Identity in China was strongly dependent on the Eight Banner system during the Manchu -led Qing dynasty (1644–1912). China consisted of multiple ethnic groups, of which the Han , Mongols and Manchus participated in the banner system. Identity, however, was defined much more by culture, language and participation in the military (the Eight Banners) until the Qianlong Emperor resurrected the ethnic classifications.
142-540: The Eight Banners represented military organisation and served as the primary organisational structure of Manchu ( Jurchen ) society. The banner armies gradually evolved over time to include members from non-Jurchen/Manchu ethnic groups such as the Mongols and Han Chinese. There were three main types of banners: Manchus of Eight Banners ( 八旗滿洲 ; bāqímǎnzhōu ), Mongols of Eight Banners ( 八旗蒙古 ; bāqíménggǔ ) and Han Army of Eight Banners ( 八旗漢軍 ; bāqíhànjūn ). Beginning in
284-454: A Han Chinese named Zhao Tinglu, the son of former Han bannerman Zhao Quan, and gave him a new name, Quanheng in order that he be able to benefit from his adopted son receiving a salary as a Banner soldier. Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility of the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles. Manchu bannermen of
426-575: A Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor . Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan (台尼堪, watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan (撫順尼堪, Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor . It was between 1618 and 1629 when
568-639: A concentration of refugees in Liaodong. The peninsula was an important area of conflict during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). Defeat precipitated decline in the Qing dynasty which was exploited by colonial powers who extracted numerous concessions. The peninsula was ceded to Japan, along with Taiwan and Penghu , by the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 17 April 1895. However the ceding of Liaodong peninsula
710-508: A group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systematize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin-Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast. In 1603, Nurhaci gained recognition as
852-462: A memorial staying Xi'an Manchu bannermen still had martial skills although not up to those in the past in a 1737 memorial from Cimbu. By the 1780s, the military skills of Xi'an Manchu bannermen dropped enormously and they had been regarded as the most militarily skilled provincial Manchu banner garrison. Manchu women from the Xi'an garrison often left the walled Manchu garrison and went to hot springs outside
994-507: A minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic, majority Han force in which Manchus were a minority, which conquered China for the Qing Empire. A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women was organized to balance the massive number of Han women who entered
1136-523: A puppet state in Manchuria, was created by the Empire of Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Last Emperor, Puyi , in 1932. Although the nation's name implied a primarily Manchu affiliation, it was actually a completely new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria, which had a majority Han population and was opposed by many Manchus as well as people of other ethnicities who fought against Japan in
1278-595: A skilled work force, and conducting trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Han convicts, workers, and merchants to the northeast. Han Chinese transfrontiersmen and other non-Jurchen origin people who joined the Later Jin very early were put into the Manchu Banners and were known as "Baisin" in Manchu, and not put into the Han Banners to which later Han Chinese were placed in. An example
1420-481: A town called Wulakai and could not be distinguished from Manchus. In Xi'an during the 1911 Xinhai Revolution , impoverished Han soldiers took young Manchu women as wives after seizing the banner garrison. During the Republican era , intermarriage began to occur between Han civilians and Manchus, mostly involving Han men marrying Manchu women, since poverty diminished the marital prospects of Manchu men. After 1616,
1562-548: Is Giolca. The Qing texts said Dahau's family lived near Fushun in the Giolca region. The Han Chinese who joined the banners between 1629 and 1643 came from western Liaodong , Shanxi , Shandong and Zhili . They were known as " fu xi baitangga ". Huangtaiji appropriated the term " Hanjun " from the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty (1115–1234) 's miŋgan moumukə (猛安謀克; Jurchen : [REDACTED] [REDACTED] military system and used it as
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#17328553673361704-741: Is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China , and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River (the historical lower section of the Liao River ) in the west and the Yalu River in the east, and encompasses the territories of the whole sub-provincial city of Dalian and parts of prefectural cities of Yingkou , Anshan and Dandong . The word "Liaodong" literally means "Liao region's east", referring initially to
1846-458: Is debatable. According to the Qing dynasty's official historical record, the Researches on Manchu Origins , the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī . The Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even wrote several poems on the subject. Meng Sen, a scholar of the Qing dynasty, agreed. On the other hand, he thought the name Manchu might stem from Li Manzhu ( 李滿住 ), the chieftain of
1988-699: Is of paternal Mongol origin. Many Jurchen families descended from the original Jin Jurchen migrants in Han areas like those using the surnames Wang and Nian 粘 have openly reclaimed their ethnicity and registered as Manchus. Wanyan (完顏) clan members who had changed their surnames to Wang (王) after the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty applied successfully to the PRC government for their ethnic group to be marked as Manchu despite never having been part of
2130-524: The Aisin Gioro clan, the imperial clan of the Qing dynasty. A mass marriage of 1,000 Han officers to Manchu women took place in 1632 after Prince Yoto came up with the idea. Huangtaiji said that "since the Han generals and Manchu women lived together and ate together, it would help these surrendered generals to forget their motherland." Women from the Aisin Gioro clan also married other Han officials, such as
2272-508: The Amur River Basin. The Qianlong Emperor reclassified the Han banners, saying that they were to be regarded as having the same culture and ancestral extraction as Han civilians. This replaced Nurhaci and Huangtaiji 's position of classifying them according to culture. The Qianlong Emperor's view influenced historians and overshadowed their views. However, Han Banner families who had joined early in Qing history were still retained in
2414-652: The Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, since Han Chinese were expelled and not allowed to re-enter the inner part of the city. Only after the " Hundred Days Reform ", during the reign of emperor Guangxu , were Han were allowed to re-enter inner Beijing. Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers in the Boxer Rebellion and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by
2556-555: The Fushun Nikan and selected tai nikan , Koreans and Mongols into the Manchu banners. Manchu bannermen in Beijing ended up in poverty just decades after the Manchu conquest of China , living in slums and falling into debt, with signs of their plight appearing as soon as 1655. Their poverty forced them to sell their property to Han Chinese, in violation of the law. In the early Qing dynasty,
2698-627: The Gojoseon kingdom, which encompassed the northern Korean Peninsula and the region southeast of the Liao River. In the late 4th century BC, the expanding Chinese State of Yan conquered this region from Gojoseon , and established the Liaodong Commandery . After the fall of the Yan state , the region was taken over by the short-lived Qin dynasty , and then its prominent successor Han dynasty . After
2840-876: The Green Standard Army were also retained in the Banner register. The numbers of discharged Han Bannermen who re-enlisted in the Green Standard Army were very considerable; in the Jingkou garrison, two-thirds of the discharged re-enlisted. The Qianlong Emperor held that loyalty was the most important trait, labelling the Ming defectors as traitors. He compiled the book Record of Those Martyred for Their Dynasty and Sacrificed for Purity , which contained unfavourable biographies of prominent Han banner defectors and biographies which glorified Ming loyalists who were martyred in battle against
2982-618: The Jianzhou Jurchens . Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju is a compound word. Man was from the word mangga ( ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ ) which means "strong," and ju ( ᠵᡠ ) means "arrow." So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow". There are other hypotheses, such as Fu Sinian 's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin 's "etymology of Manshi"; Ichimura Sanjiro 's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on. An extensive etymological study from 2022 lends additional support to
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#17328553673363124-471: The Jiaqing Emperor , had her maiden family name converted from Wei (魏) to Weigiya (魏佳). Such transfers typically occurred in cases of intermarriage between Han Chinese and the Manchu imperial clan . The Manchu banner companies included Han and Mongol individuals, and Mongol, Korean, Russian and Tibetan companies. Manchu banners had two main divisions between the higher ranking "Old Manchus" formed of
3266-458: The Jurchen language , and became part of the Manchu banners. The Jianzhou Jurchen Khanate led by Nurhaci , the founder of the Qing dynasty, classified people as Jurchen or nikan (Han). Those who were considered Jurchen adopted a Jurchen lifestyle, spoke the Jurchen language, and inhabited the eastern part of present-day Jilin Province . On the other hand, those who lived in the west and spoke
3408-480: The Manchu language and participation in the banners; Han Chinese were associated with Liaodong , the Han language , agriculture and commerce. Appearance and ancestry were disregarded in favour of culture as the primary factor in differentiating between Manchu and Han. Occasionally identities blurred and could be altered. The creation of the separate Manchu, Mongol and Han banners was rooted in fluctuating categories defined by
3550-613: The Ming Empire (1368–1644). On the other hand, some ethnic Jurchens actually had Han ancestry but had defected to the Jurchen side, assimilated into Jurchen culture, and lived among the Jurchens in present-day Jilin Province before 1618. Han Chinese who deserted the Ming Empire and moved to Nurgan (in present-day Jilin Province ) before 1618 and assimilated with the Jurchens were known as transfrontiermen. They adopted Jurchen culture, spoke
3692-466: The Ming Empire and spoke the Han language. They eventually became part of the Han banners. Han Chinese in Ming-ruled Liaodong who defected to the Jurchens after they conquered Liaoding were called "frontiersmen" since they had lived on the frontiers of Ming territory. The transfrontiersmen became part of the Jurchen elite and were assimilated into Jurchen culture to the point where their ancestry
3834-555: The Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty . The Yuan grouped people into different groups based on how recently their state surrendered to the Yuan. Subjects of southern Song were grouped as southerners (nan ren) and also called manzi. Subjects of the Jin dynasty, Western Xia and kingdom of Dali in Yunnan in southern China were classified as northerners, also using
3976-597: The Mongols and the Khitans on the steppes. Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese-owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report
4118-412: The Qing dynasty (1644–1912), bannermen and civilians were categorised into ethnic groups based on language, culture, behaviour and way of life. Men were grouped into Manchu and Han banners on the basis of their culture and language. The Qing government regarded Han bannermen and the Han civilian population as distinct. Some descendants of sinicised Jurchens spoke the Han language and had served under
4260-593: The Qiqihar ( Manchu : ᠴᡳᠴᡳᡤᠠᡵ , Möllendorff : cicigar , Abkai : qiqigar ) District of Heilongjiang Province. Until 1924, the Chinese government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen, but many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names to avoid persecution. The official total of Manchus fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders. On
4402-615: The Second Sino-Japanese War . The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria "Manchus", including Han Chinese, even though most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese-written "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942, the Japanese-written "Ten Year History of
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4544-531: The Shunzhi Emperor . They "were barely distinguishable from Manchu nobility." Both Manchus and Han Chinese joined the Han banners before Qing forces passed through Shanhai Pass in 1644. As such, they were both distinguished from Han Chinese who joined the Qing Empire after 1644. The pre-1644 Han bannermen were known as "old men" ( 旧人 ; jiù rén ). In 1740, the Qianlong Emperor ordered a mass transfer of
4686-552: The Sibe , Evenki, Oroqen and Nanai ), who became the new Manchus. The concept of the Manchu ethnic group "Manzu" (滿族) existed during the late Qing dynasty and early Republican period . However, the banner/civilian dichotomy defined people's primary identity, instead of the Manchu/Han ethnic distinction. The Manchus were referred to most often as qiren (旗人; bannermen), Manren (滿人), or Manzhouren (滿洲人), which were not ethnic terms, while
4828-667: The Warring States period Yan commandery of Liaodong , which encompassed an area from modern Liaoning- Jilin border in the north to the Chongchon River on the Korean Peninsula in the south, and from just east of the Qian Mountains to a now-disappeared large wetland between the western banks of middle Liao River and the base of Yiwulü Mountain , historically known as the "Liao Mire " (遼澤, Liáo zé ) roughly in between
4970-570: The aha (enslaved Jurchens, Koreans, Han and Mongols), became part of the booi (bondservants) and were attached to Manchu banners. No evidence suggests that after 1621, most of the booi were Han Chinese. Instead they included Koreans and ethnic Manchus. Prisoners-of-war and abductees were another part of the aha . Manchus integrated with some of the captured Han Chinese and Koreans. The Jianzhou Jurchens accepted some Han Chinese and Koreans who became jušen (freeholders) in Jurchen territory. The term "Manchu" varies in meaning; various groups within
5112-721: The "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari river to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion. 建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。 "The (people of) Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are
5254-525: The "Old Han Army" ( 舊漢軍 ; jiù hànjūn ), was mainly used as infantry support. In 1631, a separate Han artillery corps was formed. Four more Han banners were created in 1639. By 1642, the full eight Han banners were established. The Han banners were known as " Nikan " ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ , means "Han ethnicity"), Banners and were composed of a large number of Han prisoners-of-war and defectors. Since many of these Han men were single, they married Jurchen women. Over time, there were more and more Han Chinese joining
5396-524: The "dependent class". The change of the name from Jurchen to Manchu was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, had been ruled by the Chinese. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that
5538-420: The 10th century AD, the term Jurchen first appeared in documents of the late Tang dynasty in reference to the state of Balhae in present-day northeastern China. The Jurchens were sedentary, settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep and horses. Their farming way of life was very different from the pastoral nomadism of
5680-499: The 1120s. It was mainly derived from the Khitan script . In 1206, the Mongols , vassals to the Jurchens, rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan , led Mongol troops against the Jurchens, who were finally defeated by Ögedei Khan in 1234. The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving
5822-497: The 1690s and 18th century. In the 1720s Jingzhou, Hangzhou and Nanjing Manchu banner garrisons fought in Tibet. For the over 200 years they lived next to each other, Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an did not intermarry with each other at all. In a book published in 1911 American sociologist Edward Alsworth Ross wrote of his visit to Xi'an just before the Xinhai revolution:"In Sianfu
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5964-503: The 1850s, large numbers of Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels . (For example, just the Heilongjiang province – which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang – contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of whom only 10–20% survived). Those few who returned were demoralized and often disposed to opium addiction. In 1860, in
6106-608: The Banners, while those who were removed were those who enrolled later. Moreover, the removal of Bannermen was primarily due to the growing costs of supporting the expanding Banner population, rather than ethnic discrimination. Han Bannermen stationed in Manchuria or affiliated with Manchu and Mongol Banners were retained. Han Bannermen posted to the Imperial Household Department , to some specialist units such as naval forces, or high-ranking official positions were also not dismissed. Discharged Han Bannermen who re-enlisted in
6248-512: The Construction of Manchukuo" attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchus' claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing dynasty and only returned later. Liaodong Peninsula The Liaodong or Liaotung Peninsula ( simplified Chinese : 辽东半岛 ; traditional Chinese : 遼東半島 ; pinyin : Liáodōng Bàndǎo )
6390-1281: The Eight Banner system at all during the Qing dynasty. The surname Nianhan (粘罕), shortened to Nian ( 粘 ) is a Jurchen origin surname, also originating from one of the members of the royal Wanyan clan. It is an extremely rare surname in China, and 1,100 members of the Nian clan live in Nan'an, Quanzhou, they live in Licheng district of Quanzhou, 900 in Jinjiang, Quanzhou, 40 in Shishi city of Quanzhou, and 500 in Quanzhou city itself in Fujian, and just over 100 people in Xiamen, Jin'an district of Fuzhou, Zhangpu and Sanming, as well as 1000 in Laiyang, Shandong, and 1,000 in Kongqiao and Wujiazhuang in Xingtai, Hebei. Some of
6532-453: The Eight Banners are considered Manchu. One definition of Manchu was the "Old Manchu" including the Aisin Gioro clan, of the original founding populations who spoke Manchu and who were the basis of the banner system. The Qing Empire relied most on this group. Another definition distinguishes Old Manchus and New Manchus, who together made up the Manchu Eight Banners. After 1644, the Manchu banners incorporated other Tungusic peoples (such as
6674-437: The Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongol script for their own language unlike the Jin Jurchen's Khitan derived script. They adopted Confucian values and practiced their shamanist traditions. The Qing stationed
6816-534: The Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans . The Fushun Nikan became Manchufied and the originally Han banner families of Wang Shixuan, Cai Yurong, Zu Dashou, Li Yongfang, Shi Tingzhu and Shang Kexi intermarried extensively with Manchu families. A Manchu Bannerman in Guangzhou called Hequan illegally adopted
6958-475: The Han Chinese from eastern Liaodong who joined the Eight Banners were known as " tai nikan "; the Han Chinese who defected to the Manchus at Fushun were known as Fushan Nikan and were considered part of the tai nikan . Descendants of sinicised Jurchens were conquered by the Jianzhou Jurchen Khanate under Nurhaci 's rule after 1618. At that time, these descendants of sinicised Jurchens moved to Liaodong, adopted Han culture and family names, swore loyalty to
7100-402: The Han dynasty fragmented at the turn of the 3rd century, the region changed hands between various warlord states such as the Gongsun Yuan , the nomadic Wuhuan , and Cao Wei , before eventually falling under the reunified Western Jin dynasty . However, after the Western Jin fell from the Uprising of the Five Barbarians and during the subsequent chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms periods, the region
7242-468: The Han language were regarded as nikan , even though some of them had Jurchen or Korean ancestry. The Manchu, Mongol and Han labels referred to their original composition. Both ethnic Han and sinicised ethnic Jurchens ended up in Han banners. People from both sides moved between Liaodong and Nurgan. Han soldiers and peasants moved into Nurgan while Jurchen mercenaries and merchants moved to Liaodong, with some lineages on both sides. From 1618 to 1629,
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#17328553673367384-452: The Jianzhou Jurchens' culture. Although Manchus practiced equestrianism and archery on horseback, their immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture. The Manchus also partook in hunting but were sedentary. Their primary mode of production was farming while they lived in villages, forts, and walled towns. Their Jurchen Jin predecessors also practiced farming. Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike
7526-464: The Jurchen aristocracy to include Han elite families. However, the Jurchens oppressed Han Chinese for labour and stationed Jurchens in Han households to prevent rebellions. As a result, some disgruntled Han Chinese started a revolt in 1623 by sabotaging and killing Jurchens. In response, Nurhaci introduced a practice of discriminating against Han Chinese. For example, Han Chinese might be executed for committing certain offences whereas Jurchens who committed
7668-401: The Jurchen script was officially abandoned. More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese. The final recorded Jurchen writing dates to 1526. The Manchus are sometimes mistakenly identified as nomadic people. The Manchu way of life (economy) was agricultural, farming crops and raising animals on farms. Manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in
7810-438: The Jurchen tribes and established a military system called the " Eight Banners ", which organized Jurchen soldiers into groups of "Bannermen", and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create a new Jurchen script (later known as Manchu script ) using the traditional Mongolian alphabet as a reference. When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as
7952-428: The Jurchens became vassals of the Khitan -led Liao dynasty . The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon , who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of the tension between the two nations; posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security,
8094-410: The Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty, and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. For political reasons, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols. Nurhaci said to
8236-410: The Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return. Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. In
8378-492: The Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the north-east's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other's and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This
8520-490: The Later Jin dynasty ( Manchu : ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ , Möllendorff : aisin gurun , Abkai : aisin gurun , 後金). Nurhaci then renounced the Ming overlordship with the Seven Grievances and launched his attack on the Ming dynasty and moved the capital to Mukden after his conquest of Liaodong. In 1635, his son and successor Hong Taiji changed the name of the Jurchen ethnic group ( Manchu : ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ , Möllendorff : jušen , Abkai : juxen ) to
8662-418: The Manchu Aisin-Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to
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#17328553673368804-424: The Manchu court as courtesans, concubines, and wives. These couples were arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. Also to promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or
8946-470: The Manchu. A year later, Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the emperor of the Qing dynasty ( Manchu : ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ , Möllendorff : daicing gurun , Abkai : daiqing gurun ). Factors for the change of name of these people from Jurchen to Manchu include the fact that the term "Jurchen" had negative connotations since the Jurchens had been in a servile position to the Ming dynasty for several hundred years, and it also referred to people of
9088-575: The Manchus with artillery such as at the Battle of Ningyuan , Huangtaiji recruited Han prisoners-of-war who were trained in firearms into the Manchu army. Manchu banners inducted (non-bondservant) Han families, such as the family of Bordered Yellow Banner member Zhang Wenxing, the governor of Gansu Province in 1647. Manchu official Duanfang was also Han Chinese. The Manchus' willingness to accept assimilated strangers allowed Han Chinese to integrate into Manchu society. The Manchus attracted Han military officers to their banners by offering them brides from
9230-500: The Manchus, who are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China. Manchus form the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group in the country. They are found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei , Heilongjiang , Jilin , Inner Mongolia and Beijing have over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of
9372-503: The Manchus. Manchu people The Manchus ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ , Möllendorff : manju ; Chinese : 滿族 ; pinyin : Mǎnzú ; Wade–Giles : Man -tsu ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia . They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and Qing (1636–1912) dynasties of China were established and ruled by
9514-422: The Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Ming Veritable Records were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this. In 1644, the Ming capital, Beijing , was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng , a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed
9656-495: The Ming government. They had to present tribute as secretariats ( 中書舍人 ) with less reward from the Ming court than in the time when they were heads of guards – an unpopular development. Subsequently, more and more Jurchens recognised the Ming Empire's declining power due to Esen's invasion. The Zhengtong Emperor's capture directly caused Jurchen guards to go out of control. Tribal leaders, such as Cungšan and Wang Gao , brazenly plundered Ming territory. At about this time,
9798-439: The Ming overtures, but was unsuccessful, and Möngke Temür submitted to the Ming Empire. Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming Empire in succession. The Ming divided them into 384 guards, and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming Empire. During the Ming dynasty, the name for the Jurchen land was Nurgan . The Jurchens became part of the Ming dynasty's Nurgan Regional Military Commission under
9940-469: The Mongol commander Naghachu 's resisting forces who settled in the Haixi area and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute. At the time, some Jurchen clans were vassals to the Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai . Their elites served in the Korean royal bodyguard. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchen by using both forceful means and incentives, and by launching military attacks. At
10082-422: The Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism," since Nurhaci said to
10224-518: The Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat, and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages." A century after the chaos started in the Jurchen lands, Nurhaci , a chieftain of the Jianzhou Left Guard who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial power of the Ming dynasty , made efforts to unify
10366-688: The Nian from Quanzhou immigrated to Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. In Taiwan they are concentrated in Lukang township and Changhua city of Changhua county as well as in Dingnien village, Xianne village Fuxing township of Changhua county. There are less than 30,000 members of the Nian clan worldwide, with 9,916 of them in Taiwan, and 3,040 of those in Fuxing township of Changhua county and its most common in Dingnian village. During
10508-497: The Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens , defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary state to China instead. Yi Seong-gye , the Taejo of Joseon , asked the Ming Empire to send Möngke Temür back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. Korea tried to persuade Möngke Temür to reject
10650-643: The People's Republic of China recognised the Manchu ethnic group. When the Communist Party was creating new classifications for ethnic minorities in the 1950s, all members of the Eight Banners could opt to join the newly created Manchu ethnicity which replaced the term qiren . The Mongol and Han bannermen could choose to be classified as Mongol or Han instead of Manchu. The "New Manchu" Daur, Sibe, Evenki, Oroqen and Nanai were allowed to form separate ethnic groups from
10792-453: The Qing Empire. Some of the emperor's inclusions and omissions on the list were political, such as including Li Yongfang (to undermine his descendant Li Shiyao ) and excluding Ma Mingpei (to protect his son Ma Xiongzhen 's image). Bannermen were segregated from Han civilians in their own garrisons. Manchu and Han bannermen were allowed to take Han civilian women as concubines, but Manchu and Han bannerwomen were punished with expulsion from
10934-401: The Qing government. Banner membership depended on the primary language of the bannermen. It has been suggested that the Han banners were not familiar with the exact meaning of "Hanjun", as the Qing government constantly changed its definition. Huangtaiji included Han Chinese in his government and adopted the Han style of government. After defeats inflicted by Ming general Yuan Chonghuan upon
11076-492: The Sure Kundulen Khan ( Manchu : ᠰᡠᡵᡝ ᡴᡠᠨᡩᡠᠯᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ , Möllendorff : sure kundulen han , Abkai : sure kundulen han , "wise and respected khan") from his Khalkha Mongol allies; then, in 1616, he publicly enthroned himself and issued a proclamation naming himself Genggiyen Khan ( Manchu : ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ , Möllendorff : genggiyen han , Abkai : genggiyen han , "bright khan") of
11218-612: The Tartar quarter is a dismal picture of crumbling walls, decay, indolence and squalor. On the big drill grounds you see the runways along which the horseman gallops and shoots arrows at a target while the Tartar military mandarins look on. These lazy bannermen were tried in the new army but proved flabby and good-for-nothing; they would break down on an ordinary twenty-mile march. Battening on their hereditary pensions they have given themselves up to sloth and vice, and their poor chest development, small weak muscles, and diminishing families foreshadow
11360-590: The Xi'an dialect of Mandarin. Many Bannermen got jobs as teachers, writing textbooks for learning Mandarin and instructing people in Mandarin. In Guangdong, the Manchu Mandarin teacher Sun Yizun advised that the Yinyun Chanwei and Kangxi Zidian , dictionaries issued by the Qing government, were the correct guides to Mandarin pronunciation, rather than the pronunciation of the Beijing and Nanjing dialects. In
11502-761: The Yongle Emperor, with Ming forces erecting the Yongning Temple Stele in 1413, at the headquarters of Nurgan. The stele was inscribed in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan. In 1449, Mongol taishi Esen attacked the Ming Empire and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu . Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou and Haixi cooperated with Esen's action, but more were attacked in the Mongol invasion. Many Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates granted by
11644-505: The Yuan directive to treat Jurchens the same as Mongols referred to Jurchens and Khitans in the northwest (not the Jurchen homeland in the northeast), presumably in the lands of Qara Khitai, where many Khitan live but it is a mystery as to how Jurchens were living there. Many Jurchens adopted Mongolian customs, names, and the Mongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script. The Jurchen Yehe Nara clan
11786-413: The aftermath of the loss of Outer Manchuria , and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement ; within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts. The majority of the hundreds of thousands of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from
11928-415: The areas north of Shenyang . The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian ( 毛憐 ) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary Jianzhou and Maolian, who were farmers. Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all part of
12070-449: The banner" ( 抬旗 ; tái qí ) in Chinese. They joined the "upper three" Manchu banners. According to Qing government policy, the immediate family members (e.g. fathers, brothers) of the mother of an emperor was transferred into the upper three Manchu banners by default, even if the family was Han Chinese. Moreover, after the transfer, the family had to include a giya (佳) suffix to their family name. For example, Empress Xiaoyichun , who bore
12212-589: The banners continued to contain mixed units of both Han and Manchu. Some Han bannermen and their lineages became successful members of Qing nobility and their descendants continued to be awarded noble titles, such as Li Yongfang , who was ennobled by Nurhaci as a third class viscount and enrolled in the Plain Blue Banner and whose descendants remained as nobles. The Manchus not only gave extensive titles and honours to pre-1644 Han defectors, but also arranged for marriages between them and Manchu noblewomen. In
12354-531: The banners if they married Han civilian men. Bannerwomen were allowed to marry only bannermen. Since Han bannermen were treated as semi-Manchus according to the law, Manchu bannerwomen were allowed to marry Han bannermen. Manchu women and Han bannermen could marry each other with no prohibitions. Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria , he studied a community in Jilin Province , where both Manchu and Chinese bannermen were settled at
12496-502: The banners, such that they started to outnumber the Jurchens. The Han Chinese and Jurchens in Liaodong (part of present-day Liaoning Province ) started mixing their cultures. Many bannermen forged genealogies for themselves or decided whether to join a Jurchen or Han banner. The Eight Banners were then created from the old Han and Jurchen banners, which were given equal status. The Mongol banners were also created around this time. Anyone who
12638-588: The bloody Siege of Port Arthur . As a consequence of the Treaty of Portsmouth (5 September 1905), which ended the Russo-Japanese War, both sides agreed to evacuate Manchuria and return it to China, with the exception of the Liaodong Peninsula leased territory which was transferred to Japan, which was to administer it as the Kwantung Leased Territory . After Japan lost World War II , and
12780-547: The capital garrison in Beijing were said to be the worst militarily, unable to draw bows, unable to ride horses and fight properly and losing their Manchu culture. Manchu bannermen from the Xi'an banner garrison were praised for maintaining Manchu culture by Kangxi in 1703. Xi'an garrison Manchus were said to retain Manchu culture far better than all other Manchus at martial skills in the provincial garrisons and they were able to draw their bows properly and perform cavalry archery unlike Beijing Manchus. The Qianlong emperor received
12922-508: The city and gained bad reputations for their sexual lives. A Manchu from Beijing, Sumurji, was shocked and disgusted by this after being appointed Lieutenant general of the Manchu garrison of Xi'an and informed the Yongzheng emperor what they were doing. Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an had bad relations, with the bannermen trying to steal at the markets. Manchu Lieutenant general Cimbru reported this to Yongzheng emperor in 1729 after he
13064-573: The descendants of the family Ta of Po-hai . They love to be sedentary and sew, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. Those living south of the Ch'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." 魏焕《皇明九邊考》卷二《遼東鎮邊夷考》 Translation from Sino-Jürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424 by Henry Serruys Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs,
13206-401: The draft, out of concern for to the economic plight of Han bannermen. Another possible reason was the Qing government's alarm over Han banner girls following Han civilian customs such as wearing robes with wide sleeves, feet binding and wearing a single earring, contrary to Manchu custom. Daughters of Manchu and Mongol bannerman had to submit to the draft where they could be selected to serve in
13348-476: The dynasty. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the Qing allowed Han civilians to marry Manchu women. Then the Qing banned civilians from marrying women from the Eight banners later. In 1865, the Qing allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu bannerwomen in all garrisons except the capital garrison of Beijing. There was no formal law on marriage between people in the different banners like the Manchu and Han banners but it
13490-559: The early Qing dynasty, the Qing government made distinctions between Han bannermen and Han civilians. Former subjects of the Ming dynasty , regardless of their origin, were categorised as Han Chinese, so some Manchus ended up in Mongol and Han banners. Nurhaci also allowed transfrontiersmen to identify themselves as Manchu after assimilation. The Kangxi Emperor later moved both Han and Mongol families to Manchu banners from their original Mongol and Han banners. Han bannermen such as Geng Zhongming rose to powerful positions and prominence under
13632-464: The early dying out of the stock. Where is there a better illustration of the truth that parasitism leads to degeneration!" Ross spoke highly of the Han and Hui population of Xi'an, Shaanxi and Gansu in general, saying: "After a fortnight of mule litter we sight ancient yellow Sianfu, "the Western capital," with its third of a million souls. Within the fortified triple gate the facial mold abruptly changes and
13774-522: The elite. Han bannermen also adopted Manchu naming practices such as naming their offspring with numbers. Some of them manchu-fied their lineal names by appending "giya" to their original family names. Han bannermen such as Zhao Erfeng , Zhao Erxun and Cao Xueqin kept their Chinese names, while others used both Manchu and Chinese names. The practices of transferring families from Han banners or bondservant status ( booi ) to Manchu banners, and of switching ethnicity from Han to Manchu, were known as "raising
13916-520: The emperors took some Han women as concubines. A 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han men to marry Manchu women with the permission of the Board of Revenue if the brides were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of the banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later, the xiunü (秀女; "talented women") system drafted women from the Han banners for
14058-694: The establishment of the Shun dynasty . The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor , died by suicide by hanging himself when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against the Ming general Wu Sangui , the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchu army. After the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng , they moved the capital of their new Qing Empire to Beijing ( Manchu : ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ , Möllendorff : beging , Abkai : beging ) in
14200-477: The fighting during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion, sustaining massive casualties during the wars and subsequently being driven into extreme suffering and hardship. Much of the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion against the foreigners in defense of Beijing and Manchuria was done by Manchu Banner armies, which were destroyed while resisting the invasion. The German Minister Clemens von Ketteler
14342-455: The identification of " qiren " with "Manchu" grew stronger due to the policy of using banners to reinforce it. This became more pronounced until the 1911 Xinhai Revolution . All bannermen and their descendants were recognised as ethnic Manchus by the People's Republic of China . Edward Rhoads asserted that the Manchu ethnic group was synonymous with the Eight Banners from the Boxer Rebellion until
14484-412: The imperial harem, but excluded daughters of Han commoners. Han bannermen were permitted to marry Han civilian women. However, the emperors were distressed to find that the women followed Han civilian customs in clothing and jewellery when they were drafted for palace service. They then banned daughters of common Han bannermen from serving in the imperial palace as maids and consorts, exempting them from
14626-401: The imperial palace as maids or consorts. Daughters of Han bannermen were exempt this draft.Han banner girls were not allowed to become imperial concubines. Manchu bannermen typically used their given rather than lineal name to address themselves, while Han bannermen used their both in normal Chinese style. Many Han bannermen adopted Manchu names, which may have been motivated by associating with
14768-420: The late 1620s, the Jurchens started incorporating Mongol tribes, which they either conquered or were allied with, into the Eight Banners system. The Han Chinese who first joined the Eight Banners were replacements for Jurchen soldiers in existing banners who were killed in battle. However, over time, as more Han soldiers joined the banners, the Jurchens decided to form a separate group for them. This group, known as
14910-402: The late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status. Most intermarriage consisted of Han Bannermen marrying Manchus in areas like Aihun. Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there
15052-516: The local dialect instead of Standard Chinese. By the early years of the Republic of China , very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and where the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun ( Manchu : ᠠᡳᡥᡡᠨ , Möllendorff : aihūn , Abkai : aihvn ) District and
15194-569: The main Jurchen tribes such as the Jianzhou and the lower ranking "New Manchus" (伊車滿洲/衣車滿洲; i'ce manju ; or 新滿洲) made out of other Tungusic and Mongolic tribes such as the Daur , Oroqen , Solon , Nanai , Kiakar (Kuyula) and Sibe from the northeast who were incorporated into the Manchu banners by the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors after 1644. They fought for the Qing Empire against the Russian Empire in
15336-474: The mainstream Jiahnzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by
15478-681: The modern Xinmin , Liaozhong , Tai'an , Panshan and Beizhen ). The modern usage of "Liaodong" ,however, simply refers to the half of Liaoning province to the left/east bank of the Liao/Daliao River. The Liaodong Peninsula lies on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea , dividing the Liaodong Bay (the largest of the three bays of the Bohai Sea ) to its west from the Korea Bay to its east. It forms
15620-434: The name for the Han banners. Its original and new meanings differed in usage. The Qing dynasty used " Hanjun " as an adjective for individual bannermen while the Jin dynasty used its literal meaning, for the collective "Han Army". Nurhaci and Huangtaiji both viewed ethnic identity in terms of culture, language and attitude: Mongols were associated with the Mongol language , nomadism and horses; Manchus were associated with
15762-532: The other hand, in warlord Zhang Zuolin 's reign in Manchuria, much better treatment was reported. There was no particular persecution of Manchus. Even the mausoleums of Qing emperors were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen, as in the past. Many Manchus joined the Fengtian clique , such as Xi Qia , a member of the Qing dynasty's imperial clan. As a follow-up to the Mukden Incident , Manchukuo ,
15904-527: The permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. As a result of their conquest of Ming China , almost all the Manchus followed the prince regent Dorgon and the Shunzhi Emperor to Beijing and settled there. A few of them were sent to other places such as Inner Mongolia , Xinjiang and Tibet to serve as garrison troops. There were only 1524 Bannermen left in Manchuria at
16046-451: The places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland." While the Manchu ruling elite at the Qing imperial court in Beijing and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adopted Han culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a vital reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to
16188-564: The population live in Liaoning and one-fifth in Hebei . There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin , Xiuyan , Qinglong , Fengning , Yitong , Qingyuan , Weichang , Kuancheng , Benxi , Kuandian , Huanren , Fengcheng , Beizhen and over 300 Manchu towns and townships. Manchus are the largest minority group in China without an autonomous region . "Manchu" ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ , Möllendorff : manju )
16330-439: The refined intellectual type appears. Here and there faces of a Hellenic purity of feature are seen and beautiful children are not uncommon. These Chinese cities make one realize how the cream of the population gathers in the urban centers. Everywhere town opportunities have been a magnet for the élite of the open country." The Qing dynasty altered its law on intermarriage between Han civilians and Manchu bannermen several times in
16472-483: The regime. The Qing emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various other tribal peoples) in central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means. In particular, they restricted the migration of Han settlers to the region. This had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense of northern China against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with
16614-507: The same offences might be pardoned. However, Nurhaci exempted the tai nikan – Han Chinese who had joined the Jurchens between 1603 and 1619 – from this discriminatory practice. The Manchu Dahai was described with his origin from the Liao valley and his ethnicity as Han Chinese in the Korean book "Nanjung chamnok; Sok chamnok" (亂中雜錄 / [趙慶南撰) by Cho Kyŏng-nam (趙慶南) (1570–1641) a Korean official and scholar, contradicting Qing texts which says his clan
16756-487: The same time they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Jurchens integrate into Korean culture. Their relationship was eventually stopped by the Ming dynasty government who wanted the Jurchens to protect the border. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Soon after that, Möngke Temür , chieftain of
16898-413: The same year. The Qing government differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were Han Chinese who defected to the Qing Empire up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing Empire and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became
17040-453: The sons of Shang Kexi and Geng Zhongming , who defected to the Qing dynasty after their conquest of China. The Manchus created an artillery unit composed of Han soldiers and granted Han officials titles such as "ministers", while Manchus in the same position were regarded as "slaves". In 1642, the Manchu banners ejected their Han companies and placed them in Han banners, since the members were mostly not assimilated to Manchu culture. However,
17182-616: The southern part of a mountain belt that continues northward in the Changbai Mountains . The part of the mountain range on the peninsula is known as the Qianshan Mountains , named after Qian Mountain in Anshan , which includes Dahei Mountain in Dalian . The Liaodong region was settled since prehistoric times by Neolithic people such as Xinle culture . It later came under the rule of
17324-414: The term Han. However the use of the word Han as the name of a class category used by the Yuan dynasty was a different concept from Han ethnicity. The grouping of Jurchens in northern China grouped with northern Han into the northerner class did not mean they were regarded the same as ethnic Han people, who themselves were in two different classes in the Yuan, Han ren and Nan Ren as said by Stephen G. Haw. Also
17466-418: The time of the initial Manchu conquest. After a series of border conflicts with the Russians , the Qing emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back where they originally came from. But throughout the Qing dynasty, Beijing was the focal point of the ruling Manchus in the political, economic and cultural spheres. The Yongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are
17608-472: The transition between the Ming and Qing Zhang Sunzhen, a civilian official in Nanjing himself remarked that he had a portrait of his ancestors wearing Manchu clothes because his family were Tartars so it was appropriate that he was going to shave his head into the Manchu hairstyle when the queue order was given. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming forces defeated
17750-412: The unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion of Korea . Korea declined the help. Following the fall of Balhae,
17892-647: The view that manju is cognate with words referring to the lower Amur river in other Tungusic languages and can be reconstructed to Proto-Tungusic *mamgo 'lower Amur, large river'. The Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in China. The name Mohe might refer to an ancestral population of the Manchus. The Mohe practiced pig farming extensively and were mainly sedentary, and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybeans, wheat, millet and rice, in addition to hunting. In
18034-433: The word " Manzu ", which indicated Manchu as an ethnicity, was generally unused. Interchangeability of Manchu and qiren (旗人; bannermen) emerged in the 17th century. The Qianlong Emperor referred to all bannermen (Manchu or qiren ) as Manchu and civilians as Han or min (民). Man-Han and qimin (旗民) both referred to the Banners. Qing laws did not say "Manchu" but referred to the affected as "bannermen." The 18th century
18176-505: The year 1114, Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai defeated the Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens went to war with the Northern Song dynasty , and captured most of northern China in the Jin–Song wars . During the Jin dynasty, the first Jurchen script came into use in
18318-402: Was adopted as the official name of the people by Emperor Hong Taiji in 1635, replacing the earlier name " Jurchen ". It appears that manju was an old term for the Jianzhou Jurchens , although the etymology is not well understood. The Jiu Manzhou Dang , archives of early 17th century documents, contains the earliest use of Manchu. However, the actual etymology of the ethnic name "Manju"
18460-740: Was assassinated by a Manchu. Thousands of Manchus fled south from Aigun during the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, their cattle and horses then stolen by Russian Cossacks who razed their villages and homes. The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders. By the 19th century, most Manchus in the city garrison spoke only Mandarin Chinese, not Manchu, which still distinguished them from their Han neighbors in southern China, who spoke non-Mandarin dialects. That they spoke Beijing dialect made recognizing Manchus folks relatively easy. It
18602-564: Was assigned there. Governor Yue Rui of Shandong was then ordered by the Yongzheng to report any bannerman misbehaving and warned him not to cover it up in 1730 after Manchu bannermen were put in a quarter in Qingzhou. Manchu bannermen from the garrisons in Xi'an and Jingzhou fought in Xinjiang in the 1770s and Manchus from Xi'an garrison fought in other campaigns against the Dzungars and Uyghurs throughout
18744-449: Was copied down . Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion , the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed
18886-560: Was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci who was hosting Sin Chung-il was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved fore=crown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became
19028-401: Was informally regulated by social status and custom. In northeastern China such as Heilongjiang and Liaoning it was more common for Manchu women to marry Han men since they were not subjected to the same laws and institutional oversight as Manchus and Han in Beijing and elsewhere. The policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the northeast from the rest of China could not last forever. In
19170-564: Was no law against this. As the end of the Qing dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen , even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers. This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity . In order to blend in, some Manchus switched to speaking
19312-459: Was northern Standard Chinese which the Manchu Bannermen spoke instead of the local dialect the Han people around the garrison spoke, so that Manchus in the garrisons at Jingzhou and Guangzhou both spoke Beijing Mandarin even though Cantonese was spoken at Guangzhou, and the Beijing dialect of Mandarin distinguished the Manchu bannermen at the Xi'an garrison from the local Han people who spoke
19454-591: Was not sorted into either a Han or Mongol banner became Manchu, an ethnic group named by Huangtaiji . The three principal ethnic groups in the Later Jin society were the Manchus , Han and Mongols . The country had many other smaller ethnic groups, such as the Xibe , Daur , Russians , Nanai and Evenks (such as Solon ). Prior to the Qing dynasty, each group had a significantly distinct culture and language/dialect. During
19596-672: Was rescinded after the Triple Intervention of 23 April 1895 by Russia, France and Germany. In the aftermath of this intervention, the Russian government pressured the Qing dynasty to lease Liaodong and the strategically important Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) for use by the Russian Navy. As in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Liaodong peninsula was the scene of major fighting in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), including
19738-572: Was ruled by Former Yan , Former Qin , Later Yan and later Goguryeo , before being reconquered by the Tang dynasty . In 698 AD, Wu Zhou 's defeat at the Battle of Tianmenling allowed the newly founded Balhae to rule the region for the next two centuries, before they were supplanted by the Khitan Liao dynasty , and followed by the Jin dynasty , Yuan dynasty , Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty . Liaodong
19880-618: Was the Tokoro Manchu clan in the Manchu banners which claimed to be descended from a Han Chinese with the surname of Tao who had moved north from Zhejiang to Liaodong and joined the Jurchens before the Qing in the Ming Wanli emperor's era. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to
20022-566: Was the only thing that differentiated them from Jurchens. Nurhaci differentiated between groups of Han Chinese based on the date they became part of the Later Jin dynasty, a state created by the Jianzhou Jurchens which later became the Qing dynasty. When Nurhaci conquered Liaodong, he wanted to win over the allegiance of the Han Chinese, so he ordered Jurchens and Han Chinese to be treated equally. He also seized property and resources owned by Jurchens and redistributed them to Han Chinese, and expanded
20164-561: Was the primary destination of Shandong and Hebei refugees from the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876-1879 . A prior Qing prohibition on immigration to Northeast China was officially relaxed, marking the start of Chuang Guandong . In 1876, Chinese officials told the Customs commissioner at Yingkou that 600,000 people had landed on the Liaodong Peninsula. Government efforts to keep Manchu heartlands free of Chinese settlement resulted in
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