Humanitas (from the Latin hūmānus , "human") is a Latin noun meaning human nature , civilization , and kindness. It has uses in the Enlightenment , which are discussed below.
132-487: The Latin word humanitas corresponded to the Greek concepts of philanthrôpía (loving what makes us human) and paideia (education) which were amalgamated with a series of qualities that made up the traditional unwritten Roman code of conduct ( mos maiorum ). Cicero (106–43 BCE ) used humanitas in describing the formation of an ideal speaker ( orator ) who he believed should be educated to possess
264-514: A 13th-century hagiographical account of famous saints that was widely read, included an account of Seneca's death scene, and erroneously presented Nero as a witness to Seneca's suicide. Dante placed Seneca (alongside Cicero ) among the "great spirits" in the First Circle of Hell , or Limbo . Boccaccio , who in 1370 came across the works of Tacitus whilst browsing the library at Montecassino , wrote an account of Seneca's suicide hinting that it
396-544: A Christian education. In this they followed the fifth century Church fathers such as Jerome and Augustine , who taught that Greek and Roman learning and literature were gifts of God and models of excellence, provided, of course, they were filtered and purified in order to serve Christianity. According to historian Peter Gay , the eighteenth-century French philosophes of the Enlightenment found Cicero's eclectic, Stoic -tinged paganism congenial: The ideal of humanitas
528-529: A basis for reform-minded education in Seneca's ideas she used to propose a mode of modern education that avoids both narrow traditionalism and total rejection of tradition. Elsewhere Seneca has been noted as the first great Western thinker on the complex nature and role of gratitude in human relationships. Seneca is a character in Monteverdi 's 1642 opera L'incoronazione di Poppea ( The Coronation of Poppea ), which
660-658: A cause and lobby the government for legislative change. This included organized campaigns against the ill-treatment of animals and children and the campaign that succeeded in ending the slave trade throughout the Empire starting in 1807. Although there were no slaves allowed in Britain itself, many rich men owned sugar plantations in the West Indies, and resisted the movement to buy them out until it finally succeeded in 1833. Financial donations to organized charities became fashionable among
792-483: A codicil of his will, even when in the height of his wealth and power he was thinking of life's close." This may give the impression of a favorable portrait of Seneca, but Tacitus's treatment of him is at best ambivalent. Alongside Seneca's apparent fortitude in the face of death, for example, one can also view his actions as rather histrionic and performative; and when Tacitus tells us that he left his family an imago suae vitae ( Annales 15.62), "an image of his life", he
924-504: A collection of virtues of character suitable both for an active life of public service and a decent and fulfilling private life; these would include a fund of learning acquired from the study of bonae litterae ("good letters", i.e., classical literature, especially poetry), which would also be a source of continuing cultivation and pleasure in leisure and retirement, youth and old age, and good and bad fortune. Insofar as humanitas corresponded to philanthrôpía and paideia , it
1056-852: A compromise between the Christian Democrats and the Socialists to help promote uniform treatment and equal outcomes. The success in Italy became a model for Ford programs and many other nations. The Ford Foundation in the 1950s wanted to modernize the legal systems in India and Africa , by promoting the American model. The plan failed, because of India's unique legal history, traditions, and profession , as well as its economic and political conditions. Ford, therefore, turned to agricultural reform. The success rate in Africa
1188-445: A fairly orthodox Stoic, albeit a free-minded one. His works discuss both ethical theory and practical advice, and Seneca stresses that both parts are distinct but interdependent. His Letters to Lucilius showcase Seneca's search for ethical perfection. Seneca regards philosophy as a balm for the wounds of life. The destructive passions, especially anger and grief, must be uprooted, or moderated according to reason. He discusses
1320-411: A highly distorted, misconstrued view. Such is the view left to us of Seneca, if we were to rely upon Suillius alone." More recent work is changing the dominant perception of Seneca as a mere conduit for pre-existing ideas, showing originality in Seneca's contribution to the history of ideas . Examination of Seneca's life and thought in relation to contemporary education and to the psychology of emotions
1452-523: A less than "Stoic" lifestyle. While banished to Corsica, he wrote a plea for restoration rather incompatible with his advocacy of a simple life and the acceptance of fate. In his Apocolocyntosis he ridiculed the behaviors and policies of Claudius, and flattered Nero—such as proclaiming that Nero would live longer and be wiser than the legendary Nestor . The claims of Publius Suillius Rufus that Seneca acquired some "three hundred million sesterces " through Nero's favor are highly partisan, but they reflect
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#17328591188011584-522: A letter justifying the murder to the Senate. In AD 58 the senator Publius Suillius Rufus made a series of public attacks on Seneca. These attacks, reported by Tacitus and Cassius Dio , included charges that, in a mere four years of service to Nero, Seneca had acquired a vast personal fortune of three hundred million sestertii by charging high interest on loans throughout Italy and the provinces. Suillius' attacks included claims of sexual corruption, with
1716-507: A manuscript of Cicero's speech, Pro Archia , which contained a famous passage in defense of poetry and litterae (letters): Haec studia adolescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis perfugium ac solacium praebent, delectant domi, non impediunt foris, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur. These studies nourish youth, entertain old age, enhance prosperity, offer refuge and solace too in adversity, delight us at home, not hindering us out of doors, spend
1848-448: A means to alleviate human suffering and advance the quality of life. There are many forms of philanthropy, allowing for different impacts by different groups in different settings. Celebrity philanthropy refers to celebrity -affiliated charitable and philanthropic activities. It is a scholarship topic in studies of "the popular" vis-à-vis the modern and post-modern world. Structured and systematised charitable giving by celebrities
1980-495: A mock encomium , inverting the portrayal of Nero and Seneca that appears in Tacitus. In this work Cardano portrayed Seneca as a crook of the worst kind, an empty rhetorician who was only thinking to grab money and power, after having poisoned the mind of the young emperor. Cardano stated that Seneca well deserved death. Among the historians who have sought to reappraise Seneca is the scholar Anna Lydia Motto , who in 1966 argued that
2112-404: A model for others, especially regarding the welfare state . The princes and the various imperial states continued traditional efforts, funding monumental buildings, parks, and art collections. Starting in the early 19th century, the rapidly emerging middle classes made local philanthropy a way to establish their legitimate role in shaping society, pursuing ends different from the aristocracy and
2244-580: A monopoly of specialized microbiological knowledge, allowing it to raise money for serum production from private and public sources, walking the line between a commercial pharmaceutical venture and a philanthropic enterprise. By 1933, at the depth of the Great Depression , the French wanted a welfare state to relieve distress but did not want new taxes. War veterans devised a solution: the new national lottery proved highly popular to gamblers while generating
2376-417: A monster. Cassius Dio relates a story that Caligula was so offended by Seneca's oratorical success in the Senate that he ordered him to commit suicide. Seneca survived only because he was seriously ill and Caligula was told that he would soon die anyway. Seneca explains his own survival as due to his patience and his devotion to his friends: "I wanted to avoid the impression that all I could do for loyalty
2508-533: A period of ill health that lasted up to ten years. In 31 AD he returned to Rome with his aunt, his uncle dying en route in a shipwreck. His aunt's influence helped Seneca be elected quaestor (probably after AD 37 ), which also earned him the right to sit in the Roman Senate . Seneca's early career as a senator seems to have been successful and he was praised for his oratory. In his writings Seneca has nothing good to say about Caligula and frequently depicts him as
2640-427: A quick death. He also took poison, which was not fatal. After dictating his last words to a scribe, and with a circle of friends attending him in his home, he immersed himself in a warm bath, which he expected would speed blood flow and ease his pain. Tacitus wrote, "He was then carried into a bath, with the steam of which he was suffocated, and he was burnt without any of the usual funeral rites. So he had directed in
2772-410: A suggestion that Seneca had slept with Agrippina. Tacitus, though, reports that Suillius was highly prejudiced: he had been a favorite of Claudius, and had been an embezzler and informant. In response, Seneca brought a series of prosecutions for corruption against Suillius: half of his estate was confiscated and he was sent into exile. However, the attacks reflect a criticism of Seneca that was made at
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#17328591188012904-557: A tool to sustain economic and firm growth, based on human capital theory . Through education, specific skills are taught that enhance people's capacity to learn and their productivity at work. Intel invests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curricular standards in the US and provides learning resources and materials for schools, for its innovation and revenue. The New Employment Opportunities initiative in Latin America
3036-453: A tutor to Nero . When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus , provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, of which he
3168-512: A veritable catalog of qualities which, all together, made up the virtues which Cicero had called humanitas and which the philosophes hoped they possessed in good measure: modesty, self-control, manliness, beneficence, practicality, generosity, rationality, tolerance, and obedience to the dictates of nature. During the Aufklärung (the German version of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment ),
3300-484: A year before his father urged him to desist because the practice was associated with "some foreign rites". Seneca often had breathing difficulties throughout his life, probably asthma , and at some point in his mid-twenties ( c. AD 20 ) he appears to have been struck down with tuberculosis . He was sent to Egypt to live with his aunt (the same aunt who had brought him to Rome), whose husband Gaius Galerius had become Prefect of Egypt . She nursed him through
3432-526: Is a philanthropist . The word philanthropy comes from Ancient Greek φιλανθρωπία (philanthrōpía) 'love of humanity ', from philo- 'to love, be fond of' and anthrōpos 'humankind, mankind'. In the second century CE , Plutarch used the Greek concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings. During the Middle Ages , philanthrôpía was superseded in Europe by
3564-416: Is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives for the public good , focusing on quality of life ". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material gain; and with government endeavors that are public initiatives for public good, such as those that focus on the provision of public services. A person who practices philanthropy
3696-521: Is a powerful, albeit rather oppressive, force. Many scholars have thought, following the ideas of the 19th-century German scholar Friedrich Leo , that Seneca's tragedies were written for recitation only. Other scholars think that they were written for performance and that it is possible that actual performance took place in Seneca's lifetime. Ultimately, this issue cannot be resolved on the basis of our existing knowledge. The tragedies of Seneca have been successfully staged in modern times. The dating of
3828-459: Is a regional collaboration to train one million youth by 2022 to raise employment standards and ultimately provide a talented pool of labour for companies. Philanthropy has the potential to foster equity and inclusivity in various fields, such as scientific research, development, and healthcare. Addressing systemic inequalities in these sectors can lead to more diverse perspectives, innovations, and better overall outcomes. Scholars have examined
3960-537: Is a relatively new phenomenon. Although charity and fame are associated historically, it was only in the 1990s that entertainment and sports celebrities from affluent western societies became involved with a particular type of philanthropy. Celebrity philanthropy in contemporary western societies is not isolated to large one-off monetary donations. It involves celebrities using their publicity, brand credibility, and personal wealth to promote not-for-profit organisations , which are increasingly business-like in form. This
4092-506: Is also highly regarded, and was praised along with Phaedra by T. S. Eliot . Works attributed to Seneca include 12 philosophical essays, 124 letters dealing with moral issues, nine tragedies , and a satire , the attribution of which is disputed. His authorship of Hercules on Oeta has also been questioned. Fabulae crepidatae (tragedies with Greek subjects): Fabula praetexta (tragedy in Roman setting): Traditionally given in
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4224-554: Is best known for plays such as his Medea , Thyestes , and Phaedra . Seneca had an immense influence on later generations—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model [for] dramatic art." Seneca was born in Córdoba in the Roman province of Baetica in Hispania . His branch of
4356-526: Is mainly limited to using him as a source of ethical maxims. Likewise Seneca shows some interest in Platonist metaphysics, but never with any clear commitment. His moral essays are based on Stoic doctrines. Stoicism was a popular philosophy in this period, and many upper-class Romans found in it a guiding ethical framework for political involvement. It was once popular to regard Seneca as being very eclectic in his Stoicism, but modern scholarship views him as
4488-548: Is man's true God.” Finally, the man who practiced humanitas cultivated his aesthetic sensibilities as he listened to his reason: " Cum musis ,” wrote Cicero, “ id est, cum humanitate et doctrina habere commercium ". Virtue, Cicero insisted, is nothing but nature perfected and developed to its highest point, and there is therefore a resemblance between man and God: " Est autem virtus nihil aliud quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura; est igitur homini cum deo similitudio "... Cicero's humanitas ... reappeared in
4620-708: Is now mandated, with 2% of net profits to be directed towards charity. Asia is home to most of the world's billionaires, surpassing the United States and Europe in 2017. Misplaced Pages's list of countries by number of billionaires shows four Asian economies in the top ten: 495 in China, 169 in India, 66 in Hong Kong, and 52 in Taiwan (as of April 2023 ). While the region's philanthropy practices are relatively under-researched compared to those of
4752-506: Is often cited more gender-neutrally as the "love of humanity." In London, prior to the 18th century, parochial and civic charities were typically established by bequests and operated by local church parishes (such as St Dionis Backchurch ) or guilds (such as the Carpenters' Company) . During the 18th century, however, "a more activist and explicitly Protestant tradition of direct charitable engagement during life" took hold, exemplified by
4884-473: Is possibly being ambiguous: in Roman culture, the imago was a kind of mask that commemorated the great ancestors of noble families, but at the same time, it may also suggest duplicity, superficiality, and pretense. As "a major philosophical figure of the Roman Imperial Period ", Seneca's lasting contribution to philosophy has been to the school of Stoicism . His writing is highly accessible and
5016-697: Is revealing the relevance of his thought. For example, Martha Nussbaum in her discussion of desire and emotion includes Seneca among the Stoics who offered important insights and perspectives on emotions and their role in our lives. Specifically devoting a chapter to his treatment of anger and its management, she shows Seneca's appreciation of the damaging role of uncontrolled anger, and its pathological connections. Nussbaum later extended her examination to Seneca's contribution to political philosophy showing considerable subtlety and richness in his thoughts about politics, education, and notions of global citizenship—and finding
5148-546: Is sometimes termed as "celanthropy"—the fusion of celebrity and cause as a representation of what the organisation advocates. Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger ( / ˈ s ɛ n ɪ k ə / SEN -ik-ə ; c. 4 BC – AD 65), usually known mononymously as Seneca , was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome , a statesman, dramatist , and in one work, satirist , from
5280-594: Is that it constitutes one of the aspects of an orderly complex of very distinct and severe values that had been part of the code of conduct of a Roman citizen from the outset and are virtually untranslatable in Greek: pietas (which is different from eusébeia ), mores (which do not coincide exactly with ethos ), and dignitas , gravitas , integritas , and so on. The idea of humanitas subsumed all these values... simultaneously blurring their outlines, rendering them less rigid and more universal. If it
5412-618: Is true that Italian humanists had no expression closer to ‘classical scholarship’ than studia humanitatis , the Pro Archia provided classical scholarship in the Renaissance with its charter of foundation. In Petrarch's attention to Pro Archia eight elements can be distinguished: See Reeve, Michael D. (1996). "Classical Scholarship". In Kraye, Jill (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism . Cambridge. pp. 21–22. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) Call Archimedes from his buried tomb Upon
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5544-514: Is usually short-term, where organizations obtain resources for causes through fund-raising and one-off donations. The Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation are examples of such; they focus more on financial contributions to social causes and less on actions and processes of benevolence. Impact investment, on the other hand, focuses on the interaction between individual wellbeing and broader society by promoting sustainability . Stressing
5676-570: The Annaea gens consisted of Italic colonists, of Umbrian or Paelignian origins. His father was Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Elder , a Spanish-born Roman knight who had gained fame as a writer and teacher of rhetoric in Rome. Seneca's mother, Helvia, was from a prominent Baetician family. Seneca was the second of three brothers; the others were Lucius Annaeus Novatus (later known as Junius Gallio), and Annaeus Mela,
5808-689: The Christian virtue of charity ( Latin : caritas ) in the sense of selfless love, valued for salvation and escape from purgatory . Thomas Aquinas held that "the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our neighbor". Sir Francis Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with "goodness", correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue as consciously instilled habits of good behaviour. Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as "love of mankind; good nature". This definition still survives today and
5940-710: The Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies ), the Brookings Institution and the Sesame Workshop . In all, Andrew Carnegie gave away 90% of his fortune. Other prominent American philanthropists of the early 20th century included John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932) and Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage (1828–1918). Rockefeller retired from business in the 1890s; he and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960) made large-scale national philanthropy systematic, especially with regard to
6072-615: The Green Revolution , whereby poor nations dramatically increased their output of rice, wheat, and other foods. Both Ford and Rockefeller were heavily involved. Ford also gave heavily to build up research universities in Europe and worldwide. For example, in Italy in 1950, sent a team to help the Italian ministry of education reform the nation's school system, based on meritocracy (rather than political or family patronage) and democratisation (with universal access to secondary schools). It reached
6204-767: The Guinness Trust . The principle of philanthropic intention with capitalist return was given the label "five per cent philanthropy." In 1863, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant used his fortune to fund the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, which became the International Committee of the Red Cross . During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Dunant personally led Red Cross delegations that treated soldiers. He shared
6336-595: The Nazi regime and other devastation by 1945, seriously undermined and weakened the opportunities for widespread philanthropy in Germany. The civil society so elaborately built up in the 19th century was dead by 1945. However, by the 1950s, as the " economic miracle " was restoring German prosperity, the old aristocracy was defunct, and middle-class philanthropy started to return to importance. The Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB)
6468-572: The Renaissance , printed editions and translations of his works became common, including an edition by Erasmus and a commentary by John Calvin . John of Salisbury , Erasmus and others celebrated his works. French essayist Montaigne , who gave a spirited defense of Seneca and Plutarch in his Essays , was himself considered by Pasquier a "French Seneca". Similarly, Thomas Fuller praised Joseph Hall as "our English Seneca". Many who considered his ideas not particularly original still argued that he
6600-551: The Rockefeller Foundation was opening offices in Europe. It launched medical and scientific projects in Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere. It supported the health projects of the League of Nations . By the 1950s, it was investing heavily in the Green Revolution , especially the work by Norman Borlaug that enabled India, Mexico, and many poor countries to upgrade their agricultural productivity dramatically. With
6732-578: The UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) as the primary humanitarian agency after 1945. The French Red Cross played a minor role in the war with Germany (1870–71). After that, it became a major factor in shaping French civil society as a non-religious humanitarian organization. It was closely tied to the army's Service de Santé . By 1914 it operated one thousand local committees with 164,000 members, 21,500 trained nurses, and over 27 million French francs in assets. The Pasteur Institute had
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#17328591188016864-610: The University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743), to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate. By the 1820s, newly rich American businessmen were initiating philanthropic work, especially with respect to private colleges and hospitals. George Peabody (1795–1869) is the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy. A financier based in Baltimore and London , in
6996-507: The original idealism had eroded, so he advocated philanthropic benefaction as a way of life. Though his context was Christian, his idea was also characteristically American and explicitly Classical , on the threshold of the Enlightenment . Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe 's An Essay upon Projects (1697) and Cotton Mather 's Bonifacius: an essay upon
7128-611: The 1860s, he began to endow libraries and museums in the United States and also funded housing for poor people in London. His activities became a model for Andrew Carnegie and many others. Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) was the most influential leader of philanthropy on a national (rather than local) scale. After selling his steel company in 1901 he devoted himself to establishing philanthropic organizations and to making direct contributions to many educational, cultural, and research institutions. He financed over 2,500 public libraries built across
7260-560: The 1890s revealed a total wealth of £76 million, of which £20 million was bequeathed to charities. By 1900 London charities enjoyed an annual income of about £8.5 million. Led by the energetic Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885), philanthropists organized themselves. In 1869 they set up the Charity Organisation Society . It was a federation of district committees, one in each of the 42 Poor Law divisions. Its central office had experts in coordination and guidance, thereby maximizing
7392-574: The 6th century Martin of Braga synthesized Seneca's thought into a couple of treatises that became popular in their own right. Otherwise, Seneca was mainly known through a large number of quotes and extracts in the florilegia , which were popular throughout the medieval period. When his writings were read in the later Middle Ages, it was mostly his Letters to Lucilius —the longer essays and plays being relatively unknown. Medieval writers and works continued to link him to Christianity because of his alleged association with Paul. The Golden Legend ,
7524-705: The Four Cardinal Virtues"). Early manuscripts preserve Martin's preface, where he makes it clear that this was his adaptation, but in later copies this was omitted, and the work was later thought fully Seneca's work. Seneca remains one of the few popular Roman philosophers from the period. He appears not only in Dante , but also in Chaucer and to a large degree in Petrarch , who adopted his style in his own essays and who quotes him more than any other authority except Virgil . In
7656-437: The US and Europe, and do not have a public fundraising requirement. Public Ancillary Funds include community foundations, some corporate foundations, and foundations that solely support single organisations such as hospitals, schools, museums, and art galleries. They must raise funds from the general public. Traditional philanthropy and impact investment can be distinguished by how they serve society. Traditional philanthropy
7788-459: The United States and Europe, the Centre for Asian Philanthropy and Society (CAPS) produces a study of the sector every two years. In 2020, its research found that if Asia were to donate the equivalent of two percent of its GDP, the same as the United States, it would unleash US$ 507 billion ( HK$ 3.9 trillion) annually, more than 11 times the foreign aid flowing into the region every year and one-third of
7920-730: The United States and abroad. He also funded Carnegie Hall in New York City and the Peace Palace in the Netherlands. His final and largest project was the Carnegie Corporation of New York , founded in 1911 with a US$ 25 million endowment, later enlarged to US$ 135 million. Carnegie Corporation has endowed or otherwise helped to establish institutions that include the Russian Research Center at Harvard University (now known as
8052-495: The acquisition of most of the stock of the Ford Motor Company in the late 1940s, the Ford Foundation became the largest American philanthropy, splitting its activities between the United States and the rest of the world. Outside the United States, it established a network of human rights organizations, promoted democracy, gave large numbers of fellowships for young leaders to study in the United States, and invested heavily in
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#17328591188018184-451: The aftermath of the Pisonian conspiracy , a plot to kill Nero. Although it is unlikely that Seneca was part of the conspiracy, Nero ordered him to kill himself. Seneca followed tradition by severing several veins in order to bleed to death , and his wife Pompeia Paulina attempted to share his fate. Cassius Dio, who wished to emphasize the relentlessness of Nero, focused on how Seneca had attended to his last-minute letters, and how his death
8316-583: The annual amount needed globally to meet the sustainable development goals by 2030. Structured giving in Australia through foundations is slowly growing, although public data on the philanthropic sector is sparse. There is no public registry of philanthropic foundations as distinct from charities more generally. Two foundation types for which some data is available are Private Ancillary Funds (PAFs) and Public Ancillary Funds (PubAFs). Private Ancillary Funds have some similarities to private family foundations in
8448-801: The bases for its position that nationality and religion do not matter, only universal humanity. Some orders of Freemasonry are called "Humanitas". ...l’essenza della humanitas romana sta propriamente nell’essere l’altra faccia di un insieme ordinato di valori molto precisi e severi, che facevano parte del codice di comportamento del cittadino romano fin dalle origini, e sono pressoché intraducibili in greco: la pietas (che è qualcosa di diverso dalla eusébeia ), mores (che non coincidono esattamente con l’ ethos ), e poi la dignitas , la gravitas , l’ integritas , e così via. L’idea di humanitas riassumeva in sé tuttiquesti valori... ma nello stesso tempo li sfumava, li rendeva meno rigidi e più universali. ...the essence of Roman humanitas
8580-575: The capacity to win the affections of lesser folk without impinging on greater. The concept was of great importance during the re-discovery of classical antiquity during the Renaissance by the Italian umanisti , beginning with the illustrious Italian poet Petrarch , who revived Cicero's injunction to cultivate the humanities , which were understood during the Renaissance as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. In 1333, in Liège , Belgium , Petrarch found and copied out in his own hand
8712-573: The cash needed without raising taxes. American money proved invaluable. The Rockefeller Foundation opened an office in Paris and helped design and fund France's modern public health system under the National Institute of Hygiene. It also set up schools to train physicians and nurses. The history of modern philanthropy on the European continent is especially important in the case of Germany, which became
8844-405: The cause of irresponsibility of the emperor. One by-product of his new position was that Seneca was appointed suffect consul in 56. Seneca's influence was said to have been especially strong in the first year. Seneca composed Nero's accession speeches in which he promised to restore proper legal procedure and authority to the Senate. He also composed the eulogy for Claudius that Nero delivered at
8976-401: The concept of "fellow-feeling," which allows self-love, self-centred choice, solipsism, and egoism " to finally be wholly overcome. Scheler equated benevolence with humanitarianism, explaining that these concepts — along with fellow-feeling — embrace all men, "simply because they are men." Humanitas as benevolence is also a cornerstone of the credo of Freemasonry and constituted one of
9108-441: The country, and one that 'set the pattern for incorporated associational charities' in general." The hospital "marked the first great milestone in the creation of these new-style charities." Jonas Hanway , another notable philanthropist of the era, established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarer's charity, in a bid to aid the recruitment of men to the navy . By 1763, the society had recruited over 10,000 men and it
9240-669: The creation of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and Societies for the Reformation of Manners . In 1739, Thomas Coram , appalled by the number of abandoned children living on the streets of London, received a royal charter to establish the Foundling Hospital to look after these unwanted orphans in Lamb's Conduit Fields, Bloomsbury . This was "the first children's charity in
9372-425: The environment. As a result, development agencies have seen increased demands for accountability as they face greater pressure to fit with current developmental agendas. Philanthrocapitalism differs from traditional philanthropy in how it operates. Traditional philanthropy is about charity, mercy, and selfless devotion improving recipients' wellbeing. Philanthrocapitalism, is philanthropy transformed by business and
9504-410: The father of the poet Lucan . Miriam Griffin says in her biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is so slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history, as well as for biography, is so great that few writers on Seneca have resisted the temptation to eke out knowledge with imagination." Griffin also infers from the ancient sources that Seneca
9636-641: The first Nobel Peace Prize for this work in 1901. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) played a major role in working with POWs on all sides in World War II . It was in a cash-starved position when the war began in 1939, but quickly mobilized its national offices to set up a Central Prisoner of War Agency. For example, it provided food, mail and assistance to 365,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers and civilians held captive. Suspicions, especially by London, of ICRC as too tolerant or even complicit with Nazi Germany led to its side-lining in favour of
9768-609: The first century in Seneca 's claim – made in the midst of a lament over Roman bestiality – that man is a sacred thing to man: “ homo res sacra homini ”; and reappeared once more in the eighteenth century in Kant 's call for human autonomy and in Voltaire 's stern injunction: “Remember your dignity as a man.” In the beginning of his Meditations , the Emperor Marcus Aurelius elaborated
9900-420: The following order: Seneca's writings were well known in the later Roman period, and Quintilian , writing thirty years after Seneca's death, remarked on the popularity of his works amongst the youth. While he found much to admire, Quintillian criticized Seneca for what he regarded as a degenerate literary style—a criticism echoed by Aulus Gellius in the middle of the 2nd century. The early Christian Church
10032-530: The food to Belgium and controlling it there. For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium. Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen." Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization fed nine million Belgians and French daily. When
10164-401: The funeral. Seneca's satirical skit Apocolocyntosis , which lampoons the deification of Claudius and praises Nero, dates from the earliest period of Nero's reign. In AD 55, Seneca wrote On Clemency following Nero's murder of Britannicus , perhaps to assure the citizenry that the murder was the end, not the beginning of bloodshed. On Clemency is a work which, although it flatters Nero,
10296-540: The good (1710). Franklin attempted to motivate his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city: examples included the Library Company of Philadelphia (the first American subscription library), the fire department, the police force, street lighting, and a hospital. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751) – which became
10428-603: The gradual fulfillment of best human potential, the achievement of reason and fairness in all classes and in all affairs of men, and the joint product of the creative actions of legislators, poets, artists, philosophers, inventors, and educators through the ages. Although Herder is considered the originator of ethnic nationalism, he was no chauvinist. He maintained that each person loves his own nation, family, language, and customs not because they are better than other peoples' but because they are his. Love for one's own individuality ought to lead to respect for that of others. For Herder,
10560-454: The housing conditions of the working classes by building new homes for them, while at the same time receiving a competitive rate of return on any investment. This was one of the first housing associations , a philanthropic endeavor that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century, brought about by the growth of the middle class . Later associations included the Peabody Trust , and
10692-444: The image of God was imprinted in each human being, along with an internal impulse for self-improvement and growth. Historian William McNeil writes that Herder boldly proclaimed that: each age and every people embody ideals and capacities peculiar to themselves, thus allowing a fuller and more complete expression of the multiform potentialities of humankind than could otherwise occur. Herder expressly denied that one people or civilization
10824-465: The impact of charitable giving to the poor. Many of the charities were designed to alleviate the harsh living conditions in the slums. such as the Labourer's Friend Society founded in 1830. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for "cottage husbandry" that later became the allotment movement. In 1844 it became the first Model Dwellings Company —an organization that sought to improve
10956-581: The importance of impact and change, they invest in different sectors of society, including housing, infrastructure, healthcare and energy. A suggested explanation for the preference for impact investment philanthropy to traditional philanthropy is the gaining prominence of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since 2015. Almost every SDG is linked to environmental protection and sustainability because of rising concerns about how globalisation , consumerism , and population growth may affect
11088-425: The importance of philanthropic support in promoting equity in different areas. For example, Christopherson et al. highlight the need to prioritize underrepresented groups, promote equitable partnerships, and advocate for diverse leadership within the scientific community . In the healthcare sector, Thompson et al. emphasize the role of philanthropy in empowering communities to reduce health disparities and address
11220-440: The infant son may have been from an earlier marriage, but the evidence is "tenuous". Seneca's other work of this period, his Consolation to Polybius , one of Claudius' freedmen, focused on consoling Polybius on the death of his brother. It is noted for its flattery of Claudius, and Seneca expresses his hope that the emperor will recall him from exile. In 49 AD Agrippina married her uncle Claudius, and through her influence Seneca
11352-481: The influence of Euripides on some of these works is considerable, so is the influence of Virgil and Ovid . Seneca's plays were widely read in medieval and Renaissance European universities and strongly influenced tragic drama in that time, such as Elizabethan England ( William Shakespeare and other playwrights), France ( Corneille and Racine ), and the Netherlands ( Joost van den Vondel ). English translations of Seneca's tragedies appeared in print in
11484-402: The later manuscripts" and preserves Petrarch's marginal annotations. Petrarch, in many respects a Medieval man, regretted that Cicero had not been a Christian and believed that he certainly would have been one had he not died before the birth of Jesus. To Petrarch and the Renaissance umanisti who immediately followed him, Cicero's humanitas was not seen as in conflict with Christianity or
11616-488: The level of feeling, in whatever is human." Such participation entails a willingness to engage both in human suffering and joy. This was echoed in the Kantian position on love, which cited a so-called rational benevolence driven by natural sympathetic joy and pity. Others have also discussed benevolence in modern humanism. Max Scheler, for example, used it in his discourse on sympathy. In one of his works, he linked benevolence and
11748-467: The market, where profit-oriented business models are designed that work for the good of humanity. Share value companies are an example. They help develop and deliver curricula in education, strengthen their own businesses and improve the job prospects of people. Firms improve social outcomes, but while they do so, they also benefit themselves. The rise of philanthrocapitalism can be attributed to global capitalism . Therefore, philanthropy has been seen as
11880-459: The mid-16th century, with all ten published collectively in 1581. He is regarded as the source and inspiration for what is known as "Revenge Tragedy", starting with Thomas Kyd 's The Spanish Tragedy and continuing well into the Jacobean era . Thyestes is considered Seneca's masterpiece, and has been described by scholar Dana Gioia as "one of the most influential plays ever written". Medea
12012-672: The middle class in the 19th century. By 1869 there were over 200 London charities with an annual income, all together, of about £ 2 million. By 1885, rapid growth had produced over 1000 London charities, with an income of about £4.5 million. They included a wide range of religious and secular goals, with the American import, YMCA , as one of the largest, and many small ones, such as the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association. In addition to making annual donations, increasingly wealthy industrialists and financiers left generous sums in their wills. A sample of 466 wills in
12144-481: The military. They concentrated on support for social welfare , higher education , and cultural institutions, as well as working to alleviate the hardships brought on by rapid industrialization . The bourgeoisie (upper-middle class) was defeated in its effort to gain political control in 1848 , but it still had enough money and organizational skills that could be employed through philanthropic agencies to provide an alternative power base for its worldview. Religion
12276-491: The negative image has been based almost entirely on Suillius's account, while many others who might have lauded him have been lost. "We are therefore left with no contemporary record of Seneca's life, save for the desperate opinion of Publius Suillius. Think of the barren image we should have of Socrates , had the works of Plato and Xenophon not come down to us and were we wholly dependent upon Aristophanes ' description of this Athenian philosopher. To be sure, we should have
12408-459: The next eight years on the island of Corsica . Two of Seneca's earliest surviving works date from the period of his exile—both consolations . In his Consolation to Helvia , his mother, Seneca comforts her as a bereaved mother for losing her son to exile. Seneca incidentally mentions the death of his only son, a few weeks before his exile. Later in life Seneca was married to a woman younger than himself, Pompeia Paulina . It has been thought that
12540-419: The night with us, go abroad, and live in the countryside. Petrarch liked this quotation and referred to it often, and where Cicero used the phrase " litterarum lumen ", "the light of literature", Petrarch in the margin wrote lumen litterarum alongside and drew a sketch of a lamp or candle. The Liège manuscript is lost and so is Petrarch's copy, but Petrarch's copy "can be shown to be behind all but one of
12672-582: The plain of vanished Syracuse, And feelingly the Sage shall make report How insecure, how baseless in itself, Is the Philosophy, whose sway depends On mere material instruments;—how weak Those arts, and high inventions, if unpropped By virtue.—He, sighing with pensive grief, Amid his calm abstractions, would admit That not the slender privilege is theirs To save themselves from blank forgetfulness! Philanthropy#Classical Philanthropy Philanthropy
12804-453: The plays seem to represent the antithesis of Seneca's Stoic beliefs. Up to the 16th century it was normal to distinguish between Seneca the moral philosopher and Seneca the dramatist as two separate people. Scholars have tried to spot certain Stoic themes: it is the uncontrolled passions that generate madness, ruination, and self-destruction. This has a cosmic as well as an ethical aspect, and fate
12936-399: The political threat posed by the socialistic labor unions . The middle classes, however, made the most use of the new welfare state, in terms of heavy use of museums, gymnasiums (high schools), universities, scholarships, and hospitals. For example, state funding for universities and gymnasiums covered only a fraction of the cost; private philanthropy became essential. 19th-century Germany
13068-529: The post-Augustan age of Latin literature . Seneca was born in Colonia Patricia Corduba in Hispania , and was trained in rhetoric and philosophy in Rome . His father was Seneca the Elder , his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus , and his nephew was the poet Lucan . In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica under emperor Claudius , but was allowed to return in 49 to become
13200-499: The reality that Seneca was both powerful and wealthy. Robin Campbell, a translator of Seneca's letters, writes that the "stock criticism of Seneca right down the centuries [has been]...the apparent contrast between his philosophical teachings and his practice." In 1562 Gerolamo Cardano wrote an apology praising Nero in his Encomium Neronis , printed in Basel. This was likely intended as
13332-655: The relative merits of the contemplative life and the active life, and he considers it important to confront one's own mortality and be able to face death. One must be willing to practice poverty and use wealth properly, and he writes about favours, clemency, the importance of friendship, and the need to benefit others. The universe is governed for the best by a rational providence, and this must be reconciled with acceptance of adversity. Ten plays are attributed to Seneca, of which most likely eight were written by him. The plays stand in stark contrast to his philosophical works. With their intense emotions, and grim overall tone,
13464-426: The religious groups used financial endowments, which multiplied in number and wealth as Germany grew richer. Each was devoted to a specific benefit to that religious community, and each had a board of trustees; laymen donated their time to public service. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , an upper class Junker , used his state-sponsored philanthropy, in the form of his invention of the modern welfare state, to neutralize
13596-457: The root causes of these disparities. Research by Chandra et al. demonstrates the potential of strategic philanthropy to tackle health inequalities through initiatives that focus on prevention, early intervention, and building community capacity. Similarly, a report by the Bridgespan Group suggests that philanthropy can create systemic change by investing in long-term solutions that address
13728-505: The standard education of high-born Romans. While still young he received philosophical training from Attalus the Stoic , and from Sotion and Papirius Fabianus , both of whom belonged to the short-lived School of the Sextii , which combined Stoicism with Pythagoreanism . Sotion persuaded Seneca when he was a young man (in his early twenties) to become a vegetarian , which he practiced for around
13860-478: The study and application of modern medicine, higher education, and scientific research. Of the US$ 530 million the elder Rockefeller gave away, US$ 450 million went to medicine. Their leading advisor Frederick Taylor Gates launched several large philanthropic projects staffed by experts who sought to address problems systematically at the roots rather than let the recipients deal only with their immediate concerns. By 1920,
13992-468: The term " Humanität " was used to designate the intellectual, physical, and moral formation of "a better human being " (or Humanism ). It was used, for example, by theologian Johann Gottfried Herder in his Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität ( Letters for the Advancement of Humanity ), 1792, and by Friedrich Schiller , among others. Herder's Humanität is a broad concept he defines variously as
14124-529: The time and continued through later ages. Seneca was undoubtedly extremely rich: he had properties at Baiae and Nomentum , an Alban villa, and Egyptian estates. Cassius Dio even reports that the Boudica uprising in Britannia was caused by Seneca forcing large loans on the indigenous British aristocracy in the aftermath of Claudius's conquest of Britain , and then calling them in suddenly and aggressively. Seneca
14256-469: The tragedies is highly problematic in the absence of any ancient references. A parody of a lament from Hercules Furens appears in the Apocolocyntosis , which implies a date before AD 54 for that play. A relative chronology has been proposed on metrical grounds. The plays are not all based on the Greek pattern; they have a five-act form and differ in many respects from extant Attic drama , and while
14388-452: The underlying causes of social issues, including those related to science and health disparities. To advance equity in science and healthcare, philanthropists can adopt several key strategies: Through these approaches, philanthropy can significantly promote equity within scientific and health communities, leading to more inclusive and effective advancements. Philanthropy is defined differently by different groups of people; many define it as
14520-677: The war ended in late 1918, Hoover took control of the American Relief Administration (ARA), with the mission of food to Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions. U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, and Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children. When attacked for distributing food to Russia, which
14652-643: Was a kind of disguised baptism, or a de facto baptism in spirit. Some, such as Albertino Mussato and Giovanni Colonna , went even further and concluded that Seneca must have been a Christian convert. Various other antique and medieval texts purport to be by Seneca, e.g. , De remediis fortuitorum , but with unconfirmed authorship, they have sometimes been referred-to as "Pseudo-Seneca". At least some of these seem to preserve and adapt genuine Senecan content, for example, Saint Martin of Braga 's (d. c. 580) Formula vitae honestae , or De differentiis quatuor virtutum vitae honestae ("Rules for an Honest Life", or "On
14784-406: Was a man, moreover, who faced life with courageous skepticism: he knows that the consolations of popular religion are for more credulous beings than himself, that life is uncertain, and that sturdy pessimism is superior to self-deceptive optimism. Man becomes man as he refines himself; he even becomes godlike: “ Deus est mortali iuvare mortalem ,” wrote Pliny, translating a Greek Stoic, “To help man
14916-458: Was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by Herbert Hoover . Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed eleven million Belgians by raising money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping
15048-451: Was better than another. They were just different, in the same way that the German language was different from the French. In Roman humanism, benevolence ( benevolentia ) was considered a feature of humanitas . This is particularly emphasized in the works of Cicero and Seneca. In this context, benevolence drives the idea of humaneness and is understood as a feeling either of love or tenderness that makes "someone willing to participate, at
15180-408: Was born in either 8, 4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was resident in Rome by AD 5. Seneca is said to have been taken to Rome in the "arms" of his aunt (his mother's stepsister) at a young age, probably when he was about five years old. His father resided for much of his life in the city. Seneca was taught the usual subjects of literature, grammar, and rhetoric, as part of
15312-422: Was die." In AD 41, Claudius became emperor, and Seneca was accused by the new empress Messalina of adultery with Julia Livilla , sister to Caligula and Agrippina . The affair has been doubted by some historians, since Messalina had clear political motives for getting rid of Julia Livilla and her supporters. The Senate pronounced a death sentence on Seneca, which Claudius commuted to exile, and Seneca spent
15444-633: Was divisive in Germany, as Protestants, Catholics, and Jews used alternative philanthropic strategies. The Catholics, for example, continued their medieval practice of using financial donations in their wills to lighten their punishment in purgatory after death. The Protestants did not believe in purgatory, but made a strong commitment to improving their communities there and then. Conservative Protestants raised concerns about deviant sexuality, alcoholism, and socialism, as well as illegitimate births. They used philanthropy to try to eradicate what they considered as "social evils" that were seen as utterly sinful. All
15576-517: Was even more oriented toward civic improvement than Britain or the United States, when measured in voluntary private funding for public purposes. Indeed, such German institutions as the kindergarten , the research university , and the welfare state became models copied by the Anglo-Saxons. The heavy human and economic losses of the First World War , the financial crises of the 1920s, as well as
15708-413: Was first brought to Rome by the philosophic circle around Scipio and further developed by Cicero . For Cicero, humanitas was a style of thought, not a formal doctrine. It asserted man's importance as a cultivated being, in control of his moral universe. The man who practiced humanitas was confident of his worth, courteous to others, decent in his social conduct, and active in his political role. He
15840-495: Was hastened by soldiers. A generation after the Julio-Claudian emperors, Tacitus wrote an account of the suicide, which, in view of his republican sympathies, is perhaps somewhat romanticized. According to this account, Nero ordered Seneca's wife saved. Her wounds were bound up and she made no further attempt to kill herself. As for Seneca himself, his age and diet were blamed for slow loss of blood and extended pain rather than
15972-407: Was important in making the Greek philosophers presentable and intelligible. His suicide has also been a popular subject in art, from Jacques-Louis David 's 1773 painting The Death of Seneca to the 1951 film Quo Vadis . Even with the admiration of an earlier group of intellectual stalwarts, Seneca has never been without his detractors. In his own time, he was accused of hypocrisy or, at least,
16104-672: Was incorporated in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes. These organizations were funded by subscriptions and run as voluntary associations. They raised public awareness of their activities through the emerging popular press and were generally held in high social regard—some charities received state recognition in the form of the Royal Charter . Philanthropists, such as anti-slavery campaigner William Wilberforce , began to adopt active campaigning roles, where they would champion
16236-404: Was increasingly absent from the court. He adopted a quiet lifestyle on his country estates, concentrating on his studies and seldom visiting Rome. It was during these final few years that he composed two of his greatest works: Naturales quaestiones —an encyclopedia of the natural world; and his Letters to Lucilius —which document his philosophical thoughts. In AD 65, Seneca was caught up in
16368-410: Was intended to show the correct (Stoic) path of virtue for a ruler. Tacitus and Dio suggest that Nero's early rule, during which he listened to Seneca and Burrus, was quite competent. However, the ancient sources suggest that, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they had reluctantly agreed to Agrippina's murder, and afterward Tacitus reports that Seneca had to write
16500-822: Was no better, and that program closed in 1977. While charity has a long history in Asia, as of 2018 philanthropy or a systematic approach to doing good remains nascent. Chinese philosopher Mozi ( c. 470 – c. 391 BCE ) developed the concept of "universal love" ( jiān'ài , 兼愛 ), a reaction against perceived over-attachment to family and clan structures within Confucianism . Other interpretations of Confucianism see concern for others as an extension of benevolence. Muslims in countries such as Indonesia are bound zakat (almsgiving), while Buddhists and Christians throughout Asia may participate in philanthropic activities. In India, corporate social responsibility (CSR)
16632-440: Was particularly applicable to guiding the proper exercise of power over others. Hence Cicero's advice to his brother that "if fate had given you authority over Africans or Spaniards or Gauls, wild and barbarous nations, you would still owe it to your humanitas to be concerned about their comforts, their needs, and their safety." Echoing Cicero over a century later, Pliny the Younger (61–112 CE ) defined humanitas as
16764-408: Was probably innocent. His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings. As a writer, Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays , which are all tragedies . His prose works include 12 essays and 124 letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism . As a tragedian, he
16896-456: Was recalled to Rome. Agrippina gained the praetorship for Seneca and appointed him tutor to her son, the future emperor Nero . From AD 54 to 62, Seneca acted as Nero's advisor, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus . Early in Nero's reign, his mother Agrippina exercised his authority to make decisions. Seneca and Burrus opposed this authoritarian matriarchy which had become
17028-624: Was sensitive to such accusations: his De Vita Beata ("On the Happy Life") dates from around this time and includes a defense of wealth along Stoic lines, arguing that properly gaining and spending wealth is appropriate behavior for a philosopher. After Burrus's death in 62, Seneca's influence declined rapidly; as Tacitus puts it (Ann. 14.52.1), mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam ("the death of Burrus broke Seneca's power"). Tacitus reports that Seneca tried to retire twice, in 62 and AD 64, but Nero refused him on both occasions. Nevertheless, Seneca
17160-586: Was the subject of attention from the Renaissance onwards by writers such as Michel de Montaigne . Seneca wrote a number of books on Stoicism, mostly on ethics, with one work ( Naturales Quaestiones ) on the physical world. Seneca built on the writings of many of the earlier Stoics: he often mentions Zeno , Cleanthes , and Chrysippus ; and frequently cites Posidonius , with whom Seneca shared an interest in natural phenomena. He frequently quotes Epicurus , especially in his Letters . His interest in Epicurus
17292-559: Was under Bolshevik control, Hoover snapped, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!" The first corporation founded in the Thirteen Colonies was Harvard College (1636), designed primarily to train young men for the clergy. A leading theorist was the Puritan theologian Cotton Mather (1662–1728), who in 1710 published a widely read essay, "Bonifacius, or an Essay to Do Good". Mather worried that
17424-534: Was very favourably disposed towards Seneca and his writings, and the church leader Tertullian possessively referred to him as "our Seneca". By the 4th century an apocryphal correspondence with Paul the Apostle had been created linking Seneca into the Christian tradition. The letters are mentioned by Jerome who also included Seneca among a list of Christian writers, and Seneca is similarly mentioned by Augustine . In
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