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104-517: According to Benjamin Rowland "These little shrines, densely packed with sculptured figures set off by gaily painted backgrounds, must have given the effect of a kind of religious peep-show, in which, as on a stage, the visitor obtained a glimpse of celestial realms". The works of art of the Fondukistan Monastery corresponds to a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by

208-533: A Sinicized - Indian phase re-developed during the 7th to 9th century CE. The Western Turks in Afghanistan are generally associated with a major revival of Gandharan Buddhist art between the 7th and 9th century CE, especially in the areas of Bamiyan , Kabul and Ghazni , with major new Buddhist sites such as Tapa Sardar in Ghazni , or Tepe Narenj and Mes Aynak near Kabul , which remained active at least until

312-411: A crown decorated with the bull's head and two wings. In one of the issues, the legend is: šb’lk’ yyp MLK’ ( Išbara Jeb ˇ [= yabghu] šah , on the obverse) and pnˇcdh. h. wsp’ ("[minted in his] 15th [regnal year at] Khusp", on the reverse). This would date the coin to 645 CE, with a location for the mint at Khusp , Kuhistan . Other known mints are Herat and Shuburgan . After 650 however, the power of

416-610: A dynasty of Western Turk , or mixed Turko - Hephthalite , or a group of Hephthalites origin, that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. They may have been of Khalaj ethnicity. The Gandhara territory may have been bordering the Kashmir kingdom and the Kannauj kingdom to the east. From the 560s, the Western Turks had gradually expanded southeasterward from Transoxonia , and occupied Bactria and

520-563: A dynasty of Western Turk – Hephtalite sub-kings with the title " Yabghus ", who ruled from 625 CE in the area of Tokharistan north and south of the Oxus River , with some smaller remnants surviving in the area of Badakhshan until 758 CE. Their legacy extended to the southeast where it came into contact with the Turk Shahis and the Zunbils until the 9th century CE. The Turks initially occupied

624-647: A hostage. From 719 CE, Tegin Shah was the king of the Turk Shahis. He then abdicated in 739 CE in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro , probable phonetic transcription of "Caesar of Rome" in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, and sent an embassy through Central Asia in 719 CE. Fromo Kesaro appears to have fought vigorously against

728-553: A hostage. The Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 CE which probably met with the Tokhara Yabghus and the Turk Shahis , who in honour of the Byzantine Emperor even named one of their own rulers "Caesar of Rome" (which they rendered phonetically as King " Fromo Kesaro "). The Chinese annals record that "In

832-715: A lesser extent, under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period. At the end of the 10th century, the Samanid Empire led by the Turk ghulams Alp Tigin established itself in Eastern Afghanistan, later followed by the Ghaznavid dynasty . At that time, local Buddhist Turk communities seem to have mingled with the newly arrived Muslim Turks of the Samanid Empire, forming an ethnic continuity among

936-416: A misnomer. According to Hyecho , who visited the region about 50 years after the events, the first Shahi ruler of Kapisi — named Barha Tegin by Al-Biruni — was an usurper, who used to be a military commander in the service of the last Nezak King. Al-Biruni provides a rather legendary account of Barhategin's rise, extrapolating from multiple mythological motifs, and the precise circumstances surrounding

1040-452: A palace scandal when Tardu's firstborn son Ishbara Tegin fallen in love with his new step-mother (also aunt) and poisoned Tardu in 630. Ishbara Yabgu ( Chinese : 阿史那沙钵罗 ; pinyin : Ashina Shaboluo ) was the son of Tardu Shad, and took over as Tokharistan Yabgu. He was the first Tokharistan Yabghu to mint coins. In these coins, in Sasanian style, his effigy represents him bearing

1144-540: A peace treaty for both Kabul and Zabul , in which the governor of Sistan acknowledged control of these territories by Rutbil and the King of Kabul. Little more is known about the rule of Barha Tegin, but many of the early Turk Shahi coins are attributed to him. He was succeeded by his son Tegin Shah c. 680, whose regal title was " Khorasan Tegin Shah" meaning "Tegin, King of the East", probably referring to his resistance against

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1248-489: A princess in "Indian" dress, and a prince "wearing a rich caftan with double lapel and boots", characteristic of Central Asian clothing. Hinduism too seems to have flourished to some extent under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period. In particular the famous statue of a Sun deity that is either Mitra or Surya in tunic and boots discovered in Khair Khaneh near Kabul, as well as

1352-568: A siege of a few months but soon revolted, only to be reoccupied after another year-long siege. These events mortally weakened the Nezaks though their ruler — not named in sources — was spared upon converting to Islam . Sometime soon (666/667?), the Nezaks were replaced by the Turk Shahis, first in Zabulistan and then in Kabulistan and Gandhara. Their ethnic identity remains unclear and the name might be

1456-690: A similar period). The Turk Shahis arose at a time when the Sasanian Empire had already been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate . The Turk Shahis then resisted for more than 250 years the eastward expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate , until they fell to the Persian Saffarids in the 9th century AD. The Ghaznavids then finally broke through into India after overpowering the declining subsequent Hindu Shahis and Gurjaras . Kabulistan

1560-815: A sophistication and cosmopolitanism comparable to other works of art of the Silk Road such as those of Kizil , are attributable to the sponsorship of the Turks. Buddhism in Tokharistan is said to have enjoyed a revival under the Turks. Several monasteries of Tokharistan dated to the 7th–8th centuries display beautiful Buddhist works of art, such as Kalai Kafirnigan , Ajina Tepe , Khisht Tepe or Kafyr Kala , around which Turkic nobility and populations followed Hinayana Buddhism. The Turks were apparently quite tolerant of other religions. The mural paintings of Bamiyan display male devotees in double-lapel caftans, also attributable to

1664-519: A statue of Ganesha from Gardez are now attributed to the Turk Shahis in the 7-8th century CE, and not to their successors the Hindu Shahis as formerly suggested. In particular, great iconographical and stylistic similarities with the works of the Buddhist monastery of Fondukistan have been identified. Archaeologically, the construction of the Khair Khaneh temple itself is now dated to 608-630 CE, at

1768-418: A statue of a royal couple in the monastery of Fondukistan, providing important insights in terms of datation. The coins were found in a cremation urn buried under the statues of the royal couple: the urn contained one Sasanian coin of the type of Khusrow II (r.590-628 CE) with Arabic "Bismillahi" legend and local countermarks, indicating a final strike date of 686 CE, thus suggesting a date soon after 686 CE for

1872-671: A tense Turco-Persian border existed along the Oxus , which lasted several decades. The area south of the Oxus contained numerous Hephthalites principalities, remnants of the great Hephthalite Empire destroyed by the alliance of the Turks and the Sasanians. In 569–570, the Turks launched an offensive against the Sasanian Empire, and conquered the Hephthalite principalities south of the Oxus belonging to

1976-578: A tribe" or "led troops of his entire tribe" ] and allied himself to the king of Kapisa. Later, when the Turkish force was strong, the prince assassinated the king of Kapisa [ possibly Ghar-ilchi ] and declared himself king. Thereafter, the territory from this country to the north was all ruled by the Turkish king, who also resided in the country. The Hindus had kings residing in Kabul, Turks who were said to be of Tibetan origin. The first of them, Barhatakin, came into

2080-753: The Caliphal province of Sind , as far as Multan , at the gates of Punjab , which would last until 854 CE as an Ummayad and then Abbasid dependency. In 719/20 CE, the Tegin of Kabulistan ( Tegin Shah ) and the Iltäbär of Zabulistan (here named "Shiquer") sent a combined embassy to Xuanzong , the Chinese Emperor of the Tang dynasty in Xi'an , to obtain confirmation of their thrones. The Chinese emperor signed an investiture decree, which

2184-616: The Hindu Kush region, forming largely independent polities. The Turk Shahis may have been a political extension of the neighbouring Western Turk Yabghus of Tokharistan . In the Hindu Kush region, they replaced the Nezak Huns – the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers with origins among the Xwn (Xionite) and/or Huna peoples (who are sometimes also referred to as "Huns" who invaded Eastern Europe during

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2288-491: The Kashmir kingdom and the Kanauj kingdom to the east. The Turk Shahi capital of Gandhara, which possibly functioned as a winter capital alternating with the summer capital of Kabul, was Udabhandapura . The Korean pilgrim Hui Chao , visiting the area in 723–729 AD, mentioned that these regions were ruled by Turk kings. The last extant Nezak ruler Ghar-ilchi was recorded as the king of Jibin (former Kapisi / Kabulistan ) by

2392-573: The Musée Guimet , Paris , and the National Museum of Afghanistan , where many did not survive the depredations of the recent decades. Various figures from the monastery show Central Asian influence, with dignitaries wearing double-lapel caftan , boots, armour and crown with lunar crescents. Dedications including coins of the Buddhist Turk Shahis (7-8th century CE) have been found under

2496-472: The Tang dynasty in 653 AD. He was also likely to be the unnamed ruler who was confirmed as Governor of Jibin under the newly formed Chinese Anxi Protectorate in 661 CE and would broker a peace-treaty with the Arabs, the same year. Nonetheless, in 664-665 CE, Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura launched an expedition to reconquer the territories lost during the Caliphate Wars. Kabul was occupied in 665 CE after

2600-557: The Turk Shahi (665–850 CE), a probable political extension and vassals of the neighbouring Yabghus of Tokharistan, remained an obstacle to the eastward expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate . c.  650 CE , the Arabs attacked Shahi territory from the west, and captured Kabul . But the Turk Shahi were able to mount a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul and Zabulistan (around Ghazni ), as well as

2704-485: The Umayyad caliph . His territory comprised the area from Kabulistan to Gandhara and initially included Zabulistan, which came to be ruled by Rutbil (Turkic: Iltäbär ), his elder brother, who founded the dynasty of the Zunbils . Their relationship was at times antagonistic, but they fought together against Arab incursions. The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 683 AD: their general Abu Ubaida ibn Ziyad

2808-683: The Yabghus of Tokharistan , who in turn swore allegiance to the Tangs. A young brother of the Tokhara Yabghu Pantu Nili — named Puluo (僕羅 púluó ) in Chinese sources — visited the court of the Tang dynasty in Xi'an in 718 AD and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region, explaining that "two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" had been recognizing the authority of

2912-499: The 'Peacock Army', but after some initial progress eventually formed a peace treaty with the Turks, and turned around to lead a rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf . Tegin Shah apparently regained complete suzerainty over Zabulistan around 710 CE. This appears from the accounts in the Chinese chronicles, which relates that the rulers of Zabulistan "subjugated themselves to Jibin (Kabul)", sometime between 710 and 720 CE. During this period, it seems

3016-456: The 9th century CE. This process and chronology are visible in the archaeological site of Tapa Sardar near Ghazni in Afghanistan , while this new form of art appears in its mature state in Fondukistan . The works of art of this period in eastern Afghanistan, with a sophistication and iconography comparable to other works of art of the Silk Road such as those of Kizil , are attributable to

3120-775: The Abbasid governor of Khorasan . He also ceded a large and precious idol made of gold, silver and jewels, which was sent to Mecca . Following Al-Azraqi 's initial account of 834 AD, Quṭb ed-Dîn wrote: Now, when this King converted to Islam, he decided that the throne with the idol should be given as an offering for the Ka'ba . He therefore sent the throne to Al-Ma'mun in Merv , who then sent it to Al-Hasan ibn Sahl in Wasit , who in turn charged one of his lieutenants from Balkh , Naçîr ben Ibrahim, with accompanying it to Mecca . This lieutenant arrived there in

3224-825: The Arab chronicler al-Biruni , the last Turk Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman—probable son of Pati Dumi—was deposed by a Brahmin minister, named Kallar around 822 AD. A new dynasty, the Hindu Shahi took over, with its capital in Kabul. To the south, the Zunbils held fort against Muslim forces until the Saffarid offensive of 870 CE. The Alchon Huns , predecessors of the Turk Shahis in Afghanistan and Gandhara, had brought destruction upon Buddhism. When Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c.  630 AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of

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3328-725: The Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued into the 9th century AD. Hoping to take advantage of the Great Abbasid Civil War (811-819 AD), the Turk Shahi, named "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, invaded parts of Khorasan . Once the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun prevailed in the Civil War, he sent troops to confront the Turk invaders: in 814/815 AD, the Turk Shahis were soundly defeated by these Arab troops, which pushed as far as Gandhara . The Turk Shah now had to convert to Islam, and had to pay an annual tribute of 1,500,000 dirhams and 2,000 slaves to

3432-576: The Arabs in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan . In 710, the Umayyad general Qutayba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkhan, who was executed on the orders of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , while the Yabghus, who had ruled parts of Tokharistan as well as Badakhshan, was exiled to Damascus and kept there as

3536-548: The Arabs were pressuring Khorasan and Sistan . The Korean pilgrim Hui Chao in 726 AD recorded in the Chinese language that the Turkic (突厥, Tū-chuèh) rulers of Kapisa (" Jibin ") followed the Triratna and dedicated many Buddhist temples: (...) 至罽賓國。(...) 此國土人是胡。王及兵馬突厥。(...) 國人大敬信三寶。足寺足僧。百姓家各絲造寺。供養三寶。大城中有一寺。名沙糸寺。寺中貝佛螺髻骨舍利見在王官百姓每日供養。此國行小乘。 (...) I arrived in Jibin .(...) The natives of

3640-513: The Arabs, and his victories may have forged the Tibetan epic legend of King Phrom Ge-sar . The Turk Shahis eventually weakened against the Arabs in the late 9th century CE. Kandahar , Kabul and Zabul were lost to the Arabs, while in Gandhara the Hindu Shahi took over. The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by a Brahmin minister, possibly named Vakkadeva, in c. 850, signaling

3744-540: The Buddha are to be seen in the monastery. The king, the officials, and the common people daily worship these relics. Hinayana (小乘) Buddhism is practised in this country. The Kingdoms of Central Asia, often Buddhist or with an important Buddhist community, were generally under the formal control of the Tang dynasty, had regular exchanges with China, and expected Tang protection. Chinese monks were probably directly in charge of some of

3848-520: The Buddhist Turk Shahis during 7-8th centuries CE, as a result of the continued development of Buddhist art , with possible Hephthalite influence, combined with the Sasanian cultural heritage. The art of Fondukistan also corresponds to the last stages of Greco-Buddhist art in the 7-8th century CE. During this period, the Chinese Tang Empire extended its influence and promotion of Buddhism to

3952-582: The Buddhist monastery of Fondukistan . Devotees or sponsors wearing Central Asian clothes such as the tight-fitting double-lapel caftan appear in the Buddhist Monastery of Fondukistan , as in the statue of a King wearing the caftan and pointed boots , seated together with a Queen of Indian type, and dated to the 7th century CE. Dedications including coins of the Buddhist Turk Shahis and one Sasanian coin of Khusro II have been found under

4056-455: The Buddhist sanctuaries of Central Asia, such as the temple of Suiye (near Tokmak in present-day Kirghizistan ). During this period too, the Chinese Tang Empire extended its influence and promotion of Buddhism to the kingdoms of Central Asia , including Afghanistan, with a corresponding influx of Chinese monks, while there was conversely a migration of Indian monks and artistic styles from India to Central Asia, as " Brahmanical revivalism"

4160-994: The Byzantine Empire. In 625, Tong Yabgu invaded Tokharistan and forced the Hephtalite principalities to submit. He went as far as the Indus river and took control of all the intervening principalities, replacing Hepthalite rulers by Turk ones. The Turks were victorious, partly because the Sasanian Empire was into a difficult war with the Byzantine Empire , the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . According to Cefu Yuangui , these principalities were Zabulistan , Kapisa - Gandhara , Khuttal , Chaghaniyan , Shignan , Shuman , Badhgis , Wakhan , Guzgan , Bamiyan , Kobadiyan and Badakhshan . The areas of Khuttal and Kapisa - Gandhara had remained independent kingdoms under

4264-613: The Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is: 六年十一月丁未阿史特勒僕羅上書訴曰：僕羅克吐火羅葉護部下管諸國王都督刺史總二百一十二人謝芄王統領兵馬二十萬眾潯齬王統領兵馬二十萬眾骨吐國王石汗那國王解蘇國王石匿國王悒達國王護密國王護時健國王範延國王久越德建國王勃特山王各領五萬眾。僕羅祖父已來並是上件諸國之王蕃望尊重。 On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year [of the Kaiyuan era (713–741 CE)], Ashi Tegin Puluo writes to the emperor: the Kings of States, Commander-in-chiefs (都督 Dudu ) and Regional Inspectors (刺史 Cishi ) under

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4368-408: The Khalaj". In 720 CE, the ruler of Zabulistan (謝䫻, Xiėyù ) also received the title Gedaluozhi Xielifa (Chinese: 葛達羅支頡利發), Xielifa being the known Chinese transcription of the Turkish " Iltäbär ", hence "Iltäbär of the Khalaj". This appears in another extract from the Tangshu describing the country of Zabulistan (谢䫻, Xiėyù ), mentioning how Zabulistan was a vassal to the Kabul Shah around

4472-452: The Kingdoms of Central Asia , including Afghanistan, with a corresponding influx of Chinese monks, while there was conversely a migration of Indian monks from India to Central Asia, precisely looking for this protection. These events gave rise to the hybrid Indian-Sinicized styles of Fondukistan and Tapa Sardar . Similarities have also been noted with contemporary works of art in China, such as those of Tianlongshan . Charles Masson visited

4576-442: The Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed in Balkh , and then proceeded to conquer the city along with Talaqan , Badghis , and Herat . But the Turks were defeated by the Sasanians under Bahram Chobin , who entered the area north of the Oxus and killed the Turkish Khagan. A war broke out between the Sassanians and the Hephthalites in 606–607 or 616–617 CE, the Second Perso-Turkic War . At that time,

4680-409: The Sasanian Peroz III was able to establish some level of control with the help of the yabghu of Tokharistan in Seistan . In 705, P’an-tu-ni-li, the yabghu of Tokharistan, is recorded as having sent a mission to the Chinese court. He ruled from Badakshan , as the area of Balkh and the central areas of his territory were occupied by the Arabs, including Shuburgan, Khusp and Herat. According to

4784-405: The Sasanian Empire. At that time the Sasanian Empire was embroiled in a war in the west, with the Byzantine Empire . It seems the Turks reached the Kabul – Gandhara area in 570. The principalities of the Hephthalites, formerly vassals of the Sasanian Empire, accepted Turk supremacy and became vassals of the Western Turk qaghan, and the Alchon Huns continued to rule in Kabul and Gandhara , but

4888-419: The Tibetans in 749 CE, and received this help from the Chinese, and in 758 CE Wu-na-to (Udita?) visited in person the Chinese court and participated in the fight against the rebel An Lu-shan . In the Nestorian Stele of Xi'an , erected in 781 CE, the Nestorian monk Jingjing mentioned in Syriac that his grandfather was a missionary-priest from Balkh in Tokharistan. In the area of Kapisa - Gandhara ,

4992-479: The Turk Empire. Tong Yabghu Qaghan then installed his son Tardush Shad ( Chinese : 達頭设 ; pinyin : Dátóu Shè ), as the first yabgu (sub-king) of Tokharistan , controlling all the new Turk realm south of the Oxus, from his capital at Kunduz . Tardush Shad ( Chinese : 達頭设 ; pinyin : Dátóu Shè ) was installed in Tokharistan, and ruled in Kunduz with title of Tokharistan Yabgu ( Chinese : 吐火羅葉護 ; pinyin : Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù ). He

5096-414: The Turk Shahi kept the winged bull's head of the Nezak as well as their legend "King of Nezak" ( nycky MLKA ) but in corrupted Pahlavi script . But the style of the rulers in the coins was now quite different, and the coins were of markedly higher silver quality. Soon, these coins introduced a new legend in replacement of the "King of Nezaks" legend, using the Indian honorific " Shri " ("Perfection") with

5200-476: The Turk Shahis. In Chinese sources "Fromo Kesaro" was aptly transcribed "Fulin Jisuo" (拂菻罽娑), " Fulin " (拂菻) being the standard Tang dynasty name for " Byzantine Empire " and Jisuo (罽娑) the phonetic transcription of "Caesar": Fromo Kesaro appears to have successfully fought against the Arabs. His coinage suggests that the Arabs were defeated and forced to pay tribute to Fromo Kesaro, since Sasanian coins and coins of Arab governors were overstruck by him on

5304-443: The Turkic Khagan sent an army to help the Hephthalites, and was able to bring a great defeat upon the Sasanians, advancing his troops as far as Ray and Isfahan , but Sheguy Kaghan recalled his armies without pressing his advantage. The Turks definitely intended to take control of the territories south of the Oxus, but were only ready sometime later, and took the opportunity when the Sasanian Empire again entered into conflict with

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5408-420: The Turks apparently did not permanently occupy the territory south of the Oxus. The Hephthalites aspired to independence from the Turks, and in 581 or 582 CE, they revolted in alliance with the Sasanians against the Turk Kaghan Tardu . In 588–589, the Turks under Bagha Qaghan entered into a direct conflict with the Sasanians, in the First Perso-Turkic War . The Turks invaded the Sasanian territories south of

5512-468: The Yabghu of Tokharistan, the elder brother of Puluo, number two hundred and twelve, in all. The king of Zabul is in charge of infantry and cavalry numbering two hundred thousand, and the king of Kabul is also in charge of two hundred thousand infantry and cavalry. The Kings of the States of Khuttal , Chaghanian , Jiesu , Shughnan , Yeda , Humi , Guzganan , Bamiyan , Quwādhiyān , and Badakhshan each lead fifty thousand troops. Since

5616-465: The Yabghus (specifically mentioning among them that "the king of Zabul rules two hundred thousand soldiers and horses, the king of Kabul two hundred thousand"), since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of their establishment. Under Barha Tegin , the Shahis mounted a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arab forces after Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura was replaced as Governor of Sistan c.665 CE, taking back lost territory as far as

5720-465: The Yabghus of Tokharistan fragmented, as they came, as least partially, under Tang suzerainty. A Türk yabghu of Tokharistan recorded under the name of "Wu-shih-po of the A-shih-na dynasty" was the first yabghu to be confirmed by the Chinese Emperor. In 652–653 CE, the Arabs under Abdallah ibn Amir conquered the whole of Tokharistan and captured the city of Balkh , as part of the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan . The Western Turkic Khaganate itself

5824-419: The Zunbils and the Turk Shahis intermittently accepted, or were forced to accept, payment of taxes to the Arabs, thereby acknowledging some form of political dependence, but resisted fiercely when the Arabs attempted to take a more direct military, political or religious control. From 711 CE, the Turk Shahis also had to face a Muslim threat from the southeast, as the campaigns of Muhammad ibn Qasim established

5928-426: The area of north of the Oxus ( Transoxonia , Sogdiana ) following their destruction of the Hephthalites in 557–565 CE through an alliance with the Sasanian Empire . The Sasanians, on the other hand, took control of the area south of the Oxus, with Chaganiyan , Sind , Bust, Rukhkhaj , Zabulistan , Tokharistan , Turistan and Balistan being transformed into vassal kingdoms and principalities. After this time,

6032-413: The area of the Ghorband Valley in 1836 and mentioned the presence of numerous ruins in his book Narratives of various journeys in Afghanistan, Baluchistan & the Punjab . The monastery was excavated in 1936 by Joseph Hackin of the Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan , and in 1937 by Jean Carl, from the same organization. Most of the works of art that were recovered were shared between

6136-427: The beginning of the Turk Shahis period. The marble statue of Ganesha from Gardez is now attributed to the Turk Shahis, and was donated by a certain "Śrī Ṣāhi Khiṃgāla", possibly the Turk Shahi king named " Khingala " who according to Al-Yakubhi gave his submission to Al-Mahdi in 775–785 CE. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) From Kashmir I travelled further northwest. After one month's journey across

6240-429: The chronicles of the Chinese Cefu Yuangui , a young brother of Pantu Nili named Puluo (僕羅 púluó in Chinese sources) again visited the Tang court in 718 and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region. Puluo described the power of "the Kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognize the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since

6344-458: The construction of the site; another gold bracteate with the portrait of a ruler; and three early copper coins of the Turk Shahis ( Göbl Type 236 ) with the Bactrian script legend " Srio Shaho " ( [REDACTED] ). The royal couple consists of a princess in "Indian" dress, and a prince "wearing a rich caftan with double lapel and boots" characteristic of Central Asian clothing. Turk Shahis The Turk Shahis or Kabul Shahis were

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6448-493: The country and entered a cave in Kabul , which none could enter except by creeping on hands and knees. [...] Some days after he had entered the cave, he began to creep out of it in the presence of the people, who looked on him as a newborn baby. He wore Turkish dress, a short tunic open in front, a high hat, boots and arms. Now people honoured him as a being of miraculous origin, who had been destined to be king, and in fact he brought those countries under his sway and ruled them under

6552-407: The country are Hu (Barbarian) people; the king and the cavalry are Turks (突厥, Tūjué ). (...) The people of this country greatly revere the Three Jewels . There are many monasteries and monks. The common people compete in constructing monasteries and supporting the Three Jewels. In the big city there is a monastery called Sha-hsi-ssu. At present, the curly hair ( ushnisha , 螺髻) and the relic bones of

6656-485: The court of Kabul, relating that Turk ( "T’u-chüeh" ) kings ruled the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa and Zabulistan at the time, that they were Buddhists , and that the King of Kabul was the uncle of the ruler of Zabul. In 739 CE, Tegin abdicated in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro : In the 27th year [of Kaiyuan, ie 739 CE], the king Wusan Tela Sa [for Khorasan Tegin Shah] submitted a memorial requesting that due to his old age, his son Fulin Jisuo may succeed him on

6760-576: The crown is also replaced by the symbol of a lion's or a wolf's head. In other coins the triple-crescent moons were kept, and the king was shown wearing a Central Asian caftan . Many of these coins are attributed to Shahi Tegin , the second Turk Shahi ruler, and dated to circa 700 AD. After this transitory period, Turk Shahi coinage adopted the Sasanian coinage style, and added a trilingual legend in Greco-Bactrian , Pahlavi , and Brahmi . Based on finds, Turk Shahi coins apparently circulated in Zabulistan, Kabulistan, Gandhara and Uddiyana . There

6864-408: The dawning of the Turk Shahis remain unclear. The Turk Shahis, like the rest of the Western Turks , were nominally part of a protectorate under the Chinese Tang dynasty since circa 658 AD. The territory of the Turk Shahis was nominally partitioned into several Chinese Commanderies under administration of the Anxi Protectorate : the city of Yege (modern Mihtarlam ) east of Kabul was considered as

6968-460: The east and lives in Badakhshan . Now Balkh belongs to the Arabs' domain. (...) The King, the nobles and the people revere the Three Jewels (Buddhism). There are many monasteries and monks; they practice the Hinayana teachings. Chinese sources mention a few years later yabghus who sent missions to the Tang court: Ku-tu-lu Tun Ta-tu (Qutluγ Ton Tardu) asked for help against the Arabs in 729 CE, Shih-li-mang-kia-lo (Sri Mangala) asked for help against

7072-413: The easternmost "Hephthalites" (actually Alchon Hun ) under kings such as Narendra , before being taken over as vassals by the Western Turks. The appearance of the "crown with a bull's head" on the coin portraits of the last rulers of Kapisa-Gandhara Narendra II, can be considered as a sign of recognition of Turk sovereignty, since the title buqa (bull) had been in use from 599, when Khagan Tardu united

7176-439: The eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), the Emperor approved the enthronement of Gedalouzhi (" Khalaj ") Xielifa (" Iltäbär ") Shiquer. Their envoys came to the royal court several times until the Tianbao era (742–756). These two Chinese accounts tend to confirm that the Turk Shahi and Zunbil rulers were Khalaj Turks. The Korean pilgrim Hyecho accompanied the return embassy in 726 AD, and wrote an account of his travel and visit at

7280-412: The end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of the Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul. These was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan during 7th–8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development of Buddhist art . The works of art of this period in Afghanistan, with

7384-475: The first month of the seventh year of the period Kaiyuan [719 CE] their Lord [拂菻王, "the King of Fulin "] sent the Ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [吐火羅, Tokhara] (...) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent Ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute." Turk ( "T’u-chüeh" ) kingdoms were in the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa and Zabulistan around 723–729 CE, according to

7488-538: The forces of the Umayyad Caliphate . The Hepthalites and their allies captured Termez in 689, repelled the Arabs, and occupied the whole region of Khorasan for a brief period, with Termez as they capital, described by the Arabs as "the headquarters of the Hephthalites" ( dār mamlakat al-Hayāṭela ). The Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate under Yazid ibn al-Muhallab re-captured Termez in 704. Nezak Tarkan ,

7592-404: The geopolitical position of the Turk Shahis. Al-Yakubhi records that c. 775–785, a Turk Shahi ruler of Kabul—variously reconstructed as Ḥanḥal/Khinkhil/Khingil/Khingal —was sent a proposal by Al-Mahdi (775-785), the third Abbasid Caliph , asking for his submission, to which he conceded. He was either a unique ruler of the Turk Shahis or identical with Bo Fuzhun. The struggle between

7696-518: The grandfather of Puluo, the Yehu Tuhuolo [Yabghu of Tokharistan] has become king of the above-mentioned states: he is greatly respected." Puluo, writing in 718 CE, finally reaffirmed the loyalty of the Tokhara Yabghus towards the Tang dynasty, probably since the time of the fall of the Western Turks to China (657), confirming at least nominal control of the Chinese administration over the region for

7800-584: The king [of Jibin] the title Geluodazhi Tele [for "Tegin"]. The word " Geluodazhi " in this extract (Chinese: 葛罗达支, pronounced in Early Middle Chinese : kat-la-dat-tcǐe), is thought to be a transliteration of the ethnonym Khalaj . Hence Tegin Shah was described as "Tegin of the Khalaj". This title also appears on his coinage in Gupta script , where he is named " hitivira kharalāča ", probably meaning " Iltäbär of

7904-646: The king, as recorded in the Old Book of Tang; he was simultaneously conferred with the Tang title "General of the Left", which probably alludes to a strategic relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, in the context of expanding Islamic frontiers. The Chinese departed from the region c. 760 AD, following their strategic defeat at the Battle of Talas (751 AD) and the events of the An Lushan Rebellion , thus weakening

8008-546: The last sixty years: 然火羅葉護積代已來，於大唐忠赤，朝貢不絕。 The Yabghus of Tokharistan, for several generations until now, have been sincerely devoted to the great Tang dynasty , they have without interruption paid their respects and brought tribute. c.  689 CE , the Hephthalite ruler of Badghis and the Arab rebel Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim, son of the Zubayrid governor of Khurasan Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami , allied against

8112-453: The monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. The Turk Shahis are reported as having been supporters of Buddhism, and are generally believed to be Buddhists, though they also worshipped Hindu gods. There was a renewed patronage of Buddhism in the area of Afghanistan during the 7-8th century AD as a function of the expansion of the Tang dynasty power in Central Asia at that time, just as

8216-482: The mountains I arrived at the country of Gandhara . The king and military personnel are all Turks. The natives are Hu people; there are Brahmins . The country was formerly under the influence of the king of Kapisa . A-yeh [ alternatively read as "The father", than a personal name, referring to Barha Tegin, father of then-King Tegin Shah ] of the Turkish King took a defeated cavalry [ alternatively "led an army and

8320-405: The paintings and sculptures of Central Asia . The production of Fondukistan must correspond to the southernmost expansion of this particular type of Buddhist art. The new region occupied by the Turk Shahis had numerous Buddhist monasteries, such as Mes Aynak , which appear to have remained in use until the 9th century CE. Dedications including Turk Shahis coins have been found under a statue in

8424-427: The region of Arachosia and Kandahar . The capital was shifted from Kapisa to Kabul . The Arabs attempted a counter-offensive when Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi assumed the governorship of Sistan in 671 CE, attacking the Turkic " Rutbil " at Bost , and driving him to al-Rukhkhaj ( Arachosia ). Rabi's successor Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra continued the war upon being appointed in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to negotiate

8528-452: The region of Arachosia as far as Kandahar . The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 697–698 CE, and their general Yazid ibn Ziyad was killed in the action. A few years later however the Arabs defeated and killed the Kabul Shah and conquered Kabul under Umayyad general Qutayba ibn Muslim . Nezak Tarkhan, the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a revolt against

8632-628: The rim with his victorious legends in Bactrian, it would seem that in all likelihood the coins underwent this rather simple overstriking procedure in the field, probably during one of his victorious campaigns against the Muslims. Fromo Kesaro's victories may have forged parts of the epic legend of the Tibetan King whose name appears to be phonetically similar: Phrom Ge-sar . In 745 AD, Fromo Kesaro's son Bo Fuzhun (勃匐準 Bo Fuzhun in Chinese sources) became

8736-536: The rim with the following text in the Bactrian script : Obverse: ϕρoµo κησαρo βαγo χoαδηo κιδo βo ταzικανo χoργo Reverse: oδo σαo βo σαβαγo ατo ι µo βo γαινδo Fromo Kesaro, the Majestic Sovereign, [is] who defeated the Arabs and laid a tax [on them]. Thus they sent it. Since these coins did not come out from Fromo Kesaro's foundries, but were simply pre-existing Arab/Sasanian coins which he overstruck on

8840-457: The royal title "Shahi" in the Bactrian language ( σριο Þανιο , Srio šauoi ) and in Sanskrit ( Śri Sāhi ). This new coinage corresponds to the formal establishment of the Turk Shahis, sometime after 661 AD. In later stages, the crown adorned with a bull's head is replaced by a crown consisting in three crescent moons in the middle of which a flower or trident is set. Often the bull's head in

8944-455: The ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a new revolt in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan. In 710, Qutaiba ibn Muslim was able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkan who was executed on al-Hajjaj 's orders, despite promises of pardon, while the Yabghu was exiled to Damascus and kept there as

9048-482: The ruling class of Ghazni. The local Buddhist Turks progressively islamized, but there was a continuation in artistic development and Buddhist religious activities, not a break. The Buddhist site of Qol-i Tut in Kabul remained in use until the end of the 11th century. From the middle of the 7th century AD, the Turk Shahis emulated the coinage of their predecessors, the Hunnish Nezak - Alchons . The first coins of

9152-488: The same period, and how the Zunbil ruler, named "Shiquer", was also recognized by the Chinese court: The people from Tujue (Turks), Jibin ( Kabul ), and Tuhuoluo ( Tokharistan ) live together in this country [Zabulistan]. Jibin recruits from among them young men to defend against Dashi (Arabs). They sent an envoy to the Tang in the first year of Jingyun (710) to present gifts. Later, they subjugated themselves to Jibin. In

9256-661: The seat of a Chinese Commandery for the Jibin country, and named the Xiuxian Commandery (修鮮都督府, Xiūxiān Dūdùfû ), the city of Yan at the border with Gandhara was the seat of the Yuepan Commandery (悅般都督府, Yuèpān Dūdùfû ), Ghazni was the seat of the Tiaozhi Commandery (條枝都督府, Tiáozhī Dūdùfû ). According to Chinese sources, in particular the chronicles of the Cefu Yuangui , the Turks in Kabul were vassals of

9360-494: The sponsorship of the "cosmopolitan" Turks, rather than their "Ephthalite" predecessors in this area (the Nezak - Alchon Huns ), who, in the words of Edmund Bosworth , "were not capable of such work". And, soon after, the expansion of Islam made the creation of such works of art impossible. The style as well as the techniques used in making these works of art (modelling of clay mixed with straw, wool or horsehair), are characteristic of

9464-408: The statue of the royal couple with a king in Turk attire in the monastery of Fondukistan , providing important insights regarding the datation of the statue as well as Buddhist art in general: as a result of the analysis the statue can be dated to after 689 CE, and as a consequence a date of circa 700 CE is generally given for it and the other works of art of Fondukistan. The royal couple consists in

9568-546: The statue, which points to a crowned and bejewelled Buddha seated on a throne, a design otherwise well known and quite specific to this historical period for the region of Afghanistan and Kashmir . In the south, the Zunbil Turk Shahis escaped unaffected and continued to rule for about two more decades, before falling in 870/871 AD to the Saffarids under an upstart adventurer Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar . According to

9672-456: The testimony the Korean pilgrim Hui Chao . Huei-chao also mentioned that in 726 CE, the Arabs occupied Balkh , and the Turks were forced to flee to Badakshan : I arrived in Tokharistan (吐火羅國 Tuhuoluo-guo ). The home city of the king is called Balkh (縛底那). At this time the troops of the Arabs (大寔國) are there and they occupy it. Its King, Wives and Court was forced to flee one month's journey to

9776-536: The throne. The emperor agreed and dispatched an envoy in order to confer the king's title on him through an imperial edict. " Fromo Kesaro " is probable phonetic transcription of "Rome Caesar". He was apparently named in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs during the Siege of Constantinople in 717 AD, and sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 AD which probably met with

9880-411: The time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan. This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 CE, formed of the territories north and south of the Hindu Kush , including the areas of Kabul and Zabul. The territory of Guzgan was also mentioned among the territories controlled by the Yabghus. Part of

9984-415: The title of a Shahiya of Kabul. The rule remained among his descendants for generations, the number of which is said to be about sixty. [...] The last king of this race was Lagatarman, and his Vizir was Kallar, a Brahman. Yabghus of Tokharistan The Tokhara Yabghus or Yabghus of Tokharistan ( simplified Chinese : 吐火罗叶护 ; traditional Chinese : 吐火羅葉護 ; pinyin : Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù ) were

10088-404: The year AH 201 (816 AD) during the time of pilgrimage when Isḥâḳ ben Mûsá ben ´Isá was leading the pilgrims to the holy sites. When they returned from Mina , Naçîr ben Ibrahim placed the throne with the carpet and the idol in the center of the square dedicated to Omar Ibn Al-Khattab , between Safa and Marwa , where it remained for three days. Al-Azraqi also made a very detailed description of

10192-507: Was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Turk Shahis during 7-8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development of Buddhist art , with possible Hephthalite influence. The destruction upon Buddhism wrought by their predecessors had deeply weakened the Hellenistic-Buddhist art of Gandhara . Yet, consequent to Tang patronage of Buddhism,

10296-579: Was destroyed by the Tang dynasty in 657 CE, and most of his territories became protectorates of the Tang Empire, and organized into regional commanderies. Kunduz became the site of the Yuezhi Commandery (月氏都督府, Yuèzhī Dūdùfû ) under administration of the Anxi Protectorate . During the rule of the Umayyad caliph Ali (656–661), the Arabs were expulsed from eastern Iran, as far as Nishapur and

10400-518: Was imprisoned in Kabul and Governor of Sijistan Yazid ibn Ziyad was killed as he attacked the city. In 684–685, Kabul briefly comes under Arab control. In 698 Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra of the Umayyad Caliphate lead an 'Army of Destruction' against the Zunbils, was defeated and was forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons and take an oath not to invade Zunbil again. About 700 Ibn al-Ash'ath tried again to invade with

10504-409: Was married two times – both a daughter of Qu Boya (麴伯雅) – ruler of Qocho . When Xuanzang visited Kunduz , he also brought a letter from his brother-in-law and ruler of Qocho Qu Wentai (麴文泰) to Tardu. Yabgu received him despite being in ill condition. It was Tardu to advise him to make a trip westward to Balkh (modern Afghanistan ), to see the Buddhist sites and relics. Xuanzang also witnessed

10608-597: Was pushing Indian Buddhist monks out of their country. According to the Chinese pilgrim Wukong , who arrived in Gandhara in 753 AD, the country of Kapisi had its eastern capital in Gandhara during the winter, and its capital in Kapisi during the summer. In Kashmir , which he visited from 756 to 760 AD, he explained that Buddhist temples were dedicated by the Tü-kiu ("Turk") kings. Brahmanism too seems to have flourished, but to

10712-510: Was returned to the Turk rulers. The official Chinese recognition of the enthronement of Tegin Shah appears in the annals of the Tangshu : In the seventh year of the Kaiyuan reign [719 CE], [Jibin (Kabul) dispatched] envoys to the [Tang] court, who offered up a book of an astrological text, secret medical recipes, together with foreign medecines and other things. An imperial edict was issued to bestow on

10816-613: Was the heartland of the Turk Shahi domain, which at times included Zabulistan and Gandhara . The Turks under the Western Turk ruler Tong Yabghu Qaghan crossed the Hindu-Kush and occupied Gandhara as far as the Indus River from circa 625 AD. Overall, the territory of the Turk Shahi extended from Kapisi to Gandhara, with a Turkic branch becoming independent in Zabulistan at one point. The Gandhara territory may have been bordering

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