as starting in Asia but shifting to Greece and Italy, and then north of the Alps to France, Germany and England. Hegel interpreted India and China as stationary countries, lacking inner momentum. Hegel's China replaced

3588-403: The disciples of the social sciences and history guided by Eurocentrism. He criticised some Western scholars for their ideas that non-Western areas lack outstanding contributions in history, economy, ideology, politics and culture compared with the West. These scholars believed that the same contribution made by the West gives Westerners an advantage of endo-genetic momentum which is pushed towards

3666-545: The discrimination they faced. The tested children also labelled the white dolls with positive descriptions. One of the criticisms of this experiment is presented by Robin Bernstein, a professor of African and African American studies and women, gender, and sexuality, who argues that the Clarks' tests were scientifically flawed, though they did reflect a negative portrayal of black dolls in American theater and media that dates back to

3744-437: The domination of European powers across the continent meant African history was written from an entirely European perspective under the pretence of Western superiority supported by scientific racism . Oral sources were deprecated and dismissed by unfamiliar historians, giving them the impression that Africa had no history nor desire to create it. Despite a movement in the mid to late 20th century towards utilising oral sources in

3822-465: The dualistic properties that it labels on non-European countries, cultures and persons have often been criticised in the political discourse of the 1990s and 2000s, particularly in the greater context of political correctness , race in the United States and affirmative action . In the 1990s, there was a trend of criticising various geographic terms current in the English language as Eurocentric, such as

3900-512: The eurocentric ideals better by way of orientalism, there came a barrier of languages, being Arabic, Persian, and other similar languages. With more researchers wanting to study more of Orientalism, there was an assumption made about the languages of the Islamic world: that having the ability to transcribe the texts of the past Islamic world would give great knowledge and insight on oriental studies. In order to do this, many researchers underwent training in philology , believing that an understanding of

3978-726: The faculty at the University of Chicago, where he rose through the ranks to become a professor and received tenure in 1961. In 1964, he was appointed chairman of both the Committee on Social Thought and the newly established Committee on Near Eastern Studies. His course on Islamic civilizations, established in 1957, expanded beyond traditional Orientalist perspectives by covering the contributions of Persianate and Turkic dynasties, as well as broader Islamic culture. Throughout his career, he collaborated with historians such as Gustave von Grunebaum, Muhsin Mehdi, William McNeill, and John U. Nef. Hodgson

SECTION 50

#1732845688557

4056-609: The fluid interactions within Islamic societies. According to a critical appraisal of Hodgson's perspective, these terms attempt to capture Islam’s cultural reach but may fall short of conveying the diversity within Muslim societies, presenting challenges in defining complex civilizational identities. In a broader context, Edward Said questioned Hodgson’s place within the Orientalist tradition, arguing that even frameworks intended to be objective can unintentionally project external views onto non-Western societies. Said’s critique underscores

4134-614: The globe varies by region, with Eurocentric ideals having a relatively strong impact in South Asia but little to no impact in East Asia. However, Eurocentric beauty ideals have also been on the decline in the United States, especially with the success of Asian female models, which may be signaling a breakdown in the hegemony of White American beauty ideals. In Vietnam, Eurocentric beauty ideals have been openly rejected, as local women consider Western women's ideal of beauty as being overweight, masculine and unattractive. Another study questioning

4212-462: The historians revolving their conclusions around the idea of a central point that favours the notion that the evolution of societies and their progress are dictated by general tendencies, leading to the Islamic world's evolution becoming more of a philosophical topic of history instead of historical fact. Along with this, eurocentrism extends to trivialise and marginalise the philosophies, scientific contributions, cultures, and other additional facets of

4290-441: The idea of a postcolonial eurocentrism, understood as an emerging form of Eurocentrism that follows the criteria of Eurocentrism commonly mentioned in the literature – denial of 'non-Western' agency, teleological narrative centred on the 'West' and idealization of the 'West' as normative referent—but whose system of value is the complete opposite of the one embodied by traditional Eurocentrism: With postcolonial Eurocentrism, Europe

4368-495: The impact of Eurocentric beauty ideals in South Asia noted that Indian women won a relatively high number of international beauty pageants, and that Indian media tends to use mostly Indian female models. The authors cite the dominance of the Bollywood film industry in India, which tends to minimize the impact of Western ideals. In the 1940s, psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark conducted experiments called "the doll tests" to examine

4446-410: The impact of Eurocentrism in beauty advertisements has been minimal. Anti-European undercurrents in local advertisements for female-oriented products are quite common. European models are hired for around half of advertisements made by European brands such as Estée Lauder and L'Oréal , while local Japanese cosmetics brands tend to use exclusively East Asian female models. In Singapore, a country with

4524-405: The languages would be the only necessary training. This reasoning came as the belief at the time was that other studies like anthropology and sociology were deemed irrelevant as they did not believe it misleading to this portion of mankind. Due to colonialism, Eurocentric beauty ideals have had varying degrees of impact on the cultures of non-Western countries. The influence on beauty ideals across

4602-614: The late 18th century as a disproportionate Western interest in and idealization of Eastern (i.e. Asian) cultures. By the early 20th century, some historians, such as Arnold J. Toynbee , were attempting to construct multifocal models of world civilizations. Toynbee also drew attention in Europe to non-European historians, such as the medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun . He also established links with Asian thinkers, such as through his dialogues with Daisaku Ikeda of Soka Gakkai International . Authors show that since its first conceptualization,

4680-563: The late 1970s but it did not become prevalent until the 1990s, when it was frequently applied in the context of decolonization and development and humanitarian aid that industrialised countries offered to developing countries. The term has since been used to critique Western narratives of progress , Western scholars who have downplayed and ignored non-Western contributions, and to contrast Western epistemologies with Indigenous epistemologies . The adjective Eurocentric , or Europe-centric , has been in use in various contexts since at least

4758-456: The nineteenth century when the Orientalist ideals were distilled and shifted from topics of sensuality and deviating mentalities to what is described by Edward Said as "unchallenged coherence". Along with this shift came the creation of two types of orientalism: latent, which covered the Orient's constant durability through history, and manifest, a more dynamic orientalism that changes with the new discovery of information. The eurocentric influence

SECTION 60

#1732845688557

4836-399: The oral word, contrasted with literate civilisations which pride the written word. Prior to colonisation , most African societies used oral tradition to record their long history, along with their state apparatus such as constitutions and court proceedings, including in cases where they had developed or had adapted a writing script . This meant there was little written history , and

4914-544: The other continents. Thus Johann Heinrich Zedler , in 1741, wrote that "even though Europe is the smallest of the world's four continents , it has for various reasons a position that places it before all others.... Its inhabitants have excellent customs, they are courteous and erudite in both sciences and crafts". The Brockhaus Enzyklopädie ( Conversations-Lexicon ) of 1847 still expressed an ostensibly Eurocentric approach and claimed about Europe that "its geographical situation and its cultural and political significance

4992-600: The passage of the human mind from its Eastern to its Western phase, but it does not belong to the African Spirit. What we properly understand by Africa, is the Unhistorical, Underdeveloped spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature, and which have to be presented here only as on the threshold of the World’s History. Most African societies have generally been termed oral civilisations due to their reverence for

5070-623: The practice began long before exposure to Europeans – tan skin was associated with lower-class field work, and thus constant exposure to sun, while having pale skin signified belonging to the upper-class. Skin bleaching can have negative health effects. One study observed that, among the female population of Senegal in West Africa, 26% of women were using skin lightening creams at the time. The most common products used were hydroquinone and corticosteroids. 75% of women who used these creams showed adverse cutaneous effects, mainly acne . In East Asia,

5148-564: The product was by 'Indians' and 'Negroes'. With the control of commercial capital from 'White' workers. And therefore, Europe or Western Europe emerged as the central place of new patterns and capitalist power. Eurocentrism's effect on the Islamic world has predominantly come from a fundamental statement of preventing the account of lower-level explanation and account of Islamic cultures and their social evolution, mainly through eurocentrism's idealist construct. This construct has gained power from

5226-472: The psychological effects of segregation on African-American children. They tested children by presenting them with four dolls, identical in all but skin tone. The children were instructed to choose which doll they preferred and were asked the race of the doll. Most of the children chose the white doll. The Clarks stated in their results that the perceptions of the African-American children had been altered by

5304-547: The real historical development with a fixed, stable scenario, which made it the outsider of world history. Both India and China were waiting and anticipating a combination of certain factors from outside until they could acquire real progress in human civilization . Hegel's ideas had a profound impact on western historiography and attitudes. Some scholars disagree with his ideas that the Oriental countries were outside of world history. Max Weber (1864-1920) suggested that capitalism

5382-649: The remaining "dark spaces" of the globe. The European miracle , a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981, refers to the surprising rise of Europe during the Early Modern period. During the 15th to 18th centuries, a great divergence took place, comprising the European Renaissance, the European Age of Discovery , the formation of European colonial empires , the Age of Reason , and the associated leap forward in technology and

5460-440: The rest of the world, but Frank believed that the Oriental countries also contributed to the human civilization in their own perspectives. Arnold Toynbee in his A Study of History , gave a critical remark on Eurocentrism. He believed that although western capitalism shrouded the world and achieved a political unity based on its economy, the Western countries cannot "westernize" other countries. Toynbee concluded that Eurocentrism

5538-605: The social progress. Weber regarded rationality as a proprietary article for western capitalist society.) Even in the 19th century, anticolonial movements had developed claims about national traditions and values that were set against those of Europe in Africa and India. In some cases, as China, where local ideology was even more exclusionist than the Eurocentric one, Westernization did not overwhelm longstanding Chinese attitudes to its own cultural centrality. Orientalism developed in

5616-470: The subject matter and methods of research". In treatises on historical or contemporary Eurocentrism that appeared since the 1990s, Eurocentrism is mostly cast in terms of dualisms such as civilised/barbaric or advanced/backward, developed/undeveloped, core/periphery, implying "evolutionary schemas through which societies inevitably progress", with a remnant of an "underlying presumption of a superior white Western self as referent of analysis." Eurocentrism and

5694-754: The tension in Western scholarship between striving for neutrality and reinforcing external interpretations of Islamic civilization. Despite these critiques, Hodgson’s work remains foundational in Islamic studies. His concepts continue to stimulate scholarly discussions, leading others to refine and build upon his ideas to enhance understanding of Islamic civilization within a global context. Hodgson’s approach to Islamic history, while celebrated for its depth, presents challenges in undergraduate education. According to Lawrence, The Venture of Islam can be difficult for students due to its complex language and original terminology. Despite this, Lawrence sees Hodgson’s work as an essential tool for moving beyond binary views of Islam and

5772-491: The traditional division of Eurasia into Europe and Asia or the term Middle East. Eric Sheppard , in 2005, argued that contemporary Marxism itself has Eurocentric traits (in spite of "Eurocentrism" originating in the vocabulary of Marxian economics), because it supposes that the third world must go through a stage of capitalism before "progressive social formations can be envisioned". Andre Gunder Frank harshly criticised Eurocentrism. He believed that most scholars were

5850-448: The use of Western female models entirely, while others have even portrayed white women as explicitly inferior to Asian women, on the basis of their lighter hair color. There is a widespread belief in Japan that Japanese women's skin color is "better" than white women's, and the placement of European female models in local advertisements does not reflect any special status of white women within Japan. The beauty ideal for females in Brazil

5928-536: Was born in Richmond, Indiana , on April 11, 1922. Raised as a practicing Quaker , he adhered to a strictly vegetarian lifestyle, reflecting his commitment to Quaker values. During World War II, he served in the Civilian Public Service as a conscientious objector from 1943 to 1946. He earned his Ph.D in 1951 from the University of Chicago, where he would later build a distinguished academic career. Hodgson joined

6006-627: Was married and had three daughters. He passed away in 1968 while jogging on the University of Chicago campus. Although Hodgson published sparingly during his life, his three-volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization , has become one of the most influential texts in the field. Published posthumously by the University of Chicago Press with contributions from Reuben Smith and colleagues, The Venture of Islam redefined academic approaches to Islamic studies. Hodgson used "Islamicate" to refer to cultural aspects rooted in an Arabic and Persian literary tradition yet encompassing

6084-415: Was seen as acceptable by individuals like John Westlake , a professor of international law at the University of Cambridge at the time, who commented that countries with European civilizations should be those which comprise the international society, and that countries like Turkey and Persia should only be allowed a part of international law. Eurocentrism's reach has not only affected the perception of

#556443