Galtür is a village and ski resort in the upper Paznaun valley in Austrian state of Tyrol located in the Central Eastern Alps 35 km southwest of Landeck near the border of Vorarlberg and Switzerland .
82-650: Galtür was settled by the Engadiners from the south, the Walsers and Vorarlbergers from the west, and Tyroleans from the east. Today the cultivation work of the Engadiners is remembered in the name Galtür, meaning Cultura . During the Thirty Years' War , Galtür was badly damaged. The church and many houses were burned down. The first roads leading through the Paznaun were built in the 19th century. During that period, Galtür consisted of
164-683: A betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included Georg Friedrich of Baden and Christian of Brunswick , while
246-574: A church, an inn, and eight houses, and was considered very poor. After the first hotel was built, the Jamtalhütte was soon constructed. With the advent of tourism, Galtür and the valley became prosperous. On February 23, 1999, an avalanche descended on Galtür. In less than 60 seconds, the 50-metre-high (164 ft) wall of snow traveled at 290 kilometres per hour (180 mph), and overturned cars, destroyed buildings, and buried 57 people—of these, 31 died before rescue teams could reach them. The avalanche
328-575: A forum for discussion, rather than legislation. Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the House of Habsburg since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including Austria , Bohemia and Hungary . The Habsburgs also ruled the Spanish Empire until 1556, when Charles V divided
410-473: A friendly atmosphere. Most offer indoor and outdoor dining areas as well as smoking and non-smoking areas respectively. At the bottom of the Alpkogelbahn Gondola, there are a number of hotels which have ski in ski out facilities. These hotels offer accommodation and facilities for those who would rather not take a ski bus. Thirty Years%27 War The Thirty Years' War , from 1618 to 1648,
492-704: A legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of Lusatia , and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by Count Tilly and Charles of Bucquoy , which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at
574-762: A mercenary army under Ernst von Mansfeld was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs. By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. Gabriel Bethlen , Calvinist Prince of Transylvania , invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although
656-517: A return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution , which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny
738-421: A varied selection of slopes to explore. Galtür is a family-friendly ski area. Most ski slopes range from easy to medium difficulty. In addition, ski pros find challenging runs and many deep snow slopes without any tracks. There are 10 mountain railways and lifts, including the eight-seater Alpkogel gondola. Wednesday evenings, night skiing is possible on a floodlit piste. Galtür's ski resort is called Silvapark and
820-620: Is located 2 kilometres outside the main village in the small village of Wirl. Ski buses run along the main road through Galtür between the ski area and other destinations in the valley, including Ischgl, Kappl, and See. There are stops in Galtür at the Hotel Alpenrose, Dorfplatz, and Alpinarium, as well as one stop next to the Birkhahnbahn chair lift in Wirl. In Wirl, skiers and snowboarders can take either
902-613: The Battle of White Mountain in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country. By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich , Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex
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#1732852295565984-628: The Bohemian Revolt in May 1618. Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the Reformation . Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised
1066-499: The Catholic Church since Passau. These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially Calvinism , which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over
1148-661: The Dutch-Portuguese War , and the Portuguese Restoration War . The war can be seen as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised
1230-562: The Elbe and Weser rivers. Ferdinand had paid Albrecht von Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in
1312-810: The Heilbronn League in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at Oldendorf . Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb. The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern
1394-660: The Low Countries , Northern Italy , and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven prince-electors who voted for the Holy Roman Emperor , down to prince-bishoprics and Imperial cities like Hamburg . Each also belonged to a regional grouping or " Imperial circle ", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the Imperial Diet , which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as
1476-514: The North , South , and along the Pyrenees . Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like Christian IV of Denmark , who joined the war in 1625 as Duke of Holstein-Gottorp . Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War , caused when its ruler converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as
1558-743: The Philippines , and much of the Americas . In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the Ottoman Empire . Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria , as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to
1640-676: The Princes' Revolt ( German : Fürstenaufstand , Fürstenkrieg or Fürstenverschwörung ), was an uprising of German Protestant princes led by elector Maurice of Saxony against the Catholic emperor Charles V that broke out in 1552. Historians disagree whether the war concluded the same year with the Peace of Passau in August, or dragged on until the Peace of Augsburg in September 1555. The Protestant princes were supported by King Henry II of France , who
1722-630: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt in early 1625. As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the Øresund . In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son Frederick became joint-administrator of Lübeck , Bremen , and Verden ; possession ensured Danish control of
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#17328522955651804-817: The Sack of Magdeburg in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000 Reichstaler per year, or one million livres , plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops. Gustavus used this army to win victories at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632, where Tilly
1886-629: The Schmalkaldic War , a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of cuius regio, eius religio . This designated individual states as either Lutheran , then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like Donauwörth , and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from
1968-472: The Upper Palatinate . Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. At
2050-599: The Upper Saxon Circle and Brandenburg the Lower , both kreise had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist George William, Elector of Brandenburg became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored
2132-831: The Valtellina , cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In March 1636 , France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under Johan Banér defeated
2214-591: The "Teutonic Liberty" ( teutsche Libertät ), which meant the freedom of the Imperial Princes. They also planned to liberate Philip of Hesse , who was incarcerated by the emperor in 1547. After laying the first contacts with Henry II, France declared war on the emperor in the autumn of 1551, and invaded Germany up to the Rhine. Furthermore, in the Treaty of Chambord 15 January 1552, France promised financial and military aid to
2296-728: The 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria . In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of
2378-486: The Atlantic that produced large snowfalls totaling around 4 meters in the area. Alternating freezing and thawing created a weak layer on top of an existing snow pack, followed by additional snowfall. High winds created large snow drifts, and eventually caused roughly 170,000 tons of snow to fall on the village. Galtür is a popular tourist destination in winter. There are 40 km (25 mi) of perfectly prepared pistes and
2460-663: The Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality. Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on
2542-476: The Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. On 13 May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Stralsund , the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led Gustavus Adolphus to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by Alexander Leslie who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim
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2624-458: The Birkahahnbahn chair lift or the Alpkogelbahn Gondola up onto the mountain. Silvapark offers 40 km of groomed pistes served by 3 chair lifts, 1 gondola and 5 smaller tow lifts. Many of the runs are marked Blue and Red, making the resort accessible to families and beginners. In addition to these, the resort also offers a number of more difficult Red and Black runs, which means, coupled with
2706-636: The Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included Christian of Anhalt and Maurice of Orange , for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing
2788-591: The Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by Count Thurn met in Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita . In what became known as the Third Defenestration of Prague , both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary Filip Fabricius , although all three survived. Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into Silesia and
2870-673: The Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories. With Saxony dominating
2952-593: The Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including Wimpfen in May 1622 and Höchst in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from Frankenthal , which
3034-450: The Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Another option was Frederick V, Elector Palatine , a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married Elizabeth Stuart , daughter of James I of England . Four of
3116-505: The Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income. Following failed negotiations with
3198-705: The Emperor, Gustavus landed in Pomerania in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the Oder towards Stettin and coerced Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania , into agreeing an alliance which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 Smolensk War . However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By
3280-500: The Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the Republic of Venice to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626, Cardinal Richelieu , main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March Treaty of Monzón , France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road. Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led
3362-421: The German states and Ferdinand agreed to the Peace of Prague ; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. In March 1635, French soldiers entered
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3444-468: The Habsburg heartlands of Lower and Upper Austria , where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for
3526-419: The Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the 1620 Polish war , followed by the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia . On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted
3608-529: The Imperials at Wittstock on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies. Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III , who faced a deteriorating military position. Although Matthias Gallas and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at Rheinfelden . His capture of Breisach in December secured French control of Alsace and severed
3690-528: The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck . Christian retained his German possessions of Schleswig and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state. Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder
3772-413: The Netherlands, while the loss of 's-Hertogenbosch to the Dutch Army under Frederick Henry in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid. From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a war with Poland–Lithuania , ruled by his Catholic cousin Sigismund , who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing
3854-517: The Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate . Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt , Frederick's participation expanded the fighting into the Palatinate , whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears
3936-408: The Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict. The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635 , the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France , chiefly supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III , whose principal ally
4018-613: The Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the Spanish Road , an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to Flanders . This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the Electoral Palatinate . Since Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against
4100-411: The Spanish Road, forcing Madrid to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. However, their attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the Dutch fleet under Maarten Tromp won a significant victory at the Downs in October 1639. Second Schmalkaldic War Protestant victory Supported by: [REDACTED] Holy Roman Empire The Second Schmalkaldic War , also known as
4182-545: The Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although von Hatzfeldt defeated a combined Swedish-German force at Vlotho in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic. In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at Chemnitz , then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted Piccolomini 's army from Thionville , ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut
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#17328522955654264-532: The Swedes and Imperials met at Lützen , where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed. After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna , and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed
4346-424: The city and the emperor's opponents instead. The French king had already occupied the west bank of the Upper Rhine Plain in autumn 1551. The troops of the allied princes quickly conquered the southern German cities that had remained loyal to the emperor, and advanced into Tyrol in March 1552. The Catholic Imperial Estates stressed they were neutral in this conflict, because it was not in their interest to increase
4428-423: The dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives. On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms , but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of
4510-450: The defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor. Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with new subsidies , hired mercenaries led by Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659 Franco-Spanish War . A few days later,
4592-439: The electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about
4674-451: The emperor's power. The emperor barely escaped capture in Innsbruck and fled to Villach to rally new troops. Meanwhile, his brother Ferdinand was negotiating with Maurice and the other Protestant princes. In Passau , both parties signed the a peace agreement in August 1552. The insurgent princes gave up their alliance with France, and the Imperial forces released their prisoners. In the question of religion, they attempted to formulate
4756-429: The empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. In the June 1624 Treaty of Compiègne , France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 Treaty of The Hague , the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in
4838-494: The end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, Christian William whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and Frankfurt an der Oder , while
4920-408: The existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial edict , once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. At
5002-423: The growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine formed the Protestant Union , and Maximilian responded by setting up the Catholic League in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614 War of the Jülich Succession , the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see
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#17328522955655084-414: The lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg , and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for
5166-653: The main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in Magdeburg , supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and Maurice of Hesse-Kassel . The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on Wolfenbüttel , where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of
5248-427: The off piste possibilities, the resort caters for more advanced skiers and snowboarders too. Off piste opportunities through trees and between runs, particularly surrounding the Breitspitzbahn chair lift, are available, even for less experienced skiers. This area is much quieter and has better on-piste conditions. There are several mountain huts and restaurants on the mountain which offer traditional Austrian cuisine and
5330-589: The princes who were forced to reconvert themselves and their population to Catholicism, although winning some concessions. Discontent was growing in the Holy Roman Empire over the decisions made at the 1548 Augsburg Diet , the so-called Geharnischter Reichstag ("armour-clad Diet"). In the north, the Protestant princes secretly formed an alliance by the Treaty of Torgau of 22 May 1551. They included inter alia John Albert of Mecklenburg , Albert of Prussia , William of Hesse-Kassel , and Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg-Kulmbach . They sought to defend Protestantism and
5412-421: The princes, for which they were prepared to relinquish the Three Bishoprics of Metz , Verdun , and Toul , near the border, to the French king. A key role was played by the Saxon elector, Maurice (German: Moritz ). Magdeburg , which had refused to obey the Augsburg Interim , was to be punished. Acting on the emperor's orders, Maurice marched at the head of an army against Magdeburg, but allied himself with
5494-459: The religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Sweden competing with each other and Calvinist Brandenburg over the Baltic trade . Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300 Imperial Estates distributed across Germany,
5576-434: The resources needed to achieve this. Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially France , although the strongly Catholic Louis XIII of France faced his own Protestant rebels at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and Savoy . Funded by Frederick and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy ,
5658-434: The same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their war in the Spanish Netherlands had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the Dutch West India Company captured their treasure fleet at Matanzas in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from
5740-599: The same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by Córdoba occupied the Lower Palatinate in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean , while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in Parliament , who considered his pro-Spanish policy
5822-444: The settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the contest for European dominance between Habsburg -ruled Spain and Austria , and the French House of Bourbon . Its outbreak is generally traced to 1618 , when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by
5904-428: The subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg , Pomerania , and Jutland , and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of
5986-537: The two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while Spain retained Imperial territories such as the Spanish Netherlands , Milan and Franche-Comté . Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to
6068-622: The war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the Dutch Republic the Protestant. External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609 Twelve Years' Truce , which suspended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities, Ambrosio Spinola , commander in
6150-427: Was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony , as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. The 1552 Peace of Passau ended
6232-610: Was a Catholic, but sought to use the opportunity to expand his territory in modern-day Lorraine . The war can be regarded as a continuation of the First Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547), in which Charles V and Maurice of Saxony jointly defeated the Schmalkaldic League of almost the same Protestant German princes. This previous conflict was settled by the Augsburg Interim , which left both camps unsatisfied, especially
6314-513: Was considered the worst in the Alps in 40 years. Due to the continuing danger of avalanches, thousands of tourists were evacuated from the Paznaun valley via air-lift. Military and civil helicopters from Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United States were engaged in one of the biggest rescue operations of Austria's recent history. The avalanche was caused by three major weather systems from
6396-545: Was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at Wolgast . He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the War of the Mantuan Succession , Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in
6478-466: Was held by a small English garrison under Sir Horace Vere . The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in The Hague until his death in November 1632. At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from
6560-553: Was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at Fürth , from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the Battle of the Alte Veste in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign. Two months later,
6642-634: Was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history . Fought primarily in Central Europe , an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War , the War of the Mantuan Succession , the Franco-Spanish War , the Torstenson War ,
6724-681: Was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria , new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at Nördlingen which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to
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