142-503: Fougères ( French pronunciation: [fuʒɛʁ] ; Breton : Felger ; Gallo : Foujerr ) is a commune and a sub-prefecture of the Ille-et-Vilaine department , located in Brittany , northwestern France . As of 2017, Fougères had 20,418 inhabitants. The Fougères area comprises approximately 88,000 inhabitants and is currently growing, unlike the town centre. Fougères
284-575: A historic monument by list of 1862, by order of 4 July 1928 and by order of 26 February 1953. A postage stamp [ fr ] representing the castle was issued on 18 January 1960. This was the first to be built in Brittany , in 1397, and also one of only three belfries in Brittany. The location serves as the centre of the weekend market. It symbolised the dynamism of a small-scale civil society seeking independence. Funded by local merchants, it allowed ordinary people access to timekeeping, previously
426-481: A lockout . Solidarity was very strong in the city ("Communist" soups to feed the strikers without family income) but also beyond: Children were welcomed by Rennes and Parisian families during conflicts. Jean Jaurès came to Fougères to support the movement. Glassware production had also existed in the Fougères area since the arrival of Italian glass masters in the 16th and 17th centuries. The installation of this industry
568-627: A "royal theocracy". At daybreak on Friday, 13 October 1307, hundreds of Templars in France were simultaneously arrested by agents of Philip the Fair, to be later tortured into admitting heresy in the Order. The Templars were supposedly answerable only to the Pope, but Philip used his influence over Clement V , who was largely his pawn, to disband the organization. Pope Clement did attempt to hold proper trials, but Philip used
710-413: A battle with the withdrawing French or angering the young Philip, who had friendly relations with Aragon through his mother. Philip married Queen Joan I of Navarre (1271–1305) on 16 August 1284. The two were affectionate and devoted to each other and Philip refused to remarry after Joan's death in 1305, despite the great political and financial rewards of doing so. The primary administrative benefit of
852-606: A crisis in the shoe industry." Success followed (the Cordier factory, for example) and Fougères saw its population increase by 124% from 9,344 inhabitants in 1856 to 20,952 in 1901, an increase of 11,608 people in less than 50 years (or more than the population of Vitré ). At the beginning of the 20th century, Fougères became the capital of female footwear: "...more than 12,000 workers are distributed in 40 factories. In 1946, they manufacture 10.7% of French production for town and fancy use and 7% of work shoes" (Jérôme Cucarull). The crisis of
994-530: A decisive French victory. Consequently, in 1305, Philip forced the Flemish to accept a harsh peace treaty which exacted heavy reparations and penalties and added to the royal territory the rich cloth cities of Lille , Douai , and Bethune, sites of major cloth fairs. Béthune , first of the Flemish cities to yield, was granted to Mahaut, Countess of Artois , whose two daughters, to secure her fidelity, were married to Philip's two sons. Philip had various contacts with
1136-673: A dispute with the English over King Edward I 's duchy in southwestern France and a war with the County of Flanders , who had rebelled against French royal authority and humiliated Philip at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302. The war with the Flemish resulted in Philip's ultimate victory , after which he received a significant portion of Flemish cities, which were added to the crown lands along with
1278-455: A dramatic disappearance of silver in France. Currency depreciation provided the crown with 1.419 million LP from November 1296 to Christmas 1299, more than enough to cover war costs of 1.066 million LP in the same period. The resulting inflation damaged the real incomes of the creditors such as the aristocracy and the Church, who received a weaker currency in return for the loans they had issued in
1420-536: A fairly large body of literature for a minority language. In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion . Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to
1562-518: A hearing; the facts were notorious and no formal judgment by the papal commission need be waited for. That same day, by sunset, a stake was erected on a small island in the Seine , the Ile des Juifs , near the palace garden. There de Molay and de Charney were slowly burned to death, refusing all offers of pardon for retraction, and bearing their torment with a composure which won for them the reputation of martyrs among
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#17328588039461704-410: A horse; she was pregnant with her fifth child at the time and had not yet been crowned queen beside her husband. A few months later, one of Philip's younger brothers, Robert, also died. Philip's father was finally crowned king at Rheims on 15 August 1271. Six days later, he married again; Philip's stepmother was Marie, daughter of the duke of Brabant. In May 1276, Philip's elder brother Louis died, and
1846-494: A limited tradition of Breton literature . Some philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are: Old Breton – c. 800 to c. 1100 , Middle Breton – c. 1100 to c. 1650 , Modern Breton – c. 1650 to present. The French monarchy was not concerned with the minority languages of France , spoken by
1988-547: A man named François de Surienne , an Aragonese mercenary at the service of the English , captured and sacked the town in an attempt to force Brittany to ally with England . There were many massacres, which caused a reaction from Francis I, Duke of Brittany , determined to get rid of the English. The Duke of Brittany allied with Charles VII of France and attacked the south of Normandy , laying siege to Fougères. Surienne and his men were, however, able to resist and surrendered on
2130-520: A monument to commemorate the death of soldiers from Fougères that fought for France during World War I . Fougères also welcomed many war wounded soldiers in its hospital and the monument mention 148 additional names of soldiers that died in Fougères but were not originating from the city. On 11 July 2013, Fougères hosted the Tour de France as a departure town. When the Tour de France returned on 10 July 2015, Fougères
2272-591: A population of 26,610 in 1975 to 19,820 in 2008, a 26% decline in population in 34 years, although suburbanisation offset this decline. Today the shoe sector has a few hundred jobs in the town: For example, the JB Martin company remains in Fougères, even though it has completely relocated its production to Asia. The town is growing in relation to Rennes since the inauguration of the Autoroute des Estuaires in 2000, which provides access to Rennes in 30 minutes, and has achieved
2414-506: A retribution for his destruction of the Templars, and Clement was described as shedding tears of remorse on his deathbed for three great crimes, namely the poisoning of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor , and the ruin of the Templars and Beguines . Within fourteen years the throne passed rapidly through Philip's sons, who died relatively young, and without producing male heirs. By 1328, his male line
2556-404: A satisfactory development based on the growth of more diversified economic activities. More than 30 hectares (74 acres) of business parks, between the motorway and the city centre, give an economic attractiveness to the area. The urban area of Fougères [ fr ] has 20 communes gathering 42,818 inhabitants (2009) including 46% of this population which is in the town centre. This makes
2698-497: A scaffold in front of Notre Dame, Jacques de Molay, Templar Grand Master, Geoffroi de Charney, Master of Normandy, Hugues de Peraud , Visitor of France, and Godefroi de Gonneville , Master of Aquitaine, were brought forth from the jail in which for nearly seven years they had lain, to receive the sentence agreed upon by the cardinals, in conjunction with the Archbishop of Sens and some other prelates whom they had called in. Considering
2840-471: A schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects. All vowels can also be nasalized , which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for a and o due to the Portuguese letters ), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an ⟨ñ⟩ letter after
2982-410: A sign of submission in his capacity as the duke of Aquitaine. In return, Philip would forgive Edward and restore Gascony after a grace period. In the matter of the marriage, Philip drove a hard bargain based partially on the difference in age between Edward and Margaret; it was agreed that the province of Gascony would be retained by Philip in return for agreeing to the marriage. The date of the wedding
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#17328588039463124-545: A special situation, such as war, justified it. Furthermore, the issue of coins with a lower content of silver was needed to maintain circulation, in a context where the inflation of silver produced a severe scarcity of currency due to the ongoing commercial revolution. After bringing the Flemish War to a victorious conclusion in 1305, Philip on 8 June 1306 ordered the silver content of new coinage to be raised back to its 1285 level of 3.96 grams of silver per livre . To harmonize
3266-594: A strict charter. When Philip levied taxes on the French clergy of one half their annual income, he caused an uproar within the Catholic Church and the papacy, prompting Pope Boniface VIII to issue the bull Clericis Laicos (1296), forbidding the transference of any church property to the French Crown. Philip retaliated by forbidding the removal of bullion from France. By 1297, Boniface agreed to Philip's taxation of
3408-399: A stronger currency. The indebted lower classes did not benefit from the devaluation, as the high inflation ate into the purchasing power of their money. The result was social unrest. By 22 August 1303 this practice led to a two-thirds loss in the value of the livres, sous and deniers in circulation. The defeat at the battle of Golden Spurs in 1302 was a crushing blow to French finance:
3550-555: A toehold in Galicia (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century. It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie , adopted French . The written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin , switching to French in the 15th century. There exists
3692-458: A tripartite with Vitré . The castle is one of the most impressive French castles, occupying an area of 2 hectares (4.9 acres), or even for some "the largest medieval fortress of Europe." It consists of three enclosures whose walls have been preserved. Although the seigniorial is ruined, the thirteen towers still rise with majesty. Some of these towers can be visited (the Hallay Tower and Tower of
3834-635: A vast sum of money. Domestically, his reign was marked by struggles with the Jews and the Knights Templar . In heavy debt to both groups, Philip saw them as a " state within the state " and a recurring threat to royal power. In 1306 Philip expelled the Jews from France, followed by the total destruction of the Knights Templar in 1307. To further strengthen the monarchy, Philip tried to tax and impose state control over
3976-505: A weakened Papacy, and finally, the substitution of royal officials for officers of the Temple in the financial management of French government. Recent studies emphasize the political and religious motivations of Philip the Fair and his ministers (especially Guillaume de Nogaret ). It seems that, with the "discovery" and repression of the "Templars' heresy", the Capetian monarchy claimed for itself
4118-412: Is -où , with its variant -ioù ; most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well. Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in -ed . However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word Saoz ("Englishman", plural Saozon ) take
4260-477: Is a town on the edge of Brittany, Maine and Normandy and is named after a fern (see also fougère ), or from fous which means fossé ("gap"). The town of Fougères is mentioned in the chorus of the song La Blanche Hermine by Gilles Servat . The author uses it as a symbol of the Breton resistance where it is adjacent to the town of Clisson in the Loire-Atlantique . Fougères is historically, since
4402-402: Is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for eur "hour", noz "night" and sizhun "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine. However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects. Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural. However, the system
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4544-471: Is classified as a town of art and history since 1985. It houses 24 historical monuments and 87 buildings surveyed. Fougères has the label tourisme et handicap , since July 2011. Fougères' most visited attraction is the Château de Fougères , a medieval stronghold built atop a granite ledge, which was part of the Duchy of Brittany 's ultimately unsuccessful defence against French aggression, and part of
4686-406: Is explained by the presence of a sandy soil (since sand is the main component of glass), a forest (since sand needs to be melted) and ferns (soda-rich plants). A glass factory existed on the outskirts of the town (Laignelet), which flourished in the 19th century. However, following social demands in 1921, religious unionism was mobilized and a new Fougères glass factory: La Cristallerie Fougeraise ,
4828-406: Is full of complexities in how this distinction is realized. Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in daou , di or div ) that is etymologically derived from
4970-438: Is left. The Notre-Dame Gate [ fr ] was listed a historical monument by Decree of 9 December 1946, with the south and west of the city walls. The Church of Saint-Sulpice [ fr ] dates in part from the 15th century. It was classified as a historical monument by Decree of 26 September 1910. There are two remarkable medieval altarpieces of monumental granite with carved decoration: The altarpiece of
5112-422: Is not used, while keleier has become the regular plural, 'different news items'. Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – bugel "child" is pluralized once into bugale "children" and then pluralized a second time to make bugaleoù "groups of children". The diminutive suffix -ig also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of
5254-589: Is pluralized to pesked , singulativized to peskedenn , referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make peskedennoù "fishes". On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of park : parkoù "parks" and parkeier "various different parks". Ball reports that
5396-595: Is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of the insular branch instead of the continental grouping. Breton was brought from Great Britain to Armorica (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the Brittany peninsula) by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages , making it an Insular Celtic language . Breton is most closely related to Cornish , another Southwestern Brittonic language. Welsh and
5538-540: Is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language. The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon , was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary, Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here
5680-405: Is used to form singulars out of collective nouns , for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective logod "mice" is logod enn "mouse". However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- pesk "fish" (singular)
5822-442: The Ya d'ar brezhoneg campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton. In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called Diwan ) into the state education system. This action
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5964-543: The patois " to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton". Since the 19th century, under the Third , Fourth and now Fifth Republics , the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until
6106-480: The Cadomian chain . The oldest buildings use readily available stone: la cornéenne . A metamorphic rock , difficult to cut and of very different appearance, it is very solid. Later came the use of Louvigné granite , which is more homogeneous. Most of the buildings of the town are built with these local materials. It took the arrival of the railway to import other stones (late 19th century). In military strategy, note that
6248-635: The Catholic Church in France , leading to a violent dispute with Pope Boniface VIII . The ensuing conflict saw the pope's residence at Anagni attacked in September 1303 by French forces with the support of the Colonna family . Pope Boniface was captured and held hostage for several days. This eventually led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309 to 1376. His final year saw a scandal amongst the royal family, known as
6390-609: The Chamber of commerce and industry of Saint-Malo-Fougères [ fr ] after the merger of these. Breton language Breton ( / ˈ b r ɛ t ə n / , BRET -ən , French: [bʁətɔ̃] ; endonym : brezhoneg [bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk] or [bɾəhɔ̃ˈnek] in Morbihan ) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language group spoken in Brittany , part of modern-day France. It
6532-640: The Forest of Fougères [ fr ] , suggests that the area was already inhabited in the Neolithic era (5000 to 2000 years BC). The creation of Fougères dates back to the Middle Ages . The Château de Fougères was first mentioned around the end of the 10th century. At the time, it was a simple wooden fortification located on a rocky ridge, whose position favourably dominated the Nançon [ fr ] Valley and
6674-704: The Huguenots . Until 1775, Fougères was barely mentioned. The Marquis de La Rouërie , a young man of high standing, then moved to the United States to fight with American insurgents. Back in France, after having been imprisoned for a month for leading the Breton conspiracy [ fr ] , he was greeted as a hero in his homeland. During the French Revolution , the province of Brittany disappeared along with its privileges. The first changes were originally welcomed by
6816-771: The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). A member of the House of Capet , Philip was born in 1268 in the medieval fortress of Fontainebleau ( Seine-et-Marne ) to the future Philip III, the Bold , and his first wife, Isabella of Aragon . His father was the heir apparent of France, being the eldest son of King Louis IX . In August 1270, when Philip was two years old, his grandfather died while on Crusade, his father became king, and his elder brother Louis became heir apparent. Only five months later, in January 1271, Philip's mother died after falling from
6958-908: The Mongol power in the Middle East, including reception at the embassy of the Uyghur monk Rabban Bar Sauma , originally from the Yuan dynasty of China . Bar Sauma presented an offer of a Franco-Mongol alliance with Arghun of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Baghdad. Arghun was seeking to join forces between the Mongols and the Europeans, against their common enemy the Muslim Mamluks . In return, Arghun offered to return Jerusalem to
7100-595: The Parlement and the Court of Auditors , a move, under a certain historical reading, towards modernity. As the Duke of Aquitaine , English King Edward I was a vassal to Philip and had to pay him homage . Following the Fall of Acre in 1291, however, the former allies started to show dissent. In 1293, following feuding between English and French sailors that led to several seized ships and
7242-460: The Pyrenees was poor but had a degree of strategic importance. When in 1328 the Capetian line went extinct, the new Valois king, Philip VI, attempted to permanently annex the lands to France, compensating the lawful claimant, Joan II of Navarre , senior heir of Philip IV, with lands elsewhere in France. However, pressure from Joan II's family led to Phillip VI surrendering the land to Joan in 1329, and
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#17328588039467384-410: The Tour de Nesle affair , in which King Philip's three daughters-in-law were accused of adultery . His three sons were successively kings of France : Louis X , Philip V , and Charles IV . Their rapid successive deaths without surviving sons of their own would compromise the future of the French royal house, which had until then seemed secure, precipitating a succession crisis that eventually led to
7526-577: The Trente Glorieuses boosted Fougères and the town increased its population until the 1975 census, arriving at almost 27,000 inhabitants. By 1975, the town had suffered deeply from the oil crisis of 1973 and had been hit. The town was devastated by successive closures of factories from a crisis in the shoe sector, and refused the implantation of the Citroën company on its territory. The city struggled to recover and saw its population fall. The town went from
7668-431: The county of Léon ), tregerieg ( trégorrois , of Trégor ), kerneveg ( cornouaillais , of Cornouaille ), and gwenedeg ( vannetais , of Vannes ). Guérandais was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and Batz-sur-Mer . There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a dialect continuum , varying only slightly from one village to
7810-801: The "515". These representations are centered around Capaneo, referring to the myth of the Seven against Thebes , and are related to the Beast from the Sea in the Revelation of St. John , whose seventh head, like the Giant, is also killed. Such a scheme is related to the transposition of the Revelation in the history, according to the ideas of Joachim of Fiore . Philip is the title character in Le Roi de fer (1955), translated as The Iron King ,
7952-401: The 15 months which followed this battle saw a depreciation of the currency by 37%, and new decrees were issued forbidding the export of gold and silver abroad. The royal government had to order officials and subjects to provide all or half, respectively, of their silver vessels for minting into coins. New taxes were levied to pay for the deficit. As people attempted to move their wealth out of
8094-405: The 1930s put what must be called an industrial district into difficulty, (Florent Le Bot). The mass-closure of SMEs and the concentration of employment into fewer companies (mainly Réhault, JB Martin and Morel et Gâté) provided a second wind to the Fougères industry (4,500 employees in 1966). The slowdown in growth during the second half of the 1960s, then the oil shock in 1973, caused a massacre in
8236-539: The 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton. In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names. In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded
8378-500: The Aragonese War were still being paid back in 1306. To cover the deficit, Pope Nicholas IV in 1289 granted Philip permission to collect a tithe of 152,000 LP ( livres parisis ) from the Church lands in France. With revenues of 1.52 million LP, the church in France had greater fiscal resources than the royal government, whose ordinary revenues in 1289 amounted to 595,318 LP and overall revenues to 1.2 million LP. By November 1290,
8520-491: The Breton-language review Gwalarn . During its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn . Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established
8662-548: The Chouans of the Fougères area was the young general Aimé du Boisguy . The Organization of the Revolutionary Celebrations [ fr ] reflected a favourable feeling from the population to the new regime: Little by little, industry replaced crafts and Fougères saw the establishment of shoe manufacturers. In the winter of 1906–07, workers went on strike in the shoe factories and in response, managers organised
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#17328588039468804-527: The Christians, once it was re-captured from the Muslims. Philip seemingly responded positively to the request of the embassy by sending one of his noblemen, Gobert de Helleville , to accompany Bar Sauma back to Mongol lands. There was further correspondence between Arghun and Philip in 1288 and 1289, outlining potential military cooperation. However, Philip never actually pursued such military plans. In April 1305,
8946-433: The Fair ( French : Philippe le Bel ), was King of France from 1285 to 1314. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre , he was also King of Navarre as Philip I from 1284 to 1305, as well as Count of Champagne . Although Philip was known to be handsome, hence the epithet le Bel , his rigid, autocratic, imposing, and inflexible personality gained him (from friend and foe alike) other nicknames, such as
9088-420: The Fougères urban area the 164th of 241 large urban areas of France. Inhabitants of Fougères are called Fougerais (male) and Fougeraise (female) in French. There used to be an important shoemaking industry which is now almost extinct. There was also an important glass making industry. During the Middle Ages , salt was heavily taxed and was imported from the Breton regions to the rest of France. Fougères
9230-412: The French law known as Toubon , it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French only. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French. Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg , the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton. It helped to create
9372-399: The French throne itself, leading to the Hundred Years' War . Philip suffered a major setback when an army of 2,500 noble men-at-arms (knights and squires) and 4,000 infantry he sent to suppress an uprising in Flanders was defeated in the Battle of the Golden Spurs near Kortrijk on 11 July 1302. Philip reacted with energy two years later at the Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle , which ended in
9514-400: The Hague (12th century), Raoul Tower (15th century) and the Mélusine Tower, erected in 1242 by Hugues of Lusignan). At the entrance, is a triple watermill . Access to the west curtain wall allows observation of the upper town ( 48°21′13″N 1°12′34″W / 48.35361°N 1.20944°W / 48.35361; -1.20944 ). The castle and its surroundings has been classified as
9656-499: The Iron King (French: le Roi de fer ). His fierce opponent Bernard Saisset , bishop of Pamiers , said of him: "He is neither man nor beast. He is a statue." Philip, seeking to reduce the wealth and power of the nobility and clergy , relied instead on skilful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret and Enguerrand de Marigny , to govern the kingdom . The king, who sought an uncontested monarchy, compelled his vassals by wars and restricted their feudal privileges, paving
9798-438: The Jewish mints to put the revaluation to effect, Philip ordered the expulsion of the Jews on 22 July 1306 and confiscated their property on 23 August, collecting at least 140,000 LP with this measure. With the Jews gone, Philip appointed royal guardians to collect the loans made by the Jews, and the money was passed to the Crown. After Philip, his son Louis X of France , in 1315, invited Jews back with an offer of 12 years under
9940-443: The Kingdom of France. When Raoul III offered its possession to Louis IX of France , the Breton prince Pierre Mauclerc captured the city in 1231, which was re-captured by the king. The daughter of Raoul III, Jeanne de Fougères, who married Hugh XII of Lusignan , undertook new fortification work and beautified the city. The end of the 13th century was a period of peace and prosperity for Fougères. In 1307, Philip IV of France bought
10082-412: The Tanners and the altarpiece of Notre-Dame-des-Marais. The Church of Saint-Léonard also dates from the 15th century. It was listed a historical monument by Decree of 15 March 1949. Located at the top of the upper town, it offers a panoramic view of the city. The Tower of Papegaud [ fr ] , place where the plot of the novel Les Chouans by de Balzac unravels. Fougères is situated in
10224-699: The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709. Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany ( Breton : Breizh-Izel ), roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha (west of Saint-Brieuc ) and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes ). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to Armorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established
10366-504: The University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies. Vowels in Breton may be short or long . All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of
10508-562: The arrival of Latin in Armorica , a region where Gallo is spoken. In Gallo, Fougères translates to Foujerr while its Breton name is Felger . Entry signs to the agglomeration have carried the Breton name for several years. One of the two bagad of the city takes this name: Bagad Bro Felger [ fr ] and the Diwan school, opened in 2013, is also called Skol Diwan bro Felger . The presence of many megalithic monuments, particularly in
10650-479: The base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant). Diphthongs are /ai, ei, ou/ . Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors. Breton has two genders: masculine ( gourel ) and feminine ( gwregel ), having largely lost its historic neuter ( nepreizh ) as has also occurred in
10792-417: The castle is not on high, but on a deposit of la cornéenne , which prevents the risk of attacks by mining and from underground. Fougères is situated: Fougères is twinned with: These two towns have also been paired together since 1964. Fougères is an industrial town and its typical demographic trends show very well. In the 1850s, the Brittany town was "moving in the manufacture of leather shoes to solve
10934-409: The changes associated with -er / -ier are less predictable. Various nouns instead form their plural merely with ablaut : a or o in the stem being changed to e : askell "wing" → eskell "wings"; dant "tooth" → dent "teeth"; kordenn "rope" → kerdenn "ropes". Philip IV of France Philip IV (April–June 1268 – 29 November 1314), called Philip
11076-410: The château in the lower town, up the hill to surround the upper town. Medieval citizens in the lower town were outside the fortifications and had to retreat into the fortress in times of trouble. The gate of the 15th century with a double drawbridge presents many defenses including moats, embrasures , machicolations , etc., and a protective Virgin turned outwards. It is the only fortified town gate which
11218-542: The clergy in emergencies. In 1301, Philip had the bishop of Pamier arrested for treason. Boniface called French bishops to Rome to discuss Philip's actions. In response, Philip convoked an assembly of bishops, nobles and grand bourgeois of Paris in order to condemn the Pope. This precursor to the Estates General appeared for the first time during his reign, a measure of the professionalism and order that his ministers were introducing into government. This assembly, which
11360-1087: The comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula , which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including The Adventures of Tintin , Spirou , Titeuf , Hägar the Horrible , Peanuts and Yakari . Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, Ken Tuch , is in Breton. Radio Kerne , broadcasting from Finistère , has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies ( Lancelot du Lac , Shakespeare in Love , Marion du Faouet , Sezneg ) and TV series ( Columbo , Perry Mason ) have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kallocʼh , Roparz Hemon , Añjela Duval , Xavier de Langlais , Pêr-Jakez Helias , Youenn Gwernig , Glenmor , Vefa de Saint-Pierre and Alan Stivell are now known internationally. Today, Breton
11502-562: The condition of being able to walk free. This episode announced the Battle of Formigny . Finally, the French general La Trémoille seized Fougères in 1488, during the Mad War . In the 16th century, the town lost its defensive role. Crafts continued to develop, including the craft of tin ( in Rue de la Pinterie ). During the Wars of Religion , the town remained Catholic while Vitré was affected by clashes with
11644-853: The consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages after three years of talks between the Ofis and Facebook. France has twice chosen to enter the Eurovision Song Contest with songs in Breton; once in 1996 in Oslo with " Diwanit bugale " by Dan Ar Braz and the fifty piece band Héritage des Celtes , and most recently in 2022 in Turin with " Fulenn " by Alvan Morvan Rosius and vocal trio Ahez . These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its minority languages for
11786-561: The contest, the others being in 1992 (bilingual French and Antillean Creole ), 1993 (bilingual French and Corsican ), and 2011 (Corsican). Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside Gallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants. The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They are leoneg ( léonard , of
11928-404: The country in non-monetary form, Philip banned merchandise exports without royal approval. The king obtained another crusade tithe from the pope and returned the royal treasure to the Temple to gain the Templars as his creditors again. Despite their consequences these decisions were not considered immoral at that time, as they were the prince's accepted right, and this right could be taken far if
12070-476: The county of Flanders declared its independence from France. This conflict accelerated the financial problems incurred by the french monarch. As warfare continued and fiscal deficits persisted, Philip had no remedy but to use debasement of coinage as an alternative tool to meet his military expenditures. This measure made people wary of taking their coins to royal mints, preferring to take their silver abroad to exchange it for strong currencies, which by 1301 led to
12212-427: The decimation of a generation of French nobility at the Battle of the Golden Spurs forced Philip to abandon his occupation of Aquitaine. Pursuant to the terms of the interim 1299 Treaty of Montreuil , the marriage of Philip's young daughter Isabella to Edward's son Edward II was celebrated at Boulogne on 25 January 1308. Meant to further seal a lasting peace, it eventually produced an English claimant to
12354-574: The deficit stood at 6% of revenues. In 1291 the budget swung back into surplus only to fall into deficit again in 1292. The constant deficits led Philip to order the arrest of the Lombard merchants, who had earlier made him extensive loans on the pledge of repayment from future taxation. The Lombards' assets were seized by government agents and the crown extracted 250,000 LT by forcing the Lombards to purchase French nationality. Despite this draconian measure,
12496-595: The deficits continued to stack up in 1293. By 1295, Philip had replaced the Templars with the Florentine Franzesi bankers as his main source of finance. The Italians could raise huge loans far beyond the capacities of the Templars, and Philip came to rely on them more and more. The royal treasure was transferred from the Paris Temple to the Louvre around this time. In 1294, France and England went to war and in 1297,
12638-454: The domain but the Kingdom of France was not interested and did not maintain it. After various fights and reversals of alliances, Bertrand du Guesclin entered in 1373, but the situation did not improve. Abandoned and ravaged by pillaging, the population of Fougères requested assistance from the Duchy of Brittany and the town joined the duchy in 1428, sold by John II of Alençon . However, in 1449,
12780-455: The eight-year-old Philip became heir apparent. It was suspected that Louis had been poisoned, and that his stepmother, Marie of Brabant , had instigated the murder. One reason for these rumours was the fact that the queen had given birth to her own first son the month Louis died. However, both Philip and his surviving full brother Charles lived well into adulthood and raised large families of their own. The scholastic part of Philip's education
12922-461: The end of the 13th century. As the popularity of the Crusades had decreased, support for the military orders had waned, and Philip used a disgruntled complaint against the Knights Templar as an excuse to move against the entire organization as it existed in France, in part to free himself from his debts. Other motives appear to have included concern over perceived heresy, assertion of French control over
13064-458: The extinct Cumbric , both Western Brittonic languages , are more distantly related, and the Goidelic languages ( Irish , Manx , Scottish Gaelic ) have a slight connection due to both of their origins being from Insular Celtic. Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by
13206-449: The first novel in Les Rois maudits ( The Accursed Kings ), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon . The next six entries in the series follow the descendants of Philip, including both his sons Louis X and Philip V and his daughter Isabella of France . He was portrayed by Georges Marchal in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Tchéky Karyo in
13348-457: The footwear sector, particularly in February–March 1976, with the closure of three companies (Réhault, Morel et Gâté and Maunoir) and the dismissal of 1,140 employees. Since 2008 and the closure of Hasley, only the JB Martin company maintains the tradition of footwear production in Fougères (F. Le Bot, Laurence Héry). In 2017, the commune had 20,418 inhabitants. Since the end of World War II,
13490-566: The growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature. Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them. Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by Div Yezh ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. Dihun ("Awakening")
13632-681: The growth of the movement. In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed an evening or correspondence one Breton-language course. The transmission of Breton in 1999 was estimated to be 3 percent. In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. These "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games. Schools in secondary education ( collèges and lycées ) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option. Additionally,
13774-537: The heritage of France ). The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified. On 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter. Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns. Under
13916-411: The late 1960s. In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language . At the beginning of
14058-450: The latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns. Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: dour "water" pluralized forms dourioù which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while doureier now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: keloù means "news" and * kel
14200-483: The lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the French Revolution , the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as patois . The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses under-informed. In 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his "report on
14342-443: The lower town. Built in the 11th century by the lords of Fougères, the first fortification, defended by Raoul II (1130–1194), was taken by Henry II of England in 1166 and destroyed. Raoul II stubbornly rebuilt a more imposing structure and it became a stronghold defending the borders of Brittany from Mont Saint-Michel to Nantes. However, the geographical position and the interests of the lords of Fougères often tipped in favour of
14484-614: The marriage was Joan's inheritance of Champagne and Brie , which were adjacent to the royal demesne in Ile-de-France, and thus effectively were united to the king's own lands, expanding his realm. The annexation of wealthy Champagne increased the royal revenues considerably, removed the autonomy of a large semi-independent fief and expanded royal territory eastward. Philip also gained Lyon for France in 1312. Navarre remained in personal union with France, beginning in 1284 under Philip and Joan, for 44 years. The Kingdom of Navarre in
14626-520: The mystic foundations of the papal theocracy. The Temple case was the last step of a process of appropriating these foundations, which had begun with the Franco-papal rift at the time of Boniface VIII. Being the ultimate defender of the Catholic faith, the Capetian king was invested with a Christ-like function that put him above the pope. What was at stake in the Templars' trial, then, was the establishment of
14768-566: The new Mongol ruler Öljaitü sent letters to Philip, the Pope, and Edward I of England . He again offered a military collaboration between the Christian nations of Europe and the Mongols against the Mamluks. European nations attempted another Crusade but were delayed, and it never took place. On 4 April 1312, another Crusade was promulgated at the Council of Vienne . In 1313, Philip "took the cross", making
14910-580: The next. Gwenedeg , however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects. French is the sole official language of France . Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life. In July 2008, the legislature amended the French Constitution , adding article 75-1: les langues régionales appartiennent au patrimoine de la France (the regional languages belong to
15052-430: The offences, which the culprits had confessed and confirmed, the penance imposed was in accordance with rule – that of perpetual imprisonment. The affair was supposed to be concluded when, to the dismay of the prelates and wonderment of the assembled crowd, de Molay and Geoffroi de Charney arose. They had been guilty, they said, not of the crimes imputed to them, but of basely betraying their Order to save their own lives. It
15194-450: The ordinary revenues. Some 30% of the revenues were collected from the royal demesne. The royal financial administration employed perhaps 3,000 people, of which about 1,000 were officials in the proper sense. After assuming the throne, Philip inherited a sizable debt from his father's war against Aragon. By November 1286 it reached 8 tonnes of silver to his primary financiers, the Templars, equivalent to 17% of government revenue. This debt
15336-452: The other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes ( -ach/-aj, -(a)dur, -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va ) are masculine, while others ( -enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i , -eg , -ell , and the singulative -enn ) are feminine. The suffix -eg can be masculine or feminine. There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex
15478-464: The people, who reverently collected their ashes as relics. After a little over a month, Pope Clement V died of disease thought to be lupus , and in eight months Philip IV, at the age of forty-six, died in a hunting accident. This gave rise to the legend that de Molay had cited them before the tribunal of God, which became popular among the French population. Even in Germany, Philip's death was spoken of as
15620-478: The plural: bugelig means "little child", but the doubly pluralized bug ale ig où means "little children"; bag boat has a singular diminutive bagig and a simple plural bagoù , thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized bag où ig où . As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors. The most common plural marker
15762-778: The population. However, over time the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of the priests and the Levée en masse triggered a rebellion, the Chouannerie . In 1793, during the Virée de Galerne , the Vendéens and Chouans seized the town which was taken a few weeks later by the Republicans. For eight years, the town and its region passed from hand to hand, with many massacres and looting occurring. The leader of
15904-410: The prefixation of the number two. The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes ( daoulagad ) and ears ( divskouarn ) can be pluralized "again" to form daoulagad où and diskouarn où . Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a singulative suffix that
16046-533: The preserve of the church and nobility. Its architecture was inspired by the Flemish models which the drapers of Fougères discovered during their travels in Flanders. Engraved on the Bell is the inscription: In 1397 the market town of Fougères made me and my name is Roland Chapelle . The belfry was classified as a historical monument by Decree of 1 September 1922. A sizable section of the town wall survives, stretching from
16188-419: The previously forced confessions to have many Templars burned at the stake before they could mount a proper defence. In March 1314, Philip had Jacques de Molay , the last Grand Master of the Temple, and Geoffroi de Charney , Preceptor of Normandy, burned at the stake. An account of the event goes as follows: The cardinals dallied with their duty until March 1314, ( exact day is disputed by scholars ) when, on
16330-449: The public he kept aloof, and left specific policies, especially unpopular ones, to his ministers; as such he was compared to a "useless owl" by Bishop Saisset. Others like William of Nogaret idealized him, praising him for his piety and support of the Church. His reign marks the transition to a more centralized administration, characterized by the emergence or consolidation of the King's Council ,
16472-449: The rulers of Navarre and France were again different individuals. After marrying Joan I of Navarre, becoming Philip I of Navarre, Philip ascended the French throne at the age of 17. He was crowned as King on 6 January 1286 in Reims. As king, Philip was determined to strengthen the monarchy at any cost. He relied, more than any of his predecessors, on a professional bureaucracy of legalists. To
16614-485: The sacking of La Rochelle , Philip summoned Edward to the French court. The English king sought to negotiate the matter via ambassadors sent to Paris, but they were turned away with a blunt refusal. Philip addressed Edward as a duke, a vassal, and nothing more, despite the international implications of the relationship between England and France. Edward next attempted to use family connections to achieve what open politics had not. He sent his brother Edmund Crouchback , who
16756-497: The so-called Babylonian Captivity of the papacy (1309–76), during which the official seat of the papacy moved to Avignon , an enclave surrounded by French territories, and was subjected to French control. Philip was substantially in debt to the Knights Templar , a monastic military order whose original role as protectors of Christian pilgrims in the Latin East had been largely replaced by banking and other commercial activities by
16898-506: The strength of the old and new currencies, the debased coinage of 1303 was devalued accordingly by two-thirds. The debtors were driven to penury by the need to repay their loans in the new, strong currency. This led to rioting in Paris on 30 December 1306, forcing Philip to briefly seek refuge in the Paris Temple, the headquarters of the Knights Templar. Perhaps seeking to control the silver of
17040-512: The suffix -ien , with a range of variants including -on , -ion , -an and -ian . The rare pluralizing suffixes -er / -ier and -i are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: -i triggers a vowel harmony effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to i ( kenderv "cousin" → kindirvi "cousins"; bran "crow" → brini "crows"; klujur "partridge" → klujiri "partridges");
17182-541: The surrounding marshes. Fougères was at the crossing of two Roman roads, one from Chartres to Carhaix and the other from Avranches to Nantes . From the 12th century, the population moved away from the shore of the Nançon and the city grew in size, divided into two parishes: Saint-Sulpice for the lower town and Saint-Léonard for the upper town. Since the Middle Ages, crafts developed around tannery , weavers and drapers in
17324-556: The use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google , Firefox and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Misplaced Pages started, which counts more than 85,000 articles as of August 2024. In March 2007, the Ofis ar Brezhoneg signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft for
17466-450: The vow to go on a Crusade in the Levant , thus responding to Pope Clement V 's call. He was, however, warned against leaving by Enguerrand de Marigny and died soon after in a hunting accident. Under Philip IV, the annual ordinary revenues of the French royal government totaled approximately 860,000 livres tournois , equivalent to 46 tonnes of silver . Overall revenues were about twice
17608-552: The way for the transformation of France from a feudal country to a centralised early modern state. Internationally, Philip's ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs, and for much of his reign he sought to place his relatives on foreign thrones. Princes from his house ruled in Hungary , and he tried and failed to make another relative the Holy Roman Emperor . The most notable conflicts of Philip's reign include
17750-557: The year before a Summer Olympic year. Fougères is a control point both out bound to Brest as well as back to Paris. Located northeast of Ille-et-Vilaine , the Pays de Fougères [ fr ] has 83,000 inhabitants. This population continues to grow and represents 11.77% of the population of the Department covering 977,449 inhabitants and seven Pays. The Pays is composed of 58 communes, divided into five communities: Fougères
17892-454: Was Philip's cousin as well as his step-father-in-law, in attempts to negotiate with the French royal family and avert war. Additionally, Edward had by that time become betrothed by proxy to Philip's sister Margaret , and, in the event of the negotiations being successful, Edmund was to escort Margaret back to England for her wedding to Edward. An agreement was indeed reached; it stated that Edward would temporarily relinquish Gascony to Philip as
18034-547: Was accused of knowledge of the affairs. Philip had a cerebral stroke during a hunt at Pont-Sainte-Maxence ( Forest of Halatte ), and died a few weeks later, on 29 November 1314, at Fontainebleau . He is buried in the Basilica of Saint-Denis . Philip was succeeded by his son Louis X . The children of Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre were: All three of Philip's sons who reached adulthood became kings of France and Navarre, and Isabella, his only surviving daughter,
18176-535: Was also put off until the formality of sequestering and regranting the French lands back to Edward was completed. But Edward, Edmund, and the English had been deceived. The French had no intention of returning the land to the English monarch. Edward kept up his part of the deal and turned over his continental estates to the French. However, Philip used the pretext that the English king had refused his summons in order to declare Edward's fiefs entirely forfeit, initiating hostilities with England. The 1294–1303 Gascon War
18318-786: Was blocked by the French Constitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The Toubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education. The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion . Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to
18460-409: Was composed of clergy, nobles, and burghers, gave support to Philip. Boniface retaliated with the famous bull Unam Sanctam (1302), a declaration of papal supremacy. Philip gained victory, after having sent his agent Guillaume de Nogaret to arrest Boniface at Anagni . The pope escaped but died soon afterward. The French archbishop Bertrand de Goth was elected pope as Clement V and thus began
18602-632: Was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools. In 2018, 18,337 pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended Diwan , Div Yezh and Dihun schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of Jean-Yves Le Drian (president of the Regional Council ), who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010, and of "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless he describes being encouraged by
18744-533: Was entrusted to Guillaume d'Ercuis , his father's almoner . After the unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade against Peter III of Aragon , which ended in October 1285, Philip may have negotiated an agreement with Peter for the safe withdrawal of the Crusader army. This pact is attested to by Catalan chroniclers. Joseph Strayer points out that such a deal was probably unnecessary, as Peter had little to gain from provoking
18886-532: Was extinguished, and the throne had passed to the line of his brother, the House of Valois . In 1314, the daughters-in-law of Philip IV, Margaret of Burgundy (wife of Louis X) and Blanche of Burgundy (wife of Charles IV) were accused of adultery and their alleged lovers (Phillipe d'Aunay and Gauthier d'Aunay) tortured, flayed and executed in what has come to be known as the Tour de Nesle affair ( French : Affaire de la tour de Nesle ). A third daughter-in-law, Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (wife of Philip V),
19028-515: Was founded by Abbot Bridel [ fr ] , as well as a working town later in 1922, designed by the architect Hyacinthe Perrin [ fr ] , to accommodate staff. The 20th century was marked by the British and American bombings on 8 June 1944, during Operation Overlord , which killed 300 people, injured twice as many, and destroyed most of the public and industrial facilities. This bombing
19170-413: Was in preparation to liberate France after surrendering to Nazi Germany on June 22 1940. Since then, the town has largely been open to tourism, thanks to its medieval castle and its historic districts. From the 1970s, industry has been diverse: food processing, furniture, mechanical, glass, electronics, computing, and robotics. Fougères also organizes an important cattle market. 640 names are engraved in
19312-446: Was made a stronghold for "salt smugglers", who would creep along the wall of the city with confiscated salt, to sell in other regions. There is a communal garden in modern Fougères that commemorates this interesting and little-known fact. Fougères was the seat of the Chamber of commerce and industry of the Pays de Fougères [ fr ] until 2011, replaced since by a delegation from
19454-483: Was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words. In the early 21st century, the Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging
19596-457: Was pure and holy; the charges were fictitious and the confessions false. Hastily the cardinals delivered them to the Prevot of Paris , and retired to deliberate on this unexpected contingency, but they were saved all trouble. When the news was carried to Philippe he was furious. A short consultation with his council only was required. The canons pronounced that a relapsed heretic was to be burned without
19738-508: Was quickly paid off, and, in 1287 and 1288, Philip's kingdom ran a budget surplus. After 1289, a decline in Saxony 's silver production, combined with Philip's wars against Aragon, England and Flanders, drove the French government to fiscal deficits. The war against Aragon, inherited from Philip's father, required the expenditure of 1.5 million LT (livres tournois) and the 1294–99 war against England over Gascony another 1.73 million LT. Loans from
19880-523: Was the finish town for stage 7 (Livarot-Fougères). It was a stage victory for the British cyclist Mark Cavendish . Cyclism came back to the town on 4 July 2016, where Fougères was a race-through town in the stage Granville-Angers. Fougères is also one of the control points for the Paris–Brest–Paris (PBP) bicycle event. PBP is an ultra-marathon event where cyclists are expected to complete the 1,200 km (746 miles) course in under 90 hours, and occurs
20022-599: Was the inevitable result of the competitive expansionist monarchies, but the direct campaigns between the two countries in Aquitaine and Flanders were inconclusive. Instead, the larger consequences were from the taxation undertaken to pay for them and in the alliances used. France initiated the Auld Alliance between itself and Scotland , underwriting much of the prolonged First Scottish War of Independence . Meanwhile, England assisted Flanders in its own war against France;
20164-574: Was the queen of England as consort to Edward II . Dante Alighieri often refers to Philip in La Divina Commedia , never by name but as the "mal di Francia" (plague of France). It is possible that Dante hides further the person of the king behind 7 figures: Cerbero, Pluto, Filippo Argenti ( Philippe de l'argent ), Capaneo, Gerione, Nembrot, in the Inferno, and the Giant in the Purgatorio killed by
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