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88-593: The Horti Pompeiani was the name of two gardens built by Pompey the Great . One surrounded the Theatre of Pompey , built in 55 BC, the other were a set of private gardens on the 'Carinae' slope of the Esquiline Hill , surrounding Pompey's villa. After Pompey's death, Julius Caesar gave these private gardens to Mark Antony . The villa on the 'Carinae' slope was one of two properties owned by Pompey that may have been known as

176-478: A senatus consultum ultimum . After an incident between the two consuls' supporters turned violent – Octavius' supporters allegedly massacred some of the new citizens marching with Cinna – Cinna left the city to raise an army joined by a majority of the plebeian tribunes and Quintus Sertorius . When Cinna departed the city, the Senate declared him to have abdicated his consulship and to be hostis (an enemy of

264-516: A bill to distribute farmland to his veterans, and landless members of the urban poor. A similar measure had been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over confident in their ability to control popular unrest. Although Pompey could not overcome optimate opposition on his own, the situation changed when Marius' nephew Julius Caesar sought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, unscrupulous, and ambitious politician, Caesar used this alliance to harness Pompey's influence with

352-545: A centre of piracy, along with other inland areas and reorganised into six parts. These actions significantly increased Roman state income and presented Pompey with multiple opportunities to increase his personal wealth and patronage base. Before his return to Italy in 62 BC, Pompey paid his troops bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents , but despite fears he intended to follow Sulla's example, they were dismissed upon arrival at Brundisium. His journey to Rome drew huge crowds wherever he stopped, showing that although opinion in

440-529: A commander in the civil war of 83–81 BC . Pompey's success as a general while young enabled him to advance directly to his first consulship without following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to advance in a political career). He was elected as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated three triumphs , served as a commander in the Sertorian War , the Third Servile War ,

528-553: A fortnight he was dead. Cinna survived the following years, securing his own iterative re-election through to 84 BC. Replacing Marius as his consular colleague was first Lucius Valerius Flaccus and then Gnaeus Papirius Carbo . Flaccus was dispatched within the year to Greece to fight Mithridates and assume command over Sulla. The Cinnan regime started provisions for a census, which was conducted in 86 BC by Lucius Marcius Philippus and Marcus Perperna . They registered, however, only some 463,000 citizens, which meant most of

616-672: A fresh revolt in Caucasian Albania forced him to retrace his steps. Victory at the Abas enabled him to impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the northern side of the Caucasus. Pompey then wintered in Armenia, settling minor border contests and raids between his allies Phraates and Tigranes. Relying on his naval blockade to wear down Mithridates, Pompey spent 64 BC annexing

704-579: A personal enemy, was put on trial but killed himself before conviction. Cinna and Marius had themselves elected consuls; their faction dominated Italy until Sulla's civil war in 83 BC. The main question in Roman politics of the year 88 BC was how the new citizens – the Italians who had accepted Roman citizenship in place due to the Social War – should be enfranchised. Under the lex Julia of 90 BC

792-688: A rebellion in Gallia Narbonensis , after which his army entered winter quarters near Narbo Martius . In early 76 BC, he crossed the Col de Portet and entered the Iberian peninsula, where he would remain for the next five years. His arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was defeated by Sertorius at the Battle of Lauron , losing one third of his army while inflicting next to no losses on Sertorius' army. This

880-563: A series of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey to a military command. While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops from among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to besiege Mutina , capital of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Brutus , who surrendered after a lengthy siege, and was assassinated next day, allegedly on Pompey's orders. Catulus then defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while Pompey marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and

968-418: A special senatorial decree. Plutarch suggests Pompey supported Crassus as his co-consul in order to put him under an obligation. The two men were elected consuls for 70 BC, but allegedly differed on almost every measure, rendering their term "politically barren and without achievement." However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by Sulla. One of the most significant

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1056-588: The Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, Jordan and Damascus . Pompey's incursion further south, into Judea , was occasioned on account of its inhabitants, under the leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , having ravaged Phoenicia and Pompey wanting to bring a stop to it. The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil War , in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over his brother Aristobulus II. When he compelled

1144-519: The Battle of Italica . Pompey faced Sertorius in the indecisive Battle of Sucro , in which Sertorius defeated Pompey's right flank and nearly captured Pompey himself, but his legate Lucius Afranius defeated the Sertorian right. Sertorius withdrew inland, then turned to fight at Saguntum , where Pompey lost 6,000 men, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective subordinate. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom

1232-518: The Battle of the Colline Gate . Pompey, who was pursuing the government forces, arrived just after the battle. By the end of 82 BC, Sulla had expelled his opponents from Italy, and engineered his nomination as Dictator by the Senate. Either through admiration of his abilities, or concern at his ambition, Sulla sought to consolidate his alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry his stepdaughter Aemilia. Plutarch claims she

1320-500: The Catilinarian conspiracy . Although Clodius succeeded in having Cicero exiled, he was recalled to Rome by Pompey eighteen months later in 58 BC. As a result, when shortages of grain caused popular unrest in 57 BC, a grateful Cicero backed Pompey's appointment as praefectus annonae , a temporary position set up for such occasions. Bellum Octavianum Hostilities broke out after Octavius opposed Cinna's attempts to distribute

1408-468: The First Triumvirate , an informal political alliance designed to counter-balance the optimates . Pompey's influence was based on his reputation as a military commander, and popularity with the Roman people. Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the military clout essential for political success in the late Republican era . Once elected, Caesar secured

1496-662: The Roman Senate . Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil war within the Roman world. In the year prior to Sulla's return Pompey had raised and equipped a full legion from amongst his father's old clients and veterans in Picenum . In the spring of 83 Sulla landed in Brundusium . As he marched north-west towards Campania , Pompey led his own legion south to join him. The government in Rome sent out three separate armies in an attempt to prevent

1584-477: The Social War (91–87 BC) . Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil war known as the Bellum Octavianum , although sources differ on whether he succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers. Prior to his death, Strabo was accused of embezzlement ; as his legal heir, Pompey was held responsible for the alleged crime and put on trial. He was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing to marry

1672-553: The Third Mithridatic War , and in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success earned him the cognomen Magnus – "the Great" – after his boyhood hero Alexander the Great . His adversaries gave him the nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness. In 60 BC, Pompey joined Crassus and Caesar in the informal political alliance known as the First Triumvirate , cemented by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia . After

1760-492: The Third Servile War . Pompey returned to Italy just before Crassus defeated the main rebel army in 71 BC, arriving in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim to have ended the war by doing so was a long-standing source of resentment for Crassus. Pompey was granted a second triumph for his victory in Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both too young and technically ineligible, this required

1848-577: The Vaccaei . Dire straits caused by this stretch of the campaign and Sertorius' guerrilla warfare led Pompey to write a letter to the Senate asking for funds and men, and scolding their lack of support for him and Metellus. Pompey's letter had the effect of galvanizing the Senate into sending him more men and funds. Reinforced by two more legions, in 74 BC he and Metellus began a war of attrition against their enemy. As his chief opponent had lost most of his Roman legionaries and could no longer match him in

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1936-511: The judge's daughter, Antistia . One of the main issues at stake in 87 BC was the appointment of the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla as commander of the Roman army in the ongoing First Mithridatic War , an opportunity to amass enormous wealth. During his absence in the East, his political rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna , Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Younger regained control of

2024-411: The war on Mithridates . Cinna also renewed calls for the new Italian citizens to be distributed among the existing thirty-five tribes. Along with a Cinnan bill to recall those exiled by Sulla, this brought him into conflict with Octavius. Octavius secured a majority of the tribunes to veto Cinna's distribution and recall bills, which started a riot attacking the tribunes and itself may have triggered

2112-711: The 'Domus Rostrata', since Pompey had decorated it with the prows or rostra of the pirate ships he had defeated. The other is the new villa that Pompey built near his theatre, outside the city walls in the Campus Martius . Pompey the Great People Events Places Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( Latin: [ˈŋnae̯ʊs pɔmˈpɛjjʊs ˈmaŋnʊs] ; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( / ˈ p ɒ m p i / POM -pee ) or Pompey

2200-496: The Cinnans executed their plan to starve the city out. Marius took Antium , Aricia , Lanuvium , and other towns, while Cinna moved down the via Appia to secure foodstuffs. The troops under Octavius attempted to hand Metellus the command, but Metellus refused to infringe on the consul's rights. Metellus attempted to negotiate with Cinna; Octavius objected and Metellus then fled the city for Africa. While Marius continued to tighten

2288-493: The Great of Armenia . Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims he was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate investigation, while by 69 BC his troops were weary and mutinous. In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus in Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio received Bithynia. He also assumed leadership of the war against Mithridates, but failed to respond decisively when

2376-517: The Great , was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic . He played a significant role in the transformation of Rome from republic to empire . Early in his career, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictator Sulla ; later, he became the political ally, and finally the enemy, of Julius Caesar . A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career while still young. He rose to prominence serving Sulla as

2464-554: The Italian citizens enfranchised after the Social War into all voting tribes and to recall the outlawed Gaius Marius from exile. Cinna was ejected from the city after a fight in the Forum . He began touring Italy to recruit men, while the Senate in Rome replaced him with Lucius Cornelius Merula , a priest of Jupiter, in the consulship. Cinna took control of the Roman army stationed at Nola and

2552-745: The Mithridatic War, notably Soli , renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme in Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya and Calabria . These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey. In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus , formerly one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia , and commander in the Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the last ruler of Bithynia died and left his kingdom to Rome, sparking an invasion by Mithridates VI of Pontus , and Tigranes

2640-431: The Senate sent envoys to address Cinna on his consular tribunal. Asked to forswear killing on entrance to the city, Cinna refused but indicated that he would not cause anyone's death while Marius stood silently beside him. The two men were invited to enter the city but Marius refused and cited his exile. Cinna's first action after entering the city was to bring legislation overturning all of Sulla's exiles; Marius then entered

2728-516: The Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with the masses. He was awarded a third triumph for his achievements in Asia Minor, celebrated on his 45th birthday in 61 BC. Pompey claimed the new provinces established in the East had increased annual state income from 200 million to 340 million sesterces , plus an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury. He refused to provide details of his personal fortune, but given

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2816-473: The Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain with proconsular authority in order to defeat Sertorius. This act was technically illegal as he had yet to hold public office, illustrating Pompey's preference for military glory, and disregard for traditional political constraints. Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the threat posed by Sertorius. En route to Hispania, he subdued

2904-528: The Social War and other prior conflicts. In the face of resistance to his controversial proposal, Sulpicius assembled street mobs that – in a brawl – killed the consul Pompeius' son and drove both of the consuls from the city. Plutarch claims that Pompeius was deprived of his consulship though this is doubtful. More concretely, Sulpicius passed legislation depriving Sulla of his command against Mithridates and illegally assigned it to his old rival, Gaius Marius , who

2992-465: The amounts declared publicly, this must have been enormous. Some of it was used to build one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, the Theatre of Pompey . However, the Senate then refused to ratify the treaties agreed by Pompey as part of his settlement of the East. Opposition was led by the optimates Cato the Younger and Metellus Celer , whose sister Mucia had recently been divorced by Pompey, for reasons still disputed. They also defeated

3080-399: The army with new levies, depriving the soldiers of the expected booty from the East, he led the army toward Rome while all of his officers deserted him (save Lucullus ). The military tribunes which Marius sent to assume command were killed and a later set of envoys from the Senate assaulted. With Rome defenceless, Sulla marched into the city amid a storm of popular outrage. His men, shamed by

3168-400: The citizenry, almost broke before Sulla urged them on personally. Sulla called the Senate and induced them to declare Marius, Marius' son , Sulpicius, and nine others outlaws. Condemned to death without trial, the exiles all successfully fled the city (except Sulpicius who was betrayed and killed). Sulpicus' laws were invalidated on the basis that they were passed by force, restoring Sulla to

3256-546: The city for Greece. While later sources – including Dio , Velleius , Livy , Diodorus , and Plutarch – claim that Cinna and Marius butchered and ravaged their way through the city for five days, these claims are likely Sullan propaganda filtered through Sulla's memoirs . Cicero, more contemporaneous and speaking to men who lived during the Cinnan regime, indicates that Cinna and Marius targeted only political enemies and did not threaten all of Rome's inhabitants or otherwise sack

3344-483: The city. At the end of the year, Cinna and Marius presented themselves before the comitia centuriata as the only candidates for the consulship and were duly returned in irregular elections. Inaugurated at the start of 86 BC, this was Marius' seventh consulship. On his first day as consul he ordered one former tribune thrown from the Tarpeian Rock . He started planning for his Mithridatic campaign but within

3432-477: The city. Cinna's lieutenants Quintus Sertorius and Papirius Carbo fought inconclusively against Octavius and Strabo near the Janiculum . After Strabo died of natural causes, his troops defected to Cinna, forcing the consul Octavius to sue for peace. Cinna and Marius entered Rome. They killed a number of their opponents and arraigned others in manipulated trials. Octavius was killed; Merula committed suicide; Catulus,

3520-460: The city. Octavius, refusing to flee the city, was then killed on his curule chair set up in the Janiculum; his head was then cut off and displayed on the forum. After his victory, Cinna sought to punish those who had acted contrary to law. Marius, however, pursued his personal and political enemies. Among them were Gaius and Lucius Julius Caesar , Publius Licinius Crassus and his son, along with

3608-411: The command against Mithridates and annulling the distribution of new citizens among the thirty-five existing tribes. After passing some other reforms, Sulla left the city for Capua after conducting elections. His broad unpopularity, however, was keenly felt when his candidates were all rejected at those elections, which chose Gnaeus Octavius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna as consuls-designate. Sulla forced

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3696-710: The consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Gaul . During this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander. Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, the praetor Gaius Carrinas , in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's victory at the Battle of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his base at Ariminium , severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeated Gaius Marcius Censorinus , another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's fleeing troops outside their base at Sena Gallica , defeating them and plundering

3784-566: The countryside in the south, Octavius and Merula fortified the city and began to raise troops in the north and Cisalpine Gaul . Marius, hearing news of this conflict while in Africa, landed in Etruria and joined Cinna. Marius raised some 6,000 men and entered Cinna's camp at their head. Pompey Strabo , who had been called by Octavius and the Senate to defend the city, encamped near Rome at the Colline Gate but remained aloof to play both sides. Cinna's plan

3872-472: The deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political faction known as the optimates —a conservative faction of the Roman Senate . Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of the Roman state in its entirety, eventually leading to Caesar's Civil War . Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, and he sought refuge in Ptolemaic Egypt , where he

3960-547: The deposed Hiempsal to the Numidian throne. Around this time, his troops began referring to him as Magnus , or "the Great", after Alexander the Great , a figure much admired by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, Pompey formally made this part of his name . On returning to Rome, he asked for a triumph to celebrate his victories, an unprecedented demand for someone so young. Pompey refused to disband his army until Sulla agreed, although

4048-503: The difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented his authority. In Gaul, Piso hampered his recruitment efforts, while in Crete , Quintus Metellus refused to comply with his instructions. Pompey spread his forces throughout the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates escaping a Roman fleet by moving elsewhere. Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, while he secured

4136-551: The end of 66 BC. According to contemporary sources, Mithridates and a small contingent escaped the battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea . While there, he took control of the Cimmerian Bosporus from its Roman-backed ruler, his son Machares , who later committed suicide. Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia supported by Tigranes the Younger , whose father quickly came to terms; in return for

4224-477: The field, Pompey, along with Metellus, gained the upper hand, conquering more and more Sertorian cities, slowly grinding down Sertorius' revolt. By now, Sertorius was being undermined by internal divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' coalition of Iberian and Roman forces came to a head in 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading a conspiracy with other prominent Sertorians, had Sertorius assassinated and assumed control of

4312-558: The government forces made one final effort to march to the relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join forces with the Samnites and the Lucanians , fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the Social War. Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only to be caught just in time and defeated by Sulla at

4400-600: The grain route to Rome. These measures won him control of the western Mediterranean in just 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing the pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive assault on their stronghold in Coracaesium , winning the Battle of Korakesion and concluding the war in only three months. Most of his opponents surrendered without fighting, thanks to Pompey's reputation for clemency. They were granted lands in cities devastated during

4488-462: The idea. When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his state funeral and roll back some of Sulla's laws, then became proconsul of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in January 77 BC. When the Senate ordered him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected. Assembling an army, he began marching on Rome; the Senate responded with

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4576-552: The independent and wealthy cities of Syria , which were incorporated into a new Roman province. In the process, he acquired large amounts of money and prestige, as well as criticism from his opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates had been cornered in Panticapaeum by another of his sons, Pharnaces II of Pontus . An attempt to commit suicide by taking poison allegedly failed due to his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he

4664-435: The latter re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attacked Cappadocia , a Roman ally. Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate to pass the lex Manilia , giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor in order to defeat Mithridates, in addition to those granted by the lex Gabinia . The optimates were privately horrified that one man should hold so much influence, but fearful of his popularity allowed

4752-611: The latter to surrender Jerusalem , its defenders took refuge in the Temple , which the Romans first stormed , then looted. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern section was incorporated into the Decapolis , a league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new province of Syria. Other organisational changes included creating

4840-543: The latter tried to offset the impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs to Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus . Sometime during this period, Pompey married Mucia Tertia, a member of the powerful Metellus family. They had three children before their divorce in 61 BC; Pompey the younger , usually known as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna , and a younger son, Sextus . Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did so against Sulla's advice, but most modern historians refute

4928-414: The local Roman administration, showing a lack of animosity towards his former opponents, which extended his patronage throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul. Pompey and his army remained in Hispania for a few years conquering the Sertorian remnants, and then marched back to Rome. During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with suppressing the slave rebellion led by Spartacus known as

5016-421: The mass of new citizens would be packed into ten or eight new tribes who would be outvoted by the existing thirty-five tribes of old citizens. The plebeian tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus brought legislation to distribute the new citizens among the existing thirty-five tribes. The consuls of the year 88 BC were Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Quintus Pompeius Rufus . Sulla had been a successful general in

5104-549: The measure to pass. Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called Pompey a "vulture" who profited from the work of others, a reference both to his new command and claim to have finished the war against Spartacus. Pompey agreed an alliance with Phraates III , king of Parthia , whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. When Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted. Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Armenia, followed by Pompey, who defeated him at Lycus near

5192-414: The new citizens could not have yet been registered into tribes. For all his rhetoric at the start of the year 87 BC, Cinna and his allies seemed very willing to continue the existing state of affairs and made no efforts to complete a full registration. The threat of Sulla in the east remained when the Roman army sent to replace him in command fell into disarray after its general, Lucius Valerius Flaccus,

5280-463: The orator Marcus Antonius . The killings were not broad across the political class and likely reflected Marius' personal grudges; nor were the victims then linked to Sulla. There is no evidence that the purge targeted the victim's families. Merula and Quintus Lutatius Catulus committed suicide prior to convictions at trial. Sulla himself was also declared hostis ; his laws were annulled and properties were confiscated, leading to his family fleeing

5368-471: The passage of a new agrarian bill, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated the Senate. When Bibulus opposed the measure, he was attacked in the forum , and spent the rest of his consulship under virtual house arrest. Caesar then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum . He

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5456-592: The past fifty years, partly because of the decline of traditional naval powers like Rhodes , while previous attempts to subdue them had been unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more accurate to see them as a conventional enemy, rather than disorganised outlaws. Principally based in Cilicia , in 68 BC they raided as far as Ostia , Rome's port, and kidnapped two senators, to general outrage. Prompted by Pompey, Aulus Gabinius , tribune of

5544-455: The plebs in 67 BC, proposed the Lex Gabinia , giving him a mandate for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years in any province within 50 miles of the Mediterranean, along with the power to appoint legates and significant financial resources. Concerned by one man holding such wide-ranging powers, the Senate opposed the law but it was passed by the people. Most of

5632-433: The port of Ostia and one under Marcus Marius Gratidianus took Ariminum to prevent enemy reinforcement from Cisalpine Gaul. Pompey Strabo, unable to reach an agreement with Cinna and Marius, fought Sertorius near the Janiculum, while the Senate sought to raise more men by offering citizenship for all Italians who had surrendered. This appeal raised only sixteen cohorts, far fewer than expected. The Senate then instructed

5720-680: The proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (previously praetor in 90 BC) to make peace with the Samnites he was fighting if possible with honour and relieve the city. The Samnites pushed for extremely generous terms which Metellus rejected; Cinna, in separate negotiations, instead gave in to all their demands, securing their support. Octavius won a victory over Cinna at the Janiculum, but Pompey Strabo prevented Octavius from following up on his success, withdrawing his troops under Octavius' command. After plague struck Octavius and Pompey Strabo's armies, killing Pompey Strabo and thousands of their men,

5808-400: The province of Bithynia and Pontus , with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored to his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated into Galatia , with Pompey's client Deiotarus becoming ruler of the new kingdom. Finally, Cilicia received the coastal region of Pamphylia , previously

5896-403: The rebel army. Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him swiftly at the Battle near Osca . Perperna was captured and attempted to persuade Pompey to spare him by giving over Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing proof of communications between the rebel leader and leading men in Rome. Pompey burned the letters unread and executed Perperna, and then spent some time restructuring

5984-622: The remnants of his army retreated to Sardinia , where he died. The Sertorian War began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius , a prominent proscribed Marian general, initiated a rebellion in Hispania , where he was joined by other Roman exiles like Perperna. Supported by local Iberian tribes, he took control of Hispania Ulterior and repeatedly defeated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius through skillful use of guerrilla warfare . Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent to oust him and soon conquered Hispania Citerior as well. Backed by his allies in

6072-400: The restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid a substantial cash indemnity and allowed Roman troops to be based on his territory. In 65 BC, Pompey set out to take Colchis, but to do so had first to subdue various local tribes and allies of Mithridrates. After winning a series of battles, he reached Phasis and linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine fleet, before

6160-438: The siege, Cinna offered freedom to the slaves who would join him. The Senate, fearful of famine in the city, then sued for peace. After the Senate's envoys failed to secure an audience, unable to answer Cinna's question as to whether they approached him as consul or as private citizen, Cinna's forces then encamped outside the city's walls. Merula, protesting that he had never wanted the consulship, abdicated on his own accord and

6248-580: The siege. Bribing the officers and troops to let him make an address, he then made an appeal to them where he threw down his consular regalia and addressed the men as citizens. Calling on them as citizens to vindicate his election and arguing that not to do so would create a tyrannical senatorial oligarchy who would be able to rule without reference to the people, the soldiers lifted Cinna back to his curule seat and restored his symbols of consular office. The army's officers then administered an oath of loyalty to Cinna. While Cinna continued to raise soldiers around

6336-424: The state). A senatus consultum ultimum was probably moved. In place of Cinna, Lucius Cornelius Merula , who was the high priest of Jupiter ( flamen Dialis ), was made consul. Because the restrictive religious obligations of the priesthood, Merula was largely unable to execute his consulship, leaving Octavius as de facto sole consul. Cinna, meanwhile, reached Nola: Sulla had left troops there to continue

6424-653: The town. While Metellus remained in the north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south. Pompey advanced south-west along the Via Flaminia towards Spoletium , where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed to escape. Pompey resumed his march to join Sulla's command. Not long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed another large force under Censorinus, which

6512-460: The two men to uphold his laws by oath; this proved an ineffective restraint. When Sulla's unprecedented consulship ended, Octavius and Cinna were inaugurated consuls. By this time, Cinna had induced a plebeian tribune to prosecute Sulla and prevent him from leaving Italy. This failed as Sulla ignored the tribune's demands that he return to Rome and was regardless immune from prosecution due to his proconsular imperium ; he departed rapidly for

6600-588: The union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one of these armies and routed it. The three enemy commanders, unable to agree on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Sulla with the official title of Imperator (General). At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when but definitely before the onset of winter, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When fighting broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, while Metellus (one of his lieutenants), supported by Pompey, campaigned against

6688-440: The urban electorate. With additional support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59 BC, the other being the optimate Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus . This meant Caesar could help pass legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor given the rivalry between his two patrons. Despite appearing to be the most junior, Caesar thus became central to

6776-508: Was Hirtuleius. Although Metellus defeated Perperna in a separate battle, Sertorius was able to withdraw to Clunia late in the year, where he repaired the walls to lure his opponents into a siege, while forming garrisons from other towns into a new field army. Once this was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Roman logistics on land and by sea. Lack of supplies forced Metellus to quarter his troops in Gaul , while Pompey wintered among

6864-472: Was a serious blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of the year re-organising his army. Metellus' failure to dislodge Sertorius and Pompey's defeat meant the senatorial generals made no progress in the year. In 75 BC, Sertorius led the campaign against Metellus, while Pompey defeated his subordinates Perperna and Gaius Herennius outside Valencia . When Sertorius took over operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated his deputy Lucius Hirtuleius at

6952-489: Was already pregnant by her former husband, and died in childbirth soon after. The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor . They were supported by a fleet under Carbo, while Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Roman province of Africa . Perperna abandoned Sicily after Pompey landed on the island with a large force, while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey claimed this

7040-529: Was also assigned Gallia Transalpina after its governor died in office, before leaving Rome to launch the Gallic Wars in 58 BC. His alliance with Pompey was strengthened when the latter married Caesar's daughter Julia. Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led by Cicero , a long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, the latter supported the populist politician Publius Clodius Pulcher in an attack on Cicero for executing Roman citizens without trial during

7128-550: Was assassinated by the courtiers of Ptolemy XIII . Pompey was born in Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of a provincial noble called Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo . Although the dominant family in Picenum, Strabo was the first of his branch to achieve senatorial status in Rome ; he completed the traditional cursus honorum , becoming consul in 89 BC, and acquired a reputation for greed, political duplicity, and military ruthlessness. Pompey began his career serving with his father in

7216-404: Was at the time a private citizen. At the time this was seen as infringing on the consul's traditional prerogative to have primacy in leading Rome's armies. In response, Sulla induced his troops at Nola to restore order in the city, arguing that Sulpicius' bill was an assault on the consuls' authority and that of the people who had elected them. Along with the argument that Marius could replace

7304-476: Was joined by the exiled Marius. Octavius won the support of the two other Roman generals in the field in Italy, Metellus Pius and Pompeius Strabo ; the Samnites , who were formally at war with Rome , joined Cinna. Peter Brunt estimates that Octavius had some 60,000 men at his disposal while Cinna had around twice that. Marius captured and sacked Ostia , cutting off Rome from supplies, and Cinna went on to besiege

7392-410: Was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, but his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex , or "young butcher", as a result. Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily in the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius . After defeating and killing Ahenobarbus at the Battle of Utica , Pompey subdued Numidia and executed its king Hiarbas , a Marian ally. He restored

7480-592: Was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Pompey, in return for which he was granted the Bosporan Kingdom and made an ally of Rome. The final collapse of the Seleucid Empire allowed Pompey to annex Syria in 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised the region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum to achieve independence. In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched south, occupying coastal cities like Apamea , before crossing

7568-516: Was the ability to veto Senatorial bills, an act often seen as a turning point in the politics of the late Republic. Although popular with the people, the measure must have been opposed by the optimates , and thus passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources barely mention Crassus. Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and Mithridates. Their power and range had increased over

7656-503: Was to divide this forces into three. His force would encamp near the Colline Gate, one force under Sertorius would encamp up the Tiber , and Marius would encamp near the city gate toward Ostia, the Porta Ostiensis . The three forces would then starve the city into submission. Two detachments also then engaged in offensive action: one under Marius besieged and took with the support of defectors

7744-522: Was trying to get through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Younger (who was the figurehead of the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade in Umbria and Etruria , added to Metellus's success in winning control of the north, which broke the back of the government's resistance. At the end of the campaigning season of 82,

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