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125-511: The ilish ( Tenualosa ilisha ) ( Bengali : ইলিশ , romanized : iliś ), also known as the ilishi , hilsa , hilsa herring or hilsa shad , is a species of fish related to the herring , in the family Clupeidae . It is a very popular and sought-after food in the Bengal region , and is the national fish of Bangladesh and state fish of the Indian state of West Bengal . As of 2023, 97% of
250-436: A top-down or bottom-up approach . Essentially, this research is focused on understanding whether changes in the food web are driven by nutrients at the bottom of the food web or predators at the top. The general conclusion is that the bottom-up approach seemed to be more predictive of food web behavior. This indicates that plankton have more sway in determining the success of the primary consumer species that prey on them than do
375-492: A bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from
500-432: A buffer that prevents the collapse of ecosystems during times with little to no light. Plankton are also often described in terms of size. Usually the following divisions are used: However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end. The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up
625-590: A different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is লবণ lôbôṇ in the east which corresponds to নুন nun in the west. Bengali exhibits diglossia , though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax : Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar categorises
750-480: A diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following: In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic ; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা shô -hô- jo -gi- ta "cooperation", where
875-475: A few months, famously can enter suspended animation during dry or hostile conditions and survive for decades. This allows them to be ubiquitous in terrestrial environments despite needing water to grow and reproduce. Many microscopic crustacean groups like copepods and amphipods (of which sandhoppers are members) and seed shrimp are known to go dormant when dry and live in transient bodies of water too Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in
1000-406: A gradual depletion of the ilish's breeding grounds, reducing populations of the fish even further. Pollution in rivers have worsened the situation, but due to slightly better waters the fishes are found more near Bangladesh delta. Owing to this situation ilish is used as a diplomatic trade item, most recently in the distribution of COVID-19 vaccines. Bangladesh has regularly imposed restrictions on
1125-672: A large scale and were communally limited. Owing to Bengal's geographic location, Bengali areas bordering non-Bengali regions have been influenced by each other. Small numbers of people in Midnapore , which borders Odisha , have used the Odia script to write in Bengali. In the border areas between West Bengal and Bihar , some Bengali communities historically wrote Bengali in Devanagari , Kaithi and Tirhuta . In Sylhet and Bankura , modified versions of
1250-660: A majority in Bangladesh speaks dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety – often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects. Even in SCB,
1375-517: A part in the adoption of the English alphabet to write Bengali, with certain social media influencers publishing entire novels in Roman Bengali. Plankton Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms that drift in water (or air ) but are unable to actively propel themselves against currents (or wind ). The individual organisms constituting plankton are called plankters . In
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#17328557478271500-430: A planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter. The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term. However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less-commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective. When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case, "-on" which indicates
1625-468: A popular dish made with mustard oil or seed. The Bengalis popularly call this dish Shorshe Ilish . It is very popular in Bengal ( Bangladesh and India's West Bengal ), as well as in Odisha , Tripura , Assam , Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh . It is also exported globally. Ilish collected from Bangladesh is regarded the finest of all, celebrated for its size and subtle taste. In North America (where ilish
1750-528: A prized gift. The upstream migration itself is seen as a vital natural process, and the pulasa a reward for the patient fishermen who wait for its arrival. In Pakistan, most hilsa fish are caught in the Indus River Delta in Sindh . They are also caught in the sea, but some consider the marine stage of the fish as not so tasty. The fish has very sharp and tough bones, making it problematic to eat for some. Ilish
1875-421: A process known as volatilisation . When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions. If they hit land they can have an effect on animal, vegetation and human health. Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%). These aerosols are able to remain suspended in
2000-415: A process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae. In time fish larvae become able to swim against currents, at which point they cease to be plankton and become juvenile fish . Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle. Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton , which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in
2125-497: A reduced level (because of reduced light). Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions ). The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton algal blooms . Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface. Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g.,
2250-513: A rounded total of 280 million) worldwide. The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal , which comprises the present-day nation of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal . Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura , southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Bengali is also spoken in
2375-408: A special diacritic, called the hôsôntô (্) , may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ [m] ). This diacritic, however, is not common and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô , may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in
2500-575: A state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan . On 21 February 1952, five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka ; they were the first ever martyrs to die for their right to speak their mother tongue. In 1956, Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. 21 February has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and has also been commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010,
2625-573: A tropical range; 34°N - 5°N, 42°E - 97°E in marine and freshwater. It is found in rivers and estuaries in Bangladesh , India , Pakistan , Myanmar (also known as Burma) and the Persian Gulf area where it can be found in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in and around Iran and southern Iraq . The fish schools in coastal waters and ascends up the rivers (anadromous) for around 50 – 100 km to spawn during
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#17328557478272750-463: A vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই [moj] "ladder" and in ইলিশ [iliʃ] "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি) . A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realised using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing hôsôntô , three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are
2875-424: A wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish. This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification. The "plankton" category differentiates these organisms from those that float on the water's surface, called neuston , those that can swim against a current, called nekton , and those that live on
3000-406: A wide variety of aquatic organisms that have both planktonic and benthic stages in their life cycles. Much of the meroplankton consists of larval stages of larger organisms. Meroplankton can be contrasted with holoplankton , which are planktonic organisms that stay in the pelagic zone as plankton throughout their entire life cycle. After some time in the plankton, many meroplankton graduate to
3125-494: Is Bangladesh's national march, written by The National Poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali in 1928. It was adopted as the national marching song by the Bangladeshi government in 1972. Additionally, the first two verses of Vande Mataram , a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , was adopted as the "national song" of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it
3250-468: Is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs , and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words . Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা matra . Since
3375-439: Is a distinct median notch in the upper jaw. Gill rakers fine and numerous, about 100 to 250 on the lower part of the arch and the fins are hyaline . The fish shows a dark blotch behind gill opening, followed by a series of small spots along the flank in juveniles. While alive, the fish is silver shot with gold and purple. The fish is marine; freshwater; brackish; pelagic - neritic ; anadromous ; depth range of about 200 m. Within
3500-464: Is also popular as a side dish. Ilish can be cooked in very little oil since the fish itself is very oily. Due to the demand and popularity of this species, overfishing is rampant. Fishes weighing around 2 to 3 kilograms have become rare in India, as even the smaller fish are caught using finer fishing nets as production in Bangladesh have increased. As a consequence of this, prices of the fish have risen. In
3625-514: Is also spoken by the Bengali diasporas ( Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) across Europe, North America, the Middle East and other regions. Bengali was accorded the status of a classical language by the government of India on 3 October 2024. It is the second most spoken and fourth fastest growing language in India , following Hindi in the first place, Kashmiri in the second place, and Meitei ( Manipuri ), along with Gujarati , in
3750-409: Is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming. Plankton population-based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practiced by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments. Of all animal fecal matter, it is whale feces that is the 'trophy' in terms of increasing nutrient availability. Phytoplankton are
3875-400: Is an abugida , a script with letters for consonants, with diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ ô ) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th–11th century). It
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4000-439: Is an oily fish rich in omega 3 fatty acids . Recent experiments have shown its beneficial effects in decreasing cholesterol level in rats and insulin level. In Bengal and Odisha , ilish can be smoked, fried, steamed or baked in young plantain leaves, prepared with mustard seed paste, curd, aubergine , different condiments like jira (cumin) and so on. It is said that people can cook ilish in more than 50 ways. Ilish roe
4125-668: Is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka ( Sri Lanka Matha ) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore , while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhala . After the contribution made by the Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force in the Sierra Leone Civil War under the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ,
4250-662: Is called sboor (صبور). In Malaysia and Indonesia , it is commonly known as terubok. Due to its distinguished features as being oily and tender, some Malays, especially in northern Johore, call it 'terubok umno' (to distinguish it from the toli - which species is rich in tiny bones and not so oily). In Myanmar , it is called ( ငါးသလောက် ) in Burmese which derives from the Mon language word ကသလံက် with က in Mon and ငါး in Burmese meaning fish. Females of
4375-699: Is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardisation of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural centre of Bengal was in Kolkata , a city founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia and Kushtia District . There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use
4500-476: Is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability. The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans. On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres. Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form
4625-404: Is known as Apabhraṃśa , by the end of the first millennium. The Bengali language evolved as a distinct language over the course of time. Though some archaeologists claim that some 10th-century texts were in Bengali, it is not certain whether they represent a differentiated language or whether they represent a stage when Eastern Indo-Aryan languages were differentiating. The local Apabhraṃśa of
4750-541: Is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO 2 . The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding . Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more "sloppily", that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption. There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets. The growth of phytoplankton populations
4875-501: Is made up of numerous microbes , including viruses , about 1000 different species of bacteria , around 40,000 varieties of fungi , and hundreds of species of protists , algae , mosses and liverworts that live some part of their life cycle as aeroplankton, often as spores , pollen , and wind-scattered seeds . Additionally, peripatetic microorganisms are swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms, and an even larger amount of airborne marine microorganisms are propelled high into
5000-636: Is not always readily available) other shad fish are sometimes used as an ilish substitute, especially in Bengali cuisine . This typically occurs near the East coast of North America, where fresh shad fish, which tastes similar to ilish, can be found. In Bangladesh, fish are caught in the Meghna - Jamuna delta, which flows into the Bay of Bengal and Meghna (lower Brahmaputra ), and Jamuna rivers. In India, Rupnarayan (which has
5125-510: Is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents . This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish , squid and marine mammals , which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment. Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e.g. most algae , copepods , salps , and some jellyfish ). By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually
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5250-469: Is recycled back to the marine environment. Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content. Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate. Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon
5375-477: Is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanisation (lower grapheme). Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs , combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable . Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/ , are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of
5500-405: Is the fifth most spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by the total number of speakers in the world. It is the fifth most spoken Indo-European language . Bengali is the official , national , and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh , with 98% of Bangladeshis using Bengali as their first language. It is the second-most widely spoken language in India . It
5625-669: Is the availability of light. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis ), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light. A secondary variable is nutrient availability. Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate , phosphate and silicate . This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification . In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at
5750-627: Is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura and the Barak Valley region of the state of Assam . It is also the second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal , and is spoken by significant populations in other states including Bihar , Arunachal Pradesh , Delhi , Chhattisgarh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , Nagaland , Odisha and Uttarakhand . Bengali
5875-401: Is the top hilsa-producing country in the world, followed by Myanmar and then India. An estimated 97% of the total hilsa catch comes from Bangladesh. Ilish production in the country increased by 92% from 2008 to 2023. The fish is popular food amongst the people of South Asia and in the Middle East, but especially with Bengalis , Odias and Telugus of Coastal Andhra . Bengali fish curry is
6000-657: The Kolaghater hilsa ), Hooghly , Mahanadi , Narmada and Godavari rivers and the Chilika Lake are famous for their fish yields. In the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, hilsa takes on a special significance. Here, the term "pulasa" refers specifically to the larger, mature hilsa that migrate upstream along the Godavari River. This migratory journey is crucial, as it's believed that the Godavari's unique muddy waters contribute to
6125-500: The Aesop's Fables in Bengali was printed using Roman letters based on English phonology by the Scottish linguist John Gilchrist . Consecutive attempts to establish a Roman Bengali have continued across every century since these times, and have been supported by the likes of Suniti Kumar Chatterji , Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda , and Muhammad Enamul Haq . The Digital Revolution has also played
6250-606: The Arabic , Persian , and Turkic languages . The arrival of merchants and traders from the Middle East and Turkestan into the Buddhist -ruling Pala Empire , from as early as the 7th century, gave birth to Islamic influence in the region. In the 13th century, subsequent Arab Muslim and Turco-Persian expeditions to Bengal heavily influenced the local vernacular by settling among the native population. Bengali absorbed Arabic and Persian influences in its vocabulary and dialect, including
6375-468: The Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 , made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh. It is also the de facto national language of
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#17328557478276500-564: The Kaithi script had some historical prominence, mainly among Muslim communities. The variant in Sylhet was identical to the Baitali Kaithi script of Hindustani with the exception of Sylhet Nagri possessing matra . Sylhet Nagri was standardised for printing in c. 1869 . Up until the 19th century, numerous variations of the Arabic script had been used across Bengal from Chittagong in
6625-701: The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in the first millennium when Bengal was a part of the Greater Magadhan realm. The local varieties had no official status during the Gupta Empire , and with Bengal increasingly becoming a hub of Sanskrit literature for Hindu priests, the vernacular of Bengal gained a lot of influence from Sanskrit. Magadhi Prakrit was also spoken in modern-day Bihar and Assam , and this vernacular eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi . Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what
6750-520: The Nadia region . Bengali shows a high degree of diglossia , with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Modern Bengali vocabulary is based on words inherited from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, along with tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and borrowings from Persian , Arabic , Austroasiatic languages and other languages with which it has historically been in contact. In
6875-465: The Portuguese Man o' War , which are buoyant. Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters . Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents. This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of
7000-590: The University of Karachi (established by East Pakistani politicians before Independence of Bangladesh ) also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature. The national anthems of both Bangladesh ( Amar Sonar Bangla ) and India ( Jana Gana Mana ) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore . Notuner Gaan known as " Chol Chol Chol"
7125-433: The benthic zone . Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms , radiolarians , some dinoflagellates , foraminifera , amphipods , krill , copepods , and salps , as well as some gastropod mollusk species. Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone . Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size. The most common plankton are protists . Meroplankton are
7250-403: The biological pump , is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth . However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature. In 2019, a study indicated that at ongoing rates of seawater acidification , Antarctic phytoplanktons could become smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century. It might be possible to increase
7375-499: The boldface represents primary and secondary stress. Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters ; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e., one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল iskul (VC.CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school". The Bengali-Assamese script
7500-417: The larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence. Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins , starfish , crustaceans , marine worms , and most fish . The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton. The study of plankton is termed planktology and
7625-426: The nekton or adopt a benthic (often sessile ) lifestyle on the seafloor . The larval stages of benthic invertebrates make up a significant proportion of planktonic communities. The planktonic larval stage is particularly crucial to many benthic invertebrates in order to disperse their young. Depending on the particular species and the environmental conditions, larval or juvenile-stage meroplankton may remain in
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#17328557478277750-557: The phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral" consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of western Bengal). Some varieties of Bengali, particularly Sylheti , Chittagonian and Chakma , have contrastive tone ; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong
7875-510: The southwest monsoons (June to September and January to April). Actual peak breeding season of the fish is a topic of debate amongst the researchers. After spawning, they return to the sea which are known as Jatka in Bangladesh (fish size up to 9 cm), although some stocks remain resident in rivers. Since the 1900s, numerous efforts have been made to breed and cultivate hilsa across South Asia, especially in India and Bangladesh. However, no significant success has been achieved in completing
8000-608: The 16th century, Portuguese missionaries began a tradition of using the Roman alphabet to transcribe the Bengali language. Though the Portuguese standard did not receive much growth, a few Roman Bengali works relating to Christianity and Bengali grammar were printed as far as Lisbon in 1743. The Portuguese were followed by the English and French respectively, whose works were mostly related to Bengali grammar and transliteration. The first version of
8125-588: The 19th and 20th centuries, there were two standard forms of written Bengali: In 1948, the government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, giving rise to the Bengali language movement . This was a popular ethnolinguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh ), which arose as a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis and their desire to promote and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as
8250-576: The 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. The ancestor of Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty . During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterised by the elision of the word-final অ ô and the spread of compound verbs, which originated from the Sanskrit Schwa . Slowly, the word-final ô disappeared from many words influenced by
8375-451: The Bengali equivalent of a full stop – have been adopted from Western scripts and their usage is similar. Unlike in Western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাত্রা matra . The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example,
8500-426: The Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments , but carry an "inherent" vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel , either [ɔ] as in মত [m ɔ t] "opinion" or [o] , as in মন [m o n] "mind", with variants like the more open [ɒ] . To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it,
8625-474: The Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy. In the process of photosynthesis , phytoplankton release molecular oxygen ( O 2 ) into the water as a waste byproduct. It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis. The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants . Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled
8750-851: The atmosphere for about 31 days. Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols. Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level. The process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations). Many animals live in terrestrial environments by thriving in transient often microscopic bodies of water and moisture, these include rotifers and gastrotrichs which lay resilient eggs capable of surviving years in dry environments, and some of which can go dormant themselves. Nematodes are usually microscopic with this lifestyle. Water bears, despite only having lifespans of
8875-466: The atmosphere in sea spray. Aeroplankton deposits hundreds of millions of airborne viruses and tens of millions of bacteria every day on every square meter around the planet. The sea surface microlayer , compared to the sub-surface waters, contains elevated concentration of bacteria and viruses . These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapour tension and
9000-487: The atmospheric CO 2 / O 2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon. The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands. Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material
9125-413: The base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels. For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals . The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in
9250-536: The basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh ( Barisal , Chittagong , Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal and western Bangladesh are pronounced as fricatives . Western alveolo-palatal affricates চ [ tɕɔ ] , ছ [ tɕʰɔ ] , জ [ dʑɔ ] correspond to eastern চ [tsɔ] , ছ [tsʰɔ~sɔ] , জ [dzɔ~zɔ] . The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on
9375-469: The consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in
9500-503: The country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam . Bengali has been a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. In Pakistan , Bengali is a recognised secondary language in the city of Karachi mainly spoken by stranded Bengalis of Pakistan . The Department of Bengali in
9625-433: The deep sea floor, called benthos . The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor Hensen in 1887 from shortening the word halyplankton from Greek ᾰ̔́λς háls "sea" and πλανάω planáō to "drift" or "wander". While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration ), their horizontal position
9750-581: The density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve. Natural factors (e.g., current variations, temperature changes) and man-made factors (e.g. river dams, ocean acidification , rising temperatures) can strongly affect zooplankton populations, which can in turn strongly affect fish larval survival, and therefore breeding success. It has been shown that plankton can be patchy in marine environments where there aren't significant fish populations and additionally, where fish are abundant, zooplankton dynamics are influenced by
9875-587: The development of Dobhashi . Bengali acquired prominence, over Persian, in the court of the Sultans of Bengal with the ascent of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah . Subsequent Muslim rulers actively promoted the literary development of Bengali, allowing it to become the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. Bengali adopted many words from Arabic and Persian , which was a manifestation of Islamic culture on
10000-543: The development of a richer flavour and firmer texture in the fish, compared to hilsa caught elsewhere. Due to this perceived superior quality and its limited seasonal availability (typically monsoon season), pulasa commands a significantly higher price and cultural importance in Andhra Pradesh. It is considered a rich delicacy, often referred to as the "king of fish" in Godavari Areas and features in celebratory meals and as
10125-672: The east to Meherpur in the west. The 14th-century court scholar of Bengal, Nur Qutb Alam , composed Bengali poetry using the Persian alphabet . After the Partition of India in the 20th century, the Pakistani government attempted to institute the Perso-Arabic script as the standard for Bengali in East Pakistan ; this was met with resistance and contributed to the Bengali language movement. In
10250-509: The eastern Atlantic Ocean , where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa ). While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow , can be especially high following
10375-549: The eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta (lit. 'meaningless sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups, the Bengali–Assamese languages , the Bihari languages , and the Odia language . The language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around
10500-500: The emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognised 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the language movement. Although Sanskrit has been spoken by Hindu Brahmins in Bengal since the 3rd century BC, the local Buddhist population spoke varieties of the Prakrit . These varieties are generally referred to as "eastern Magadhi Prakrit ", as coined by linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji , as
10625-477: The export of 3,000 tonnes of fish for Durga Puja. Bengali language Bengali , also known by its endonym Bangla ( বাংলা , Bāṅlā , [ˈbaŋla] ), is a classical Indo-Aryan language from the Indo-European language family native to the Bengal region of South Asia. With over 237 million native speakers and another 41 million as second language speakers as of 2024, Bengali
10750-546: The export of ilish abroad, citing its scarcity. Despite this, former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina periodically lifted the ban to allow the annual export and gifted of 3,000-5,000 tonnes of fish to India during the Durga Puja , popularly known as "Hilsa Diplomacy". Since the fall of the Hasina government, the interim government of Bangladesh has imposed a ban on ilish exports, which was partially lifted on 21 September 2024 to allow for
10875-466: The final ন in মন [m o n] or the medial ম in গামলা [ɡamla] ). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [ɔ] is orthographically realised by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures . These allographs, called কার kar , are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example,
11000-438: The fish predation rate in their environment. Depending on the predation rate, they could express regular or chaotic behavior. A negative effect that fish larvae can have on planktonic algal blooms is that the larvae will prolong the blooming event by diminishing available zooplankton numbers; this in turn permits excessive phytoplankton growth allowing the bloom to flourish . The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton
11125-525: The fish's life cycle in captivity. The species filter feeds on plankton and forages in muddy bottoms. Its diet primarily consists of Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), Chlorophyceae (green algae), and crustaceans (Copepoda and Cladocera). While adults generally feed on Chlorophyceae and Bacillariophyceae, juveniles primarily depend on crustaceans. The fish is found in 11 countries: Bangladesh , India , Myanmar , Pakistan , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Bahrain , Indonesia , Malaysia and Thailand . Bangladesh
11250-475: The freshwaters of lakes and rivers. Aeroplankton are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind ; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton. Most of the living things that make up aeroplankton are very small to microscopic in size, and many can be difficult to identify because of their tiny size. Scientists can collect them for study in traps and sweep nets from aircraft , kites or balloons. Aeroplankton
11375-714: The government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared Bengali as an honorary official language in December 2002. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations . Regional varieties in spoken Bengali constitute a dialect continuum . Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji grouped the dialects of Bengali language into four large clusters: Rarhi , Vangiya , Kamrupi and Varendri ; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects ( Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form
11500-499: The graph মি [mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i] , where [i] is represented as the diacritical allograph ি (called ই-কার i-kar ) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা [ma] , মী [mi] , মু [mu] , মূ [mu] , মৃ [mri] , মে [me~mɛ] , মৈ [moj] , মো [mo] and মৌ [mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures,
11625-412: The graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognise both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । daṛi –
11750-503: The influence of currents. Although plankton are usually thought of as inhabiting water, there are also airborne versions that live part of their lives drifting in the atmosphere. These aeroplankton include plant spores , pollen and wind-scattered seeds . They may also include microorganisms swept into the air from terrestrial dust storms and oceanic plankton swept into the air by sea spray . Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms over
11875-439: The juvenile "jatka" alone to repopulate the species. The fishing of the young jatka is now illegal in Bangladesh . This ban however has resulted in a rise in unemployment, as around 83,000 fishermen are unable to pursue their former livelihood for eight months every year. It has also led to the creation of a black market where jatka are sold for exorbitant prices. Furthermore, the changes brought about by global warming have led to
12000-483: The language as: While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However,
12125-535: The language. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400–1800) include Yusuf-Zulekha by Shah Muhammad Sagir and Srikrishna Kirtana by the Chandidas poets. Court support for Bengali culture and language waned when the Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the late 16th and early 17th century. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the west-central dialect spoken in
12250-499: The largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity. The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers , where the viscosity of water is more important than its mass or inertia. Marine plankton includes marine bacteria and archaea , algae , protozoa and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries. Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found inland in
12375-428: The letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra , as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র trô and the independent vowel এ e , also the letter হ hô and Bengali Ôbogroho ঽ (~ô) and letter ও o and consonant cluster ত্ত ttô . The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between
12500-585: The neighbouring states of Odisha , Bihar , and Jharkhand , and sizeable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi , Mumbai , Thane , Varanasi , and Vrindavan . There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East , the United States , Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom , and Italy . The 3rd article of
12625-449: The ocean currents. Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic. Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles . Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their food supply. Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals. Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into
12750-465: The ocean's carbon cycle . Fish larvae mainly eat zooplankton, which in turn eat phytoplankton Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton provide carbon to the planktic foodweb , either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus . Organic material tends to be denser than seawater , so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it. This process, called
12875-451: The ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through iron fertilization – introducing amounts of iron into the ocean. However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale. Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback. Phytoplankton absorb energy from
13000-578: The ocean, they provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms, such as bivalves , fish , and baleen whales . Marine plankton include bacteria , archaea , algae , protozoa , microscopic fungi , and drifting or floating animals that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries . Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers. Mostly, plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like jellyfish , swim slowly but not fast enough to generally overcome
13125-408: The open ocean and the deep sea and are less available to the casual ocean observer. Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish. They are mostly found in the sunlit zone of the water column , less than 200 metres deep, which is sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone . Ichthyoplankton are planktonic , meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with
13250-606: The open water column. Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about 1 millimetre (0.039 in). The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae . They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment), and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis ) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey,
13375-416: The oxygen in the atmosphere is produced in the oceans from phytoplankton performing photosynthesis, meaning that the majority of the oxygen available for us and other organisms that respire aerobically is produced by plankton. Plankton also make up the base of the marine food web, providing food for all the trophic levels above. Recent studies have analyzed the marine food web to see if the system runs on
13500-514: The parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. As of January 2023, no further action has been yet taken on this matter. However, in 2022, the UN did adopt Bangla as an unofficial language, after a resolution tabled by India. In 2024, the government of India conferred Bengali with the status of classical language . Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming
13625-464: The past ilish were not harvested between Vijaya Dashami and Saraswati Puja due to some informal customs of Odia and Bengali Hindus as it is the breeding period of the fish. But as disposable incomes grew, wealthier consumers abandoned the old traditions. The advent of finer fishing nets and advanced trawling techniques, and environmental degradation of the rivers, has worsened the situation. Fishermen have been ignoring calls to at least leave
13750-453: The pelagic zone for durations ranging from hours to months. Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula , or man-made flotsam . Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella . By themselves these animals cannot float , which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and
13875-433: The powerhouse of open ocean primary production and they can acquire many nutrients from whale feces. In the marine food web, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web and are consumed by zooplankton & krill, which are preyed upon by larger and larger marine organisms, including whales, so it can be said that whale poop fuels the entire food web. Plankton have many direct and indirect effects on humans. Around 70% of
14000-414: The secondary consumers that prey on the primary consumers. In some cases, plankton act as an intermediate host for deadly parasites in humans. One such case is that of cholera , an infection caused by several pathogenic strains of Vibrio cholerae . These species have been shown to have a symbiotic relationship with chitinous zooplankton species like copepods . These bacteria benefit not only from
14125-427: The so-called "inherent" vowel [ɔ] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম [mɔ] . The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent
14250-413: The species grow larger than males, with males individuals not reaching over 46 cm. Females can reach lengths of up to 55 cm. Maturity is generally attained by the end of the first year or the start of the second, with males maturing at sizes of 26–29 cm and females at 31–33 cm. It has no dorsal spines but 18 – 21 dorsal soft rays and anal soft rays. The belly has 30 to 33 scutes . There
14375-538: The substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column. Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence. Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton . Apart from aeroplankton, plankton inhabits oceans, seas, lakes and ponds. Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally. The primary cause of this variability
14500-536: The superposed chôndrôbindu (ঁ) , denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in চাঁদ [tʃãd] "moon"), the postposed ônusbar (ং) indicating the velar nasal [ŋ] (as in বাংলা [baŋla] "Bengali") and the postposed bisôrgô (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative [h] (as in উঃ! [uh] "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ [dukʰːɔ] "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters ( যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktôbênjôn ) are usually realised as ligatures, where
14625-406: The termination of spring blooms . The local distribution of plankton can be affected by wind-driven Langmuir circulation and the biological effects of this physical process. As well as representing the lower levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries , plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements , including
14750-635: The third place, according to the 2011 census of India . Bengali has developed over more than 1,400 years. Bengali literature , with its millennium-old literary history, was extensively developed during the Bengali Renaissance and is one of the most prolific and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding that Bengali be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to
14875-459: The trade. Other names include jatka,illi, ilish, ellis, palla fish, hilsha, ilih etc. ( Assamese : ইলীহ/ইলীহি : ilih/ilihi, Bengali : ইলিশ , romanized : iliś , Gujarati : મોદાર/પાલ્વા : Modar or Palva, Odia : ଇଲିଶି , romanized: iliśi , Sindhī : پلو مڇي pallo machhi, Tamil : உள்ள மீன்/Ulla Meen , Telugu : పులస pulasa). The name ilish is also used in India's Assamese , Bengali , and Odia communities. In Iraq it
15000-477: The vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity. Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant. Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding. Fish rely on
15125-484: The visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. Throughout history, there have been instances of the Bengali language being written in different scripts, though these employments were never popular on
15250-435: The vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more words naturally derived from Sanskrit ( tadbhava ), whereas Hindus are more likely to use tatsama (words directly borrowed from Sanskrit). For example: The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalised vowels . The inventory
15375-522: The water column in the ocean. Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed. Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent. All jellyfish are gelatinous zooplankton, but not all gelatinous zooplankton are jellyfish. The most commonly encountered organisms include ctenophores , medusae , salps , and Chaetognatha in coastal waters. However, almost all marine phyla, including Annelida , Mollusca and Arthropoda , contain gelatinous species, but many of those odd species live in
15500-521: The word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation. Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level ) groups: Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing, as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry . Studies have shown that mixotrophs are much more important for marine ecology than previously assumed and comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton. Their presence acts as
15625-540: The world's total ilish supply originates in Bangladesh . The fish contributes about 12% of the total fish production and about 1.15% of GDP in Bangladesh. On 6 August 2017, Department of Patents, Designs and Trademarks under the Ministry of Industries declared ilish as a Geographical Indication of Bangladesh. About 450,000 people are directly involved in the catching of the fish as a large part of their livelihood; around four to five million people are indirectly involved with
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