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98-540: The park became an Algerian National Park in 1984, and has been UNESCO -recognized as a biosphere reserve in 2004. The park owes its name to the Gouraya Mountain (altitude 660m) located within the park's boundaries. The ground elevation in the park oscillates between -135m and 660m. There is also a lake, the Lake Mézaïa. The park is located on a calcaro-dolomitic ground. The park is north-east of Béjaïa , close to

196-710: A non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development since December 1925 and joined UNESCO in 1969, after having established a joint commission in 1952. After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United Nations , the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in London which continued from 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30 October 1943,

294-467: A Commission to study the feasibility of having nations freely share cultural, educational and scientific achievements. This new body, the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC), was created in 1922 and counted such figures as Henri Bergson , Albert Einstein , Marie Curie , Robert A. Millikan , and Gonzague de Reynold among its members (being thus a small commission of

392-482: A Preparatory Commission was established. The Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946 — the date when UNESCO's Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place from 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Julian Huxley to Director-General. United States Army colonel, university president and civil rights advocate Blake R. Van Leer joined as

490-656: A United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London from 1 to 16 November 1945 with 44 governments represented. The idea of UNESCO was largely developed by Rab Butler , the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom, who had a great deal of influence in its development. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and

588-638: A biennium, as well as links to relevant programmatic and financial documents. These two distinct sets of information are published on the IATI registry, respectively based on the IATI Activity Standard and the IATI Organization Standard. There have been proposals to establish two new UNESCO lists. The first proposed list will focus on movable cultural heritage such as artifacts, paintings, and biofacts. The list may include cultural objects, such as

686-493: A declaration of anthropologists (among them was Claude Lévi-Strauss ) and other scientists in 1950 and concluding with the 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice . In 1955, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO saying that some of the organization's publications amounted to "interference" in the country's "racial problems". It rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela . One of

784-593: A disciple of Félix Ravaisson and the author of On the Founding of Induction ( Du fondement de l'induction , 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism". According to Louis de Broglie , Time and Free Will "antedates by forty years the ideas of Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg on the physical interpretation of wave mechanics." Bergson settled again in Paris in 1888, and after teaching for some months at

882-624: A founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , and the couple later relocated to Paris. Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes (known as the Lycée Condorcet 1870–1874 and 1883–present) in Paris from 1868 to 1878. He had previously received a Jewish religious education, but lost his faith between the ages of 14 and 16. According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of

980-536: A full member. As a result, the United States withdrew its funding, which had accounted for about 22% of UNESCO's budget. Israel also reacted to Palestine's admittance to UNESCO by freezing Israeli payments to UNESCO and imposing sanctions on the Palestinian Authority , stating that Palestine's admittance would be detrimental "to potential peace talks". Two years after stopping payment of its dues to UNESCO,

1078-543: A global movement in 1990 to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. In 2000, World Education Forum in Dakar , Senegal, led member governments to commit for achieving basic education for all in 2015. The World Declaration on Higher Education was adopted by UNESCO's World Conference on Higher Education on 9 October 1998, with the aim of setting global standards on the ideals and accessibility of higher education . UNESCO's early activities in culture included

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1176-579: A great future; it breaks through old frameworks and brings things to a solution from which new crystallizations can be reached. The most noteworthy tributes James paid to Bergson come in the Hibbert Lectures (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at Manchester College, Oxford , shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he gained from Bergson's thought, and refers to his confidence in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority". Bergson's influence had led James "to renounce

1274-401: A matter of faith, Bergson attempted to redefine the modern conceptions of time, space, and causality in his concept of Duration , making room for a tangible marriage of free will with causality. Seeing Duration as a mobile and fluid concept, Bergson argued that one cannot understand Duration through "immobile" analysis, but only through experiential, first-person intuition . Bergson considers

1372-613: A member as well. The Constitution was amended in November 1954 when the General Conference resolved that members of the executive board would be representatives of the governments of the States of which they are nationals and would not, as before, act in their personal capacity. This change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the ICIC, in how member states would work together in

1470-634: A member of the Académie française . He was also made President of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques and became Officier de la Légion d'honneur and Officier de l'Instruction publique. Bergson found disciples of many types. In France movements such as neo-Catholicism and Modernism on the one hand and syndicalism on the other endeavoured to absorb and appropriate for their own ends some of his central ideas. The continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, Le Mouvement socialiste , portrayed

1568-507: A periodical of the poilus , Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française . A presidential address, "The Meaning of the War", was delivered in December 1914 to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by The Daily Telegraph in honour of King Albert I of Belgium , King Albert's Book (Christmas, 1914). In 1915, he was succeeded in

1666-459: A philosopher specializing in the history of philosophy , in particular Greek and Roman philosophy. He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin, Haeckel , from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings, as well as Hugo de Vries , from whom he quoted his mutation theory of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism). He also quoted Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard ,

1764-444: A platform for the dialogue between cultures and provide a forum for international debate". Since March 2006 it has been available free online, with limited printed issues. Its articles express the opinions of the authors which are not necessarily the opinions of UNESCO. There was a hiatus in publishing between 2012 and 2017. In 1950, UNESCO initiated the quarterly review Impact of Science on Society (also known as Impact ) to discuss

1862-608: A text subsequently published in La Pensée et le mouvant . He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1928. After his retirement from the Collège de France, Bergson began to fade into obscurity: he suffered from a degenerative illness (rheumatism, which left him half paralyzed ). He completed his new work, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion , which extended his philosophical theories to

1960-559: A very restricted range in portions of northwestern North Africa and disjunctively in Gibraltar . In 2011, the French Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique led a phytosociological study which concluded there were 7 vegetation groups belonging to 4 phytosociological classes: UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ; pronounced / j uː ˈ n ɛ s k oʊ / )

2058-549: Is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It has 194 member states and 12 associate members, as well as partners in the non-governmental , intergovernmental and private sector . Headquartered in Paris , France, UNESCO has 53 regional field offices and 199 national commissions. UNESCO

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2156-470: Is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of "tension" and "detension" as applied to the relation of matter and mind. In June 1920, the University of Cambridge honoured him with the degree of Doctor of Letters . In order that he might devote his full-time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology,

2254-490: Is another example of an early major UNESCO project in the field of natural sciences. In 1968, UNESCO organized the first intergovernmental conference aimed at reconciling the environment and development, a problem that continues to be addressed in the field of sustainable development . The main outcome of the 1968 conference was the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme . UNESCO has been credited with

2352-450: Is corrupted and manipulated by Israel's enemies... we are not going to be a member of an organisation that deliberately acts against us". 2023 saw Russia excluded from the executive committee for the first time, after failing to get sufficient votes. The United States stated its intent to rejoin UNESCO in 2023, 5 years after leaving, and to pay its $ 600 million in back dues. The United States

2450-461: Is governed by the General Conference composed of member states and associate members, which meets biannually to set the agency's programs and budget. It also elects members of the executive board, which manages UNESCO's work, and appoints every four years a Director-General, who serves as UNESCO's chief administrator. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect

2548-506: The Académie française and was a fervent Catholic, extended to revealed truth his conventionalism, leading him to privilege faith, heart and sentiment to dogmas , speculative theology and abstract reasoning. Like Bergson's, his writings were placed on the Index by the Vatican. In 1922, Bergson's book Durée et simultanéité, à propos de la théorie d'Einstein ( Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and

2646-801: The Acropolis of Athens (Greece). The organization's work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. In 1976, the World Heritage Committee was established and the first sites were included on the World Heritage List in 1978. Since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 (Convention for

2744-586: The Creative Evolution . On the death of Gabriel Tarde , the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him as Chair of Modern Philosophy. From 4 to 8 September of that year, he visited Geneva , attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion (Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend

2842-751: The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia , launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after the construction of the Aswan Dam . During the 20-year campaign, 22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan), Fes (Morocco), Kathmandu (Nepal), Borobudur (Indonesia) and

2940-951: The Jōmon Venus of Japan, the Mona Lisa of France, the Gebel el-Arak Knife of Egypt , The Ninth Wave of Russia, the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük of Turkey, the David (Michelangelo) of Italy, the Mathura Herakles of India, the Manunggul Jar of the Philippines, the Crown of Baekje of South Korea, The Hay Wain of the United Kingdom and the Benin Bronzes of Nigeria. The second proposed list will focus on

3038-637: The League of Nations , where he presided from 1920 to 1925 over the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (the ancestor of UNESCO , and which included Einstein and Marie Curie ). While living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927 for The Creative Evolution . Because of serious rheumatic ailments , he could not travel to Stockholm, and sent instead

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3136-516: The Palais Garnier (the old Paris opera house) in 1859. His father, the composer and pianist Michał Bergson , was of Polish-Jewish background (originally bearing the name Bereksohn ). His great-grandmother, Temerl Bergson , was a well-known patroness and benefactor of Polish Jewry, especially those associated with the Hasidic movement. His mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor,

3234-428: The United Nations member states (except Israel and Liechtenstein ), as well as Cook Islands , Niue and Palestine . The United States and Israel left UNESCO on 31 December 2018, but the United States rejoined in 2023. As of June 2023 , there have been 11 Directors-General of UNESCO since its inception – nine men and two women. The 11 Directors-General of UNESCO have come from six regions within

3332-557: The Vichy government. Bergson inclined to convert to Catholicism, writing in his will on 7 February 1937: "My thinking has always brought me nearer to Catholicism, in which I saw the perfect complement to Judaism." Though wishing to convert to Catholicism, as stated in his will, he did not do so in view of the travails inflicted on the Jewish people by the rise of Nazism and antisemitism in Europe in

3430-584: The entry of the United States into the war. He was there when the French Mission under René Viviani paid a visit in April and May 1917 after America's entry into the conflict. Viviani's book La Mission française en Amérique (1917) has a preface by Bergson. Early in 1918, the Académie française received Bergson officially when he took his seat among "The Select Forty" as successor to Emile Ollivier (the author of

3528-678: The municipal college , known as the College Rollin , he received an appointment at the Lycée Henri-Quatre , where he remained for eight years. There, he read Darwin and gave a course on his theories. Although Bergson had previously endorsed Lamarckism and its theory of the heritability of acquired characteristics , he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variation, which were more compatible with his continual vision of life. In 1896, Bergson published his second major work, Matter and Memory . This rather difficult work investigates

3626-520: The 1930s; he did not want to appear to want to leave the persecuted. After the fall of France in 1940, Jews in occupied France were required to register at police stations. When completing his police form, Bergson made the following entry: "Academic. Philosopher. Nobel Prize winner. Jew." It was the position of the Archbishop of Paris, Emmanuel Célestin Suhard , that the public revelation of Bergson's conversion

3724-484: The British Society for Psychical Research , and delivered to it an address, Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research (Fantômes des vivants et recherche psychique). Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his work began to appear in a number of languages: English , German , Italian , Danish , Swedish , Hungarian , Polish , and Russian . In 1914 Bergson's countrymen honoured him by his election as

3822-448: The Collège de France relieved Bergson of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy there. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his disciple, the mathematician and philosopher Édouard Le Roy , who supported a conventionalist stance on the foundations of mathematics , which was adopted by Bergson. Le Roy, who also succeeded to Bergson at

3920-819: The Directors-General of UNESCO since its establishment in 1946 is as follows: This is the list of the sessions of the UNESCO General Conference held since 1946: Ahmet Altay Cengizer Biennial elections are held, with 58 elected representatives holding office for four years. [REDACTED]   Finland [REDACTED]   Portugal [REDACTED]   Turkey [REDACTED]   Albania [REDACTED]   Belarus [REDACTED]   Bulgaria [REDACTED]   Cuba [REDACTED]   Grenada [REDACTED]   Jamaica [REDACTED]   Saint Lucia [REDACTED]   Saint Vincent and

4018-722: The Einsteinian Universe ) was published. Earlier that year, Albert Einstein had come to the French Society of Philosophy and briefly replied to a short speech made by Bergson. It has been alleged that Bergson's knowledge of physics was insufficient and that the book did not follow up contemporary developments on physics. On the other hand, in "Einstein and the Crisis of Reason", a leading French philosopher, Maurice Merleau-Ponty , accused Einstein of failing to grasp Bergson's argument. This argument, Merleau-Ponty says, which concerns not

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4116-559: The English language from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents settled in France, and Henri became a naturalized French citizen. Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust , in 1891. (Proust served as best man at the wedding.) Henri and Louise Bergson had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896. Bergson's sister, Mina Bergson (also known as Moina Mathers ), married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers ,

4214-662: The Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at Bologna , in Italy, where he gave an address on "Philosophical Intuition". In response to invitations he visited England in May of that year and on several subsequent occasions. These visits were well received. His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works: Time and Free Will , Matter and Memory , and Creative Evolution . Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched

4312-1878: The Grenadines [REDACTED]   Venezuela [REDACTED]   Bangladesh [REDACTED]   China [REDACTED]   India [REDACTED]   Indonesia [REDACTED]   Japan [REDACTED]   Philippines [REDACTED]   Burundi [REDACTED]   Equatorial Guinea [REDACTED]   Ethiopia [REDACTED]   Madagascar [REDACTED]   Zambia [REDACTED]   Zimbabwe [REDACTED]   Egypt [REDACTED]   Jordan [REDACTED]   Morocco [REDACTED]   France [REDACTED]   Germany [REDACTED]   Italy [REDACTED]   Netherlands [REDACTED]   Spain [REDACTED]    Switzerland [REDACTED]   Hungary [REDACTED]   Poland [REDACTED]   Russia [REDACTED]   Serbia [REDACTED]   Argentina [REDACTED]   Brazil [REDACTED]   Dominican Republic [REDACTED]   Uruguay [REDACTED]   Afghanistan [REDACTED]   Kyrgyzstan [REDACTED]   Philippines [REDACTED]   Pakistan [REDACTED]   South Korea [REDACTED]   Thailand [REDACTED]   Benin [REDACTED]   Congo [REDACTED]   Guinea [REDACTED]   Ghana [REDACTED]   Kenya [REDACTED]   Namibia [REDACTED]   Senegal [REDACTED]   Togo [REDACTED]   Saudi Arabia [REDACTED]   UAE [REDACTED]   Tunisia Henri Bergson Henri-Louis Bergson ( French: [bɛʁksɔn] ; 18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941)

4410-531: The Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, "Life and Consciousness", in a revised and developed form under the title "Consciousness and Life". Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, L'Âme et le Corps , which contains the substance of

4508-632: The Law of Causality" ( Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité ). In 1900, Felix Alcan published a work that had previously appeared in the Revue de Paris , Laughter ( Le rire ), one of the most important of Bergson's minor works. This essay on the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture he had given in his early days in Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, especially its passages dealing with

4606-411: The League of Nations essentially centred on Western Europe ). The International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC) was then created in Paris in September 1924, to act as the executing agency for the ICIC. However, the onset of World War II largely interrupted the work of these predecessor organizations. As for private initiatives, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began to work as

4704-442: The Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ) and 2005 ( Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions ). An intergovernmental meeting of UNESCO in Paris in December 1951 led to the creation of the European Council for Nuclear Research , which was responsible for establishing the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) later on, in 1954. Arid Zone programming, 1948–1966,

4802-413: The Soul). In 1913, Bergson visited the United States of America at the invitation of Columbia University and lectured in several American cities, where very large audiences welcomed him. In February, at Columbia, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects Spirituality and Freedom and The Method of Philosophy . Being again in England in May of that year, he accepted the presidency of

4900-420: The Third Congress held at Heidelberg . In these years, Bergson strongly influenced Jacques Maritain , perhaps even saving Maritain and his wife Raïssa from suicide. Bergson's third major work, Creative Evolution , the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907. Pierre Imbart de la Tour remarked that Creative Evolution was a milestone of a new direction in thought. By 1918, Alcan ,

4998-431: The United States and Israel lost UNESCO voting rights in 2013 without losing the right to be elected; thus, the United States was elected as a member of the executive board for the period 2016–19. In 2019, Israel left UNESCO after 69 years of membership, with Israel's ambassador to the UN Danny Danon writing: "UNESCO is the body that continually rewrites history, including by erasing the Jewish connection to Jerusalem... it

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5096-440: The World were in essential agreement. While social revolutionaries endeavoured to make the most out of Bergson, many religious leaders, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them found encouragement and stimulus in his work. The Roman Catholic Church , however, banned Bergson's three books on

5194-770: The ancient capital of Anjou . Two years later he settled at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand)  [ fr ] in Clermont-Ferrand , capital of the Puy-de-Dôme département . The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand, Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from Lucretius , with a critical study of De Rerum Natura , issued as Extraits de Lucrèce , and of Lucretius's materialist cosmology (1884), repeated editions of which attest to its value in promoting Classics among French youth. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the Auvergne region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation, Time and Free Will , which

5292-434: The appearance of novelty as a result of pure undetermined creation, instead of as the predetermined result of mechanistic forces. His philosophy emphasizes pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom; thus one can characterize his system as a process philosophy . It touches upon such topics as time and identity, free will , perception, change, memory, consciousness, language, the foundation of mathematics and

5390-402: The charge of pantheism (that is, of conceiving of God as immanent to his Creation and of being himself created in the process of the Creation). They were placed on the Index of prohibited books (Decree of 1 June 1914). In 1914, the Scottish universities arranged for Bergson to give the famous Gifford Lectures , planning one course for the spring and another for the autumn. Bergson delivered

5488-407: The city. The park includes many beaches and cliffs , which make it a swimming destination for many Algerians. The permanent population in the Gouraya National Park is of Berber origins, 1,655 inhabitants across 13 villages. The park is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna , including Barbary macaques and jackals who live in the park's forests. The Barbary macaque is a primate with

5586-441: The comic consists in "something mechanical encrusted on the living". In 1901, the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member. In 1903 he contributed to the Revue de métaphysique et de morale an essay, Introduction to Metaphysics ( Introduction à la metaphysique ), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books. He detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in

5684-412: The commission, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride ). The same year, UNESCO created the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), a multilateral forum designed to promote media development in developing countries. In 1993, UNESCO's General Conference endorsed the Windhoek Declaration on media independence and pluralism, which led the UN General Assembly to declare

5782-429: The date of its adoption, 3 May, as World Press Freedom Day . Since 1997, UNESCO has awarded the UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize every 3 May. UNESCO admitted Palestine as a member in 2011. Laws passed in the United States after Palestine applied for UNESCO and WHO membership in April 1989 mean that the United States cannot contribute financially to any UN organization that accepts Palestine as

5880-517: The degree of Doctor of Science . Two days later he delivered the Huxley Lecture at the University of Birmingham , taking for his subject Life and Consciousness . This subsequently appeared in The Hibbert Journal (October 1911), and, revised, is the first essay in the collected volume Mind-Energy ( L'Énergie spirituelle ). In October he again travelled to England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at University College London four lectures on La Nature de l'Âme (The Nature of

5978-422: The diffusion of national science bureaucracies. In the field of communication, the "free flow of ideas by word and image" has been in UNESCO's constitution since it was established, following the experience of the Second World War when control of information was a factor in indoctrinating populations for aggression. In the years immediately following World War II, efforts were concentrated on reconstruction and on

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6076-447: The early work of UNESCO in the education field was a pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, which was launched in 1947. Following this project one of expert missions to other countries, included a 1949 mission to Afghanistan. UNESCO recommended in 1948 that Member countries should make free primary education compulsory and universal. The World Conference on Education for All , in Jomtien , Thailand, started

6174-486: The first course, consisting of 11 lectures, under the title The Problem of Personality , at the University of Edinburgh in the spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. Bergson was not silent during the conflict, and gave some inspiring addresses. As early as 4 November 1914, he wrote an article, "Wearing and Nonwearing Forces" ( La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas ), that appeared in

6272-716: The first two of these in Time and Free Will . In 1890–91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work The Principles of Psychology , in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon Bergson observed. Some writers , taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking that James's investigations had been proceeding since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles that culminated in The Principles ), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's. William James hailed Bergson as an ally. In 1903, he wrote: I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read for years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that his philosophy has

6370-407: The four London lectures on the Soul. The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, The Psycho-Physiological Paralogism (Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique), which now appears as Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique . Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort. The volume

6468-516: The function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of perception and memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the relationship of body and mind. Bergson spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in Matter and Memory , which shows thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations carried out during the period. In 1898, Bergson became maître de conférences at his alma mater, École Normale Supérieure, and later that year

6566-427: The historical work L'Empire libéral ). A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier. In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus showed his philosophy's central idea in action. As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals remained relatively inaccessible, he had them published in two volumes. The first of these

6664-439: The ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental principles of his philosophy. In May 1911, Bergson gave two lectures, The Perception of Change ( La perception du changement ), at the University of Oxford . The Clarendon Press published these in French in the same year. His talks were concise and lucid, leading students and the general reader to his other, longer writings. Oxford later conferred on him

6762-411: The identification of needs for means of mass communication around the world. UNESCO started organizing training and education for journalists in the 1950s. In response to calls for a " New World Information and Communication Order " in the late 1970s, UNESCO established the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, which produced the 1980 MacBride report (named after the chair of

6860-529: The influence of science on society. The journal ceased publication in 1992. UNESCO also published Museum International Quarterly from the year 1948. UNESCO has official relations with 322 international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Most of these are what UNESCO calls "operational"; a select few are "formal". The highest form of affiliation to UNESCO is "formal associate", and the 22 NGOs with formal associate (ASC) relations occupying offices at UNESCO are: The institutes are specialized departments of

6958-718: The intellectualist method and the current notion that logic is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be". It had induced him, he continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method, for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it". These remarks, which appeared in James's book A Pluralistic Universe in 1909, impelled many English and American readers to investigate Bergson's philosophy, but no English translations of Bergson's major work had yet appeared. James encouraged and assisted Arthur Mitchell in preparing an English translation of Creative Evolution . In August 1910, James died. It

7056-734: The necessity for an international organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China , the United Kingdom, the United States and the USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San Francisco from April to June 1945,

7154-521: The office of President of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques by Alexandre Ribot , and then delivered a discourse on "The Evolution of German Imperialism". Meanwhile, he found time to issue at the Minister of Public Instruction's request a brief summary of French philosophy. Bergson did a large amount of traveling and lecturing in America during the war. He participated in the negotiations that led to

7252-582: The organization that support UNESCO's programme, providing specialized support for cluster and national offices. UNESCO awards 26 prizes in education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, communication and information as well as peace: International Days observed at UNESCO are provided in the table below: As of July 2023 , UNESCO has 194 member states and 12 associate members. Some members are not independent states and some members have additional National Organizing Committees from some of their dependent territories . UNESCO state parties are

7350-550: The organization's fields of competence. As member states worked together over time to realize UNESCO's mandate, political and historical factors have shaped the organization's operations in particular during the Cold War , the decolonization process, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Among the major achievements of the organization is its work against racism, for example through influential statements on race starting with

7448-466: The organization: West Europe (5), Central America (1), North America (2), West Africa (1), East Asia (1), and East Europe (1). To date, there has been no elected Director-General from the remaining ten regions within UNESCO: Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central and North Asia, Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, South Africa, Australia-Oceania, and South America. The list of

7546-506: The physics of special relativity but its philosophical foundations, addresses paradoxes caused by popular interpretations and misconceptions about the theory, including Einstein's own. Duration and Simultaneity was not published in the 1951 Edition du Centenaire in French, which contained all of his other works, and was only published later in a work gathering different essays, titled Mélanges . This work took advantage of Bergson's experience at

7644-399: The place of the artistic in life. The paper's main thesis is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. People laugh at those who fail to adapt to society's demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that

7742-418: The present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy. As early as 1880, James had contributed an article in French to the periodical La Critique philosophique , of Renouvier and Pillon, titled Le Sentiment de l'Effort . Four years later, a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal Mind : "What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology". Bergson quoted

7840-466: The publisher, had issued 21 editions, making an average of two editions per annum for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles but among the general public. At that time, Bergson had already extensively studied biology, including the theory of fecundation (as shown in the first chapter of the Creative Evolution ), which had only recently emerged, ca. 1885 – no small feat for

7938-515: The quiet life of a French professor, marked by the publication of his four principal works: In 1900, the Collège de France appointed Bergson Chair of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which he remained until 1904. He then replaced Gabriel Tarde as the Chair of Modern Philosophy until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers. Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from

8036-545: The realism of Karl Marx and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and argued, therefore, that supporters of Marxist socialism should welcome a philosophy such as Bergson's. Other writers, in their eagerness, claimed that the thought of the holder of the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France and the aims of the Confédération Générale du Travail and the Industrial Workers of

8134-417: The realms of morality, religion, and art, in 1932. It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past. He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all the posts and honours previously awarded him rather than accept exemption from the antisemitic laws of

8232-457: The sciences or the humanities , he decided on the latter, to his teachers' dismay. When he was 19, he entered the École Normale Supérieure (during this period, he read Herbert Spencer ). He obtained there the degree of licence ès lettres , and then an agrégation de philosophie in 1881 from the University of Paris . The same year, he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in Angers ,

8330-533: The successor of Claude Bernard at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the Collège de France. Bergson served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal , a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians. Bergson travelled to London in 1908 and met there with William James , the Harvard University philosopher who

8428-528: The theory of evolution , according to which humanity shares a common ancestry with modern primates , a process sometimes construed as needing no creative deity. At the lycée, Bergson won a prize for his scientific work and another, in 1877, when he was 18, for the solution of a mathematical problem. His solution was published the next year in Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques . It was his first published work. After some hesitation about whether to pursue

8526-510: The world's living species, such as the komodo dragon of Indonesia, the panda of China, the bald eagle of North American countries, the aye-aye of Madagascar, the Asiatic lion of India, the kākāpō of New Zealand, and the mountain tapir of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. UNESCO and its specialized institutions issue a number of magazines. Created in 1945, The UNESCO Courier magazine states its mission to "promote UNESCO's ideals, maintain

8624-491: Was Bergson's senior by 17 years, and who was instrumental in calling Bergson's work to the attention of the Anglo-American public. The two became great friends. James's impression of Bergson is given in his Letters under the date of 4 October 1908: So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that

8722-524: Was a French philosopher who was influential in the traditions of analytic philosophy and continental philosophy , especially during the first half of the 20th century until the Second World War , but also after 1966 when Gilles Deleuze published Le Bergsonisme . Bergson is known for his arguments that processes of immediate experience and intuition are more significant than abstract rationalism and science for understanding reality. Bergson

8820-549: Was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brilliant skill with which they have been presented". In 1930, France awarded him its highest honour, the Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur . Bergson's great popularity created a controversy in France, where his views were seen as opposing the secular and scientific attitude adopted by the Republic 's officials. Bergson lived

8918-463: Was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in 1919. It bears the title Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures (reprinted as Mind-Energy – L'Énergie spirituelle : essais et conférences ). The advocate of Bergson's philosophy in England, Wildon Carr , prepared an English translation under the title Mind-Energy . The volume opens with

9016-848: Was founded in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations ' International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation . UNESCO's founding mission, which was shaped by the events of World War II , is to advance peace , sustainable development and human rights by facilitating collaboration and dialogue among nations. It pursues this objective through five major programme areas: education, natural sciences , social / human sciences , culture and communication/information. UNESCO sponsors projects that improve literacy , provide technical training and education, advance science, protect independent media and press freedom , preserve regional and cultural history , and promote cultural diversity . The organization prominently helps establish and secure World Heritage Sites of cultural and natural importance. UNESCO

9114-460: Was from an English-Jewish and Irish-Jewish background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family of Polish descent. Henri Bergson's great-great-grandfather, Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg called Zbytkower  [ pl ] , was a prominent banker and a protégé of Stanisław II Augustus , king of Poland from 1764 to 1795. Bergson's family lived in London for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with

9212-600: Was his intention, had he lived to see the translation finished, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. The next year, the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work ensued. By coincidence, in that same year (1911), Bergson wrote a 16-page preface, Truth and Reality , to the French translation of James's book Pragmatism . In it, he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, together with certain important reservations. From 5 to 11 April, Bergson attended

9310-454: Was promoted to a professorship. The year 1900 saw him installed as a professor at the Collège de France , where he accepted the Chair of Greek and Roman Philosophy in succession to Charles Lévêque  [ fr ] . At the first International Congress of Philosophy , held in Paris during the first five days of August 1900, Bergson read a short paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in

9408-577: Was readmitted by the UNESCO General Conference that July. UNESCO implements its activities through five programme areas: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication and information. UNESCO does not accredit institutions of higher learning. The UNESCO transparency portal has been designed to enable public access to information regarding the Organization's activities, such as its aggregate budget for

9506-721: Was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle ( Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit , "On the Concept of Place in Aristotle") for his doctoral degree, which was awarded by the University of Paris in 1889. The work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan . He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the Pre-Socratics , in particular Heraclitus . Bergson dedicated Time and Free Will to Jules Lachelier  [ fr ] (1832–1918), then public education minister ,

9604-768: Was too dangerous at the time, when the city was occupied by the Nazis, to both the Church and the Jewish population. On 3 January 1941, Bergson died in occupied Paris of bronchitis. A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, Hauts-de-Seine . Bergson rejected what he saw as the overly mechanistic predominant view of causality (as expressed in reductionism). He argued that free will must be allowed to unfold in an autonomous and unpredictable fashion. While Kant saw free will as something beyond time and space and therefore ultimately

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