94-671: The Apocolocyntosis (divi) Claudii , literally The Pumpkinification of ( the Divine ) Claudius , is a satire on the Roman emperor Claudius , which, according to Cassius Dio , was written by Seneca the Younger . A partly extant Menippean satire , an anonymous work called Ludus de morte Divi Claudii ("Play on the Death of the Divine Claudius") in its surviving manuscripts, may or may not be identical to
188-561: A Pragmatic sanction which maintained most of the organization of Diocletian . The "Prefecture of Italy" thus survived, and was reestablished under Roman control in the course of Justinian 's Gothic War . As a result of the Lombard invasion in 568, the Byzantines lost most of Italy, except the territories of the Exarchate of Ravenna – a corridor from Venice to Lazio via Perugia – and footholds in
282-712: A Social War in the middle of Italy. However, Roman citizenship was recognized to the rest of the Italians by the end of the conflict and then extended to Cisalpine Gaul when Julius Caesar became Roman dictator . In the context of the transition from Republic to Principate , Italy swore allegiance to Octavian Augustus and was then organized in eleven regions from the Alps to the Ionian Sea with more than two centuries of stability afterward. Several emperors made notable accomplishments in this period: Claudius incorporated Britain into
376-682: A box with no bottom (as gambling was one of Claudius's vices); every time he tries to throw the dice, they fall out, and he has to search the ground for them. Suddenly Caligula appears, claims that Claudius is an ex-slave of his, and hands him over to be a law clerk in the court of the underworld. Notable English-language translations of the Apocolocyntosis include: Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( / ˈ k l ɔː d i ə s / KLAW -dee-əs , Classical Latin: [tɪˈbɛri.ʊs ˈkɫau̯di.ʊs ˈkae̯sar au̯ˈɡʊstʊs ɡɛrˈmaːnɪkʊs] ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54)
470-403: A conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi . Another plot involved the consulars Lusius Saturninus , Cornelius Lupus , and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, Asinius Gallus , grandson of Asinius Pollio , and Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. Ancient sources say
564-471: A direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot – particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter , it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed
658-425: A fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He
752-423: A large temple was dedicated in his honour . He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using
846-476: A large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus - governor of Dalmatia - and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in
940-458: A law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium ( Troy ) from taxes. Early in his reign,
1034-504: A lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopher Athenodorus . Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory. Claudius' work as a historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian, then reigning as Caesar Augustus . In either case, it
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#17328517721851128-537: A means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills , and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign. Pliny
1222-524: A million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship . These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Claudius personally judged many of
1316-429: A personal interest in law , he presided at public trials, and issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of many senators . Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he
1410-460: Is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. When Augustus died in AD ;14, Claudius – then aged 23 – appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum . Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since
1504-521: The imperium domi (police power) as an alternative to the imperium militiae (military power). Italy's inhabitants included Roman citizens , communities with Latin Rights , and socii . The period between the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC was turbulent , beginning with the Servile Wars , continuing with the opposition of aristocratic élite to populist reformers and leading to
1598-604: The Claudian tunnel to three times its original size. Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate . During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of Tribune , (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of
1692-628: The Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire was on the verge of disintegration under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy, civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, Emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors called Augusti and two junior vice-emperors called Caesars . He decreased
1786-539: The Dioecesis Italiciana . It included Raetia . It was subdivided into the following provinces: Constantine subdivided the Empire into four praetorian prefectures . The Diocesis Italiciana became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy ( praefectura praetoria Italiae ), and was subdivided into two dioceses. It still included Raetia . The two dioceses and their provinces were: Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of
1880-629: The Edict of Thessalonica under Theodosius I . Italy was invaded several times by the wandering Germanic peoples and fell under the control of Odoacer , when Romulus Augustus was deposed in 476 AD. Since then, no single authority was established in Italy as a whole except for a brief Period when the Byzantine Empire reconquered Italy. Even the modern Republic of Italy only consists of most of Italian region , excluding Corsica and some other areas. Following
1974-942: The Gauls , Ligures , Veneti , Camunni and Histri in the North , the Etruscans , Latins , Falisci , Picentes and Umbri tribes (such as the Sabines ) in the Centre , and the Iapygian tribes (such as the Messapians ), the Oscan tribes (such as the Samnites ), and Greek colonies in the South . The consolidation of Italy into a single entity occurred during the Roman expansion in
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#17328517721852068-493: The German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him princeps . Claudius was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection. The Senate met and debated a change of government, but this devolved into an argument over which of them would be
2162-599: The Greeks and Jews of Alexandria each sent him embassies after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to Josephus , he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the Empire . One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in
2256-611: The Julio-Claudian family . He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen , as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted as pater familias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah,
2350-510: The Ludus text to Petronius. "Apocolocyntosis" is Latinized Greek, and can also be transliterated as Apokolokyntosis ( Attic Greek Ἀποκολοκύντωσις : "Pumpkinification", lit. "Gourdification"). The title Apokolokyntosis comes from the Roman historian Cassius Dio , who wrote in Greek . Cassius Dio attributed authorship of a satirical text on the death of Claudius, called Apokolokyntosis , to Seneca
2444-401: The Roman equestrian order were sold back into slavery. Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting yew juice as a cure for snakebite . Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health. One of
2538-596: The Second Triumvirate altogether; but the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honour the Imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to pater familias of the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius , and Germanicus's children. There
2632-550: The annona - its inhabitants had the obligation to provide the court, the administration and the troops, first allocated in Milan and then in Ravenna, supplies, wine and timber) Diocesis Italia suburbicaria (Italy "under the government of the urbs ", i.e. Rome) In 330, Constantine completed the rebuilding of Byzantium as Constantinople . He established the Imperial court, a Senate, financial and judicial administrations, as well as
2726-440: The conquest of Britain . Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-known eunuchs ". If freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. He
2820-768: The East and West respectively, established themselves at Nicomedia , in north-western Anatolia (closer to the Persian frontier in the east) and Milan , in northern Italy (closer to the European frontiers) respectively. The seats of the Caesars were Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius , who also resided at Thessaloniki. Under Diocletian Italy became
2914-499: The Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor." Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea as senatorial provinces . Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since
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3008-436: The Imperial boundaries. Christianity then began to establish itself as the dominant religion from Constantine 's reign (306–337), raising the power of Eastern metropolises, later grouped into Pentarchy . Although not founded as a capital city in 330, Constantinople grew in importance. It finally gained the rank of eastern capital when given an praefectus urbi in 359 and the senators who were clari became senators of
3102-510: The Plebes since he was a patrician , but this was a power taken by previous rulers, which he continued). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator ) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling
3196-475: The Roman Empire, Vespasian subjugated the Great Revolt of Judea and reformed the financial system, Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated Parthia , and Marcus Aurelius epitomized the ideal of the philosopher king . During these centuries of imperial stability , Italy was referred to as rectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands"). The Crisis of
3290-568: The Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia Poppaea , a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine . The last part of Claudius's plan to avoid famine
3384-558: The Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits
3478-466: The Senate was forced to give in. In return, Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy. The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea and Julius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent. Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within
3572-488: The Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio , Claudius became sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress . A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a conspiracy involving Cassius Chaerea – a military tribune in the Praetorian Guard – and several senators . There is no evidence that Claudius had
3666-425: The Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son, Drusus , Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir to the throne. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the Praetorian Guard , Sejanus ,
3760-518: The Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus' Annals. This section of Tacitus' history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife, Messalina . Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign. Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate–emperor relations. Claudius
3854-562: The Third Century hit Italy particularly hard, but the Roman empire managed to survive and reconquer breakaway regions. In 286 AD, the Emperor Diocletian moved the imperial residence associated with the western provinces (the later Western Roman Empire ) from Rome to Mediolanum . Meanwhile, the islands of Corsica , Sardinia , Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, and Italian cities such as Mediolanum and Ravenna continued to serve as de facto capitals for
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3948-573: The West. Although, in late antiquity , Italy was also sub-divided into provinces, it remained the centre of the Western Roman Empire and had a status that gave her the name of domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces") by glossators of the Corpus Iuris Civilis . The Bishop of Rome had gained importance gradually from the reign of Constantine , and was given religious primacy with
4042-427: The Younger. Only much later was the work referred to by Cassius Dio identified (with some degree of uncertainty) with the Ludus text. Most scholars accept this attribution, although a minority holds that the two works are not the same, and that the surviving text is not necessarily Seneca's. The work traces the death of Claudius, his ascent to heaven, judgment by the gods, and eventual descent to Hades . At each turn,
4136-515: The author mocks the late emperor's personal failings, most notably his arrogant cruelty and his inarticulacy. After Mercury persuades Clotho to kill the emperor, Claudius walks to Mount Olympus , where he convinces Hercules to let the gods hear his suit for deification in a session of the divine senate . Proceedings are in Claudius's favor until Augustus delivers a long and sincere speech listing some of Claudius's most notorious crimes. Most of
4230-677: The capital and in the provinces. He built or finished two aqueducts , the Aqua Claudia , begun by Caligula, and the Aqua Anio Novus . These entered the city in 52 and met at the Porta Maggiore . He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo . He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to
4324-564: The charge was adultery , and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term as Censor , and may have induced him to review
4418-505: The city of Tridentum (modern Trento ) were not in fact citizens. The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the Tabula clesiana , that they would be allowed to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of
4512-616: The current region of Calabria ); later the term was extended by Romans to include the Italian Peninsula up to the Rubicon , a river located between Northern and Central Italy . In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia , Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Cisalpine Gaul ; while in 42 BC the hitherto existing province was abolished, thus extending Italy to the north up to
4606-492: The decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in almost eight centuries). The name Italia covered an area whose borders evolved over time. According to Strabo 's Geographica , before the expansion of the Roman Republic , the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto (corresponding roughly to
4700-517: The dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'. In 47, he assumed the office of censor with Lucius Vitellius , which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck out the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At
4794-425: The divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation. Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca ). Moreover, he was the first emperor who resorted to bribery as
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#17328517721854888-446: The dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar . Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial procurator after construction of
4982-523: The end of the Social War in 87 BC, Rome had allowed its fellow Italian allies full rights in Roman society and granted Roman citizenship to all fellow Italic peoples . After having been for centuries the heart of the Roman Empire , from the 3rd century the government and the cultural center began to move eastward: first the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD, extended Roman citizenship to all free men within
5076-415: The end of the fourth century by eight consulares ( Venetiae et Histriae , Aemiliae , Liguriae , Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii , Tusciae et Umbriae , Piceni suburbicarii , Campaniae , and Siciliae ), two correctores ( Apuliae et Calabriae and Lucaniae et Bruttiorum ) and seven praesides ( Alpium Cottiarum , Rhaetia Prima and Secunda , Samnii , Valeriae , Sardiniae , and Corsicae ). In
5170-575: The fifth century, with the Emperors controlled by their barbarian generals, the Western Imperial government maintained weak control over Italy itself, whose coasts were periodically under attack. In 476, with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus , the Western Roman Empire had formally fallen unless one considers Julius Nepos , the legitimate emperor recognized by Constantinople as the last. He
5264-408: The leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before
5358-410: The legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made
5452-483: The lowest rank as clarissimi . As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire , with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan ), and the Eastern Roman Empire , with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul ). In 402, the Imperial residence was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming
5546-499: The military structures. The new city, however, did not receive an urban prefect until 359 which raised it to the status of eastern capital. After the death of Theodosius in 395 and the subsequent division of the Empire, Italy was home base of the Western Roman Empire . As a result of Alaric's invasion in 402 the western seat was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna . Alaric , king of Visigoths , sacked Rome itself in 410; something that had not happened for eight centuries. Northern Italy
5640-545: The more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius on Tiber Island to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder. Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in
5734-517: The new princeps . When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus , claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judaean King Herod Agrippa . However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually
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#17328517721855828-479: The new emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, the equites , or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in
5922-490: The number of Roman citizens throughout the empire. The surviving totals were 4,063,000 in 28 BC, 4,233,000 in 8 BC, and 4,937,000 in AD 14, but it is still debated whether these counted all citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens sui iuris . Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009. During
6016-623: The peninsula , when Rome formed a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities. The strength of the Italian confederacy was a crucial factor in the rise of Rome , starting with the Punic and Macedonian wars between the 3rd and 2nd century BC. As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status with political, religious and financial privileges. In Italy, Roman magistrates exercised
6110-429: The port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor. Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after this,
6204-497: The proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language. Roman Italy Timeline Italia (in both the Latin and Italian languages), also referred to as Roman Italy ,
6298-557: The reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace , Noricum , Lycia , and Judea were annexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania , begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, as well as the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces. The most far-reaching conquest was that of Britannia . In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain ( Britannia ) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain
6392-445: The same time, he sought to admit to the senate eligible men from the provinces. The Lyon Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even joked about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond Gallia Narbonensis ( Lyons ), i.e. himself. He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to
6486-530: The sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus . Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber , leading to Portus , his new port just north of Ostia . This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth, reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after
6580-594: The size of the Roman provinces by doubling their number to reduce the power of the provincial governors. He grouped the provinces into several dioceses (Latin: diocesis) and put them under the supervision of the Imperial vicarius (vice, deputy), who was the head of the diocese. During the Crisis of the Third Century the importance of Rome declined because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. Diocletian and his colleagues usually resided in four Imperial seats. The Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian , who were responsible for
6674-489: The southern foot of the Alps . Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river ), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria . Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to also include the islands of Sicily , Corsica and Sardinia , as well as Raetia and part of Pannonia . The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana , Slovenia)
6768-444: The speeches of the gods are lost due to a large lacuna in the text. Mercury escorts him to Hades. On the way, they witness the funeral procession for the emperor, in which a crew of venal characters mourns the loss of the perpetual Saturnalia of the previous reign. In Hades Claudius is greeted by the ghosts of all the friends he has murdered. These shades carry him off to be punished, and the gods condemn him to shake dice forever in
6862-511: The strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon"). While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of
6956-468: The text mentioned by Cassius Dio. "Apocolocyntosis" is a word play on " apotheosis ", the process by which dead Roman emperors were recognized as gods. The Ludus de morte Divi Claudii is one of only two examples of a Menippean satire from the classical era that have survived, the other being the Satyricon , which was probably written by Petronius . Gilbert Bagnani is among the scholars who also attribute
7050-463: The title himself. When the British general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around
7144-451: Was a Roman emperor , ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty , Claudius was born to Drusus and Antonia Minor at Lugdunum in Roman Gaul , where his father was stationed as a military legate. He was the first Roman emperor to be born outside Italy . As he had a limp and slight deafness due to an illness he suffered when young, he was ostracised by his family and
7238-454: Was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth: mines and the potential of slave labor, as well as being a haven for Gallic rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The Roman colonia of Colonia Claudia Victricensis was established as the provincial capital of the newly established province of Britannia at Camulodunum , where
7332-656: Was assassinated in 480 and may have been recognized by Odoacer. Italy remained under Odoacer and his Kingdom of Italy , and then under the Ostrogothic Kingdom . The Germanic successor states under Odoacer and Theodoric the Great continued to use the Roman administrative apparatus, as well as being nominal subjects of the Eastern emperor at Constantinople . In 535 Roman Emperor Justinian invaded Italy which suffered twenty years of disastrous war. In August 554, Justinian issued
7426-440: Was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius's brother Germanicus ) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before
7520-589: Was attacked by Attila 's Huns in 452. Rome was sacked in 455 again by the Vandals under the command of Genseric . According to Notitia Dignitatum , one of the very few surviving documents of Roman government updated to the 420s, Roman Italy was governed by a praetorian prefect , Prefectus praetorio Italiae (who also governed the Diocese of Africa and the Diocese of Pannonia ), one vicarius , and one comes rei militaris . The regions of Italy were governed at
7614-600: Was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km ) of new arable land. He expanded
7708-433: Was excluded from public office until his consulship (which was shared with his nephew, Caligula , in 37). Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he
7802-402: Was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existing party line . When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of
7896-480: Was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer than Crassus , the richest man of the Republican era . Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about
7990-419: Was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the princeps became more centralized and the burden of running the government became larger. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to serve under him as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under
8084-608: Was murdered by his own wife, Agrippina the Younger . After his death at the age of 63, his grandnephew and legally adopted step-son, Nero , succeeded him as emperor. As a consequence of Roman customs , society, and personal preference, Claudius' full name varied throughout his life: Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon , France ). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla . His mother, Antonia Minor , may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor , Augustus 's sister, and he
8178-410: Was privileged by Augustus and his heirs, with the construction, among other public structures, of a dense network of Roman roads . The Italian economy flourished: agriculture, handicraft and industry had noticeable growth, allowing the export of goods to the provinces. The Italian population may have grown as well: three censuses were ordered by Augustus, in his role as Roman censor , in order to record
8272-413: Was put under the care of a former mule-driver to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent
8366-403: Was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor punished them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother, Felix . There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he
8460-416: Was the homeland of the ancient Romans . According to Roman mythology , Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to Aeneas of Troy and his descendants, Romulus and Remus , who were the founders of Rome . Aside from the legendary accounts, Rome was an Italic city-state that changed its form of government from Kingdom to Republic and then grew within the context of a peninsula dominated by
8554-532: Was the easternmost town of Italy. At the beginning of the Roman Imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called municipia , had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae , were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones , as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia : Italy
8648-442: Was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius was an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign, the Empire started its successful conquest of Britain . Having
8742-492: Was therefore the great-great-grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar . His paternal grandparents were Livia , Augustus's third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero . During his reign, Claudius revived the rumour that his father Nero Claudius Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, Claudius's father Drusus died on campaign in Germania from
8836-461: Was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake , also making the nearby river navigable year-round. A serious famine is mentioned in the book of Acts as taking place during Claudius' reign, and had been prophesied by a Christian called Agabus while visiting Antioch . A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel
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