98-678: Timeline The history of the Italian Republic concerns the events relating to the history of Italy that have occurred since 1946, when Italy became a republic after the 1946 Italian institutional referendum . The Italian republican history is generally divided into two phases, the First and Second Republic. After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and the end of World War II , Italian politics and society were dominated by Christian Democracy (DC),
196-509: A Catholic social and democratic movement, the National Democratic League, led by Romolo Murri . In 1904, Pope Pius X authorized Catholics to participate individually in political life, but in 1909 he condemned the National Democratic League created by Romolo Murri, who was excommunicated. Finally, a law of 3 June 1912 marked Italy's evolution towards a certain political liberalism by establishing universal male suffrage. In 1914, at
294-531: A Catholic to vote for the Communist Party and excommunicating all its supporters. Giovannino Guareschi wrote his novels about Don Camillo describing a village, Brescello , whose inhabitants are at the same time loyal to priest Camillo and Communist mayor Peppone, who are fierce rivals. In 1953, a Parliamentary Commission on poverty estimated that 24% of Italian families were either "destitute" or "in hardship", 21% of dwellings were overcrowded, 52% of homes in
392-474: A broad-based Christian political party, from 1946 to 1994. From the late 1940s until 1991, the opposition was led by the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Christian Democracy governed uninterrupted during this period, dominating every cabinet and providing nearly every prime minister. It governed primarily with the support of an array of minor parties from the centre-left to the centre-right , including
490-471: A bulwark against, in their way of seeing, these dangers. In October 1922, the nomination of Benito Mussolini as prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III , following the march on Rome , paved the way for the establishment of the dictatorship. The Albertine Statute is progressively emptied of its content. Parliament was subject to the will of the new government. The legal opposition disintegrated. On 27 June 1924, 127 deputies left Parliament and retreated to
588-567: A certain social conservatism. The Republicans took part in the elections to the Italian Parliament, and in 1853 they formed the Action Party around Giuseppe Mazzini . Although in exile, Mazzini was elected in 1866, but refused to take his seat in parliament. Carlo Cattaneo was elected deputy in 1860 and 1867, but refused so as not to have to swear loyalty to the House of Savoy . The problem of
686-503: A concept known as "thought and action" in which thought and action must be joined together and every thought must be followed by action, therefore rejecting intellectualism and the notion of divorcing theory from practice. In July 1831, in exile in Marseille , Giuseppe Mazzini founded the Young Italy movement, which aimed to transform Italy into a unitary democratic republic, according to
784-633: A geographical divide between the North, where the Republic won a clear majority, and the South, where the monarchists were in a majority. A Constituent Assembly , formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy , was in place between June 1946 and January 1948; it wrote the new Constitution of Italy , which took effect on 1 January 1948. The peace treaty between Italy and
882-555: A little less than full wages, often years beyond eligibility. Initially, these benefits were primarily enjoyed by industrial workers in northern Italy where the "Hot Autumn" had its greatest impact, but these benefits soon spread to other categories of workers in other areas. In 1975, the escalator clause was strengthened in wage contracts, providing a high proportion of workers with nearly 100% indexation, with quarterly revisions, thereby increasing wages nearly as fast as prices. Timeline of Italian history Timeline This
980-410: A rising left-wing movement, in the wake of 1968 student unrest ( Sessantotto ). This movement was characterized by such heterogeneous events as revolts by jobless farm workers (Avola, Battipaglia 1969), occupations of universities by students, social unrest in the large Northern factories (1969 hot autumn, autunno caldo ). While conservative forces tried to roll back some of the social advances of
1078-647: A second, somewhat larger round of ECB loans to European banks was initiated under Draghi, called long term refinancing operation (LTRO) . One commentator, Matthew Lynn , saw the ECB's injection of funds, along with Quantitative easing from the US Fed and the Asset Purchase Facility at the Bank of England , as feeding increases in oil prices in 2011 and 2012 . In July 2012, in the midst of renewed fears about sovereigns in
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#17328555902351176-503: A very considerable influence on the Italian and European republican movements, in the Constitution of Italy , about Europeanism and more nuanced on many politicians of a later period, among them American president Woodrow Wilson , British prime minister David Lloyd George , Mahatma Gandhi , Israeli prime minister Golda Meir and Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru . Mazzini formulated
1274-433: Is a timeline of Italian history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Italy and its predecessor states, including Ancient Rome and Prehistoric Italy . Date of the prehistoric era are approximate. For further background, see history of Italy and list of prime ministers of Italy . Lucius Sicinius Vellutus , the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro . Marius
1372-510: Is the first woman to hold the post. The president heads the executive board, Governing Council and General Council of the ECB, and represents the bank abroad, for example at the G20 . The officeholder is appointed by a qualified majority vote of the European Council , de facto by those who have adopted the euro, for an eight-year non-renewable term. Wim Duisenberg was President of
1470-718: Is the head of the European Central Bank (ECB), the main institution responsible for the management of the euro and monetary policy in the Eurozone of the European Union (EU) The current president of the European Central Bank is Christine Lagarde , previously the chair and managing director of the International Monetary Fund . Lagarde has served as the president of the ECB since 1 November 2019. She
1568-565: Is therefore considered the first martyr of the modern Italian Republic and a symbol of republican ideals in Italy. The balance of power between the Chamber and Senate initially shifted in favor of the Senate, composed mainly of nobles and industrial figures. Little by little, the Chamber of Deputies took on more and more importance with the evolution of the bourgeoisie and the large landowners, concerned with economic progress, but supporters of order and
1666-401: Is this: we have a mandate and we deliver on our mandate! And we deliver in a way that is not only numerically convincing, but which is better than anything achieved in the past. Although Axel Weber was tipped as one of the possible successors, he resigned from the ECB in protest at the bail out policies. Mario Draghi was chosen to become the next President of the ECB on 24 June 2011. Draghi
1764-565: The arco costituzionale , i.e., all parties supporting the Constitution, including the Communists, who took a very strong stance against the Red Brigades and other terrorist groups; however, the Communists never took part in the government itself, which was composed by the "Pentapartito" (Christian Democrats, Socialists, Social Democrats, Liberals, and Republicans). Although the 1970s in Italy
1862-835: The Allies of World War II was signed in Paris in February 1947. In 1946, the main Italian political parties were: Each party had run separate candidates in the 1946 general election , and the Christian Democrats won a plurality of votes. The PSI and the PCI received some ministerial posts in a Christian Democrat–led coalition cabinet. PCI's leader Palmiro Togliatti was minister of Justice. As in France, where Maurice Thorez and four other Communist ministers were forced to leave Paul Ramadier 's government during
1960-666: The European Monetary Institute (EMI) when it became the ECB, just prior to the launch of the Euro, on 1 June 1998. Duisenberg then became the first President of the ECB. The French interpretation of the agreement made with the installation of Wim Duisenberg as ECB President was that Duisenberg would resign after just four years of his eight-year term, and would be replaced by the Frenchman Jean-Claude Trichet . Duisenberg always strongly denied that such an agreement
2058-496: The European sovereign debt crisis . Trichet's strengths lay in keeping consensus and visible calm in the ECB. During his tenure, Trichet has had to fend off criticism from French President Nicolas Sarkozy who demanded a more growth-orientated policy at the ECB. Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel supported Trichet in demanding the bank's independence be respected. However, he was also criticised from straying from his mandate during
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#17328555902352156-641: The Italian Empire . In 1950, Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy. In the 1950s Italy became a founding member of the NATO alliance (1949), a member of the United Nations (1955) and an ally of the United States, which helped to revive
2254-595: The Italian Socialist Party (PSI), Italian Democratic Socialist Party (PSDI), Italian Republican Party (PRI), and Italian Liberal Party (PLI), and even far-right parties like the Italian Social Movement (MSI). The Communist Party was excluded entirely from government, with the partial exception of the short-lived Historic Compromise , in which the PCI provided external support to a DC minority government from 1976 to 1979. The political situation
2352-654: The May 1947 crisis , both the Italian Communists (PCI) and Socialists (PSI) were excluded from government the same month under pressure from US President Harry Truman . Since the PSI and the PCI together received more votes than the Christian Democrats, they decided to unite in 1948 to form the Popular Democratic Front (FDP). The 1948 general elections were heavily influenced by the then flaring cold-war confrontation between
2450-700: The Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II ( Altare della Patria ), the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro , and in Milan the Banca Commerciale and the Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura . The later bombing, known as the Piazza Fontana bombing of 12 December 1969, killed 16 and injured 90. On 17 May 1972, police officer Luigi Calabresi , who was subsequently awarded a gold medal of the Italian Republic for civil valour,
2548-517: The Sicilian Mafia Commission formed in the late 1950s. The Mafia was fighting for the control of the profitable opportunities brought about by rapid urban growth and the heroin trade to North America. The ferocity of the struggle was unprecedented, reaping 68 victims from 1961 to 1963. The Antimafia Commission submitted its final report in 1976. The Mafia had created ties with the political world. The period 1958–1964, when Salvo Lima (DC)
2646-534: The 1960s, and part of the military indulged in "sabre rattling" to intimidate progressive political forces, numerous left-wing activists became increasingly frustrated at social inequalities, while the myth of guerrilla (Che Guevara, the Uruguayan Tupamaros) and of the Chinese Maoist "cultural revolution" increasingly inspired extreme left-wing violent movements. Social protests, in which the student movement
2744-549: The 2011 European Parliament nomination hearings. In December 2011, Draghi oversaw a €489 billion ($ 640 billion), three-year loan program from the ECB to European banks. The program was around the same size as the US Troubled Asset Relief Program (2008) though still much smaller than the overall US response including the Federal Reserve 's asset purchases and other actions of that time. In February, 2012,
2842-600: The Aventine Hill , a clumsy maneuver which, in effect, left the field open to the fascists. They then had the fate of Italy in their hands for two decades. With the implementation of fascist laws (Royal Decree of 6 November 1926), all political parties operating on Italian territory were dissolved, with the exception of the National Fascist Party . Some of these parties expatriated and reconstituted themselves abroad, especially in France. Thus an anti-fascist coalition
2940-565: The Christian Democrats to incorporate the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI) in the Tambroni government led to violent and bloody riots (Genoa, Reggio Emilia), and was defeated. Up until the Nineties, two types of governmental coalitions characterised the politics of post-war Italy. The first were "centrist" coalitions led by the Christian Democracy party together with smaller parties:
3038-415: The Christian Democrats. These included taxation of real estate profits and of share dividends (designed to curb speculation), increases in pensions for various categories of workers, a law on school organisation (to provide for a unified secondary school with compulsory attendance up to the age of 14), the nationalisation of the electric-power industry, and significant wage rises for workers (including those in
History of the Italian Republic - Misplaced Pages Continue
3136-553: The DC. This coalition lasted in parliament first for 12 years (from 1964 to 1976) and then with a revival in the Eighties that lasted until the start of the Nineties. The PSI entered government in 1963. During the first year of the new Centre-Left Government, a wide range of measures were carried out which went some way towards the Socialist Party's requirements for governing in coalition with
3234-571: The ECB, the establishment of an executive branch with a European Finance Ministry and greater oversight powers for the European Parliament. He also asserted that the ECB's role in maintaining price stability throughout the financial crisis and the oil price rises should not be overlooked. He stated, in response to a question from a German newspaper attacking the ECB's credibility following its bond-buying; ...first, we were called to deliver price stability! ... We have delivered price stability over
3332-410: The Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement. Victor Emmanuel formally abdicated on 9 May 1946; his son became king as Umberto II of Italy . The 1946 Italian institutional referendum was held on 2 June. The republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. The Kingdom of Italy was no more. It
3430-773: The Interior Minister Mariano Rumor was present, an anarchist , Gianfranco Bertoli , threw a bomb killing four and injuring 45. Count Edgardo Sogno revealed in his memoirs that in July 1974, he visited the CIA station chief in Rome to inform him of the preparation of a neo-fascist coup. Asking him what the US government would do in case of such an operation, Sogno wrote that the CIA officer responsible for Italy answered him that "the United States would have supported any initiative tending to keep
3528-640: The Italian economy through the Marshall Plan . In the same years, Italy also became a founding member of the ECSC (1952) and of the European Economic Community (1957), later developed into the European Union . At the end of the 1950s, an impressive economic growth was termed " Italian economic miracle ", a term that is still recognized in Italian politics . The impact of the economic miracle on Italian society
3626-450: The Italian electorate of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the electoral outcome on 18 April; the Christian Democrats ( Democrazia Cristiana , DC), under the undisputed leadership of Alcide De Gasperi won a resounding victory with 48% of the vote, which was their best result ever and not repeated since, while the FDP only received 31% of the votes. The Communist Party widely outdid
3724-576: The PSDI, the PRT, and the PLI. The first democratic government (1947) excluded both the PCI and the PSI, which brought about the political period known as "centrist government", which ruled over Italian politics from 1948 to 1963. The centre-left coalition (DC-PRI-PSDI-PSI) was the second type of coalition that characterised Italian politics, coming about in 1963 when the PSI (formerly the opposition party) went into government with
3822-468: The PSI, PSDI, PRI, PLI, and others. Anti-establishment sentiment resulted in a 1993 referendum enabling the reform of the electoral system from pure proportional representation to a majoritarian-leaning mixed system . Media magnate Silvio Berlusconi entered politics with his conservative Forza Italia party and won the 1994 general election , forming the short-lived Berlusconi I Cabinet . He went on to become one of Italy's most important figures over
3920-517: The Po plain supported by the Italian resistance movement , and defeated the fascist Italian Social Republic , a puppet state instituted by Nazi Germany and headed by Benito Mussolini . Mussolini was killed by resistance fighters in April 1945. Much like Japan and Germany , the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of
4018-628: The Republican Party on the one hand, and the maximalist socialists. In the 1919 elections, the parties most imbued with republican ideology (the maximalist socialists and the Republican Party) won, obtaining 165 out of 508 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In the 1921 elections, after the foundation of the Italian Communist Party, the three parties republican, maximalist socialist and communist obtained 145 deputies out of 535. Overall, at
History of the Italian Republic - Misplaced Pages Continue
4116-662: The Socialists in the distribution of seats in Parliament, and gained a solid position as the main opposition party in Italy, even if it would never return in government. For almost four decades, Italian elections were successively won by the DC, a centrist party. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947 , Istria , Kvarner , most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara
4214-1038: The Soviet Union and the US. After the Soviet-inspired February 1948 communist coup in Czechoslovakia the US became alarmed about Soviet intentions and feared that the Soviet-funded PCI would draw Italy into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence if the leftist coalition were to win the elections. In response, in March 1948 the United States National Security Council issued its first document proffering recommendations to avoid such an outcome which were widely and energetically implemented. Tons of letters were sent by mostly Italian Americans urging Italians not to vote Communist. US agencies made numerous short-wave propaganda radio broadcasts and funded
4312-415: The alliance with Nazi Germany and Italy's entry into World War II on 10 June 1940. Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered . Nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died in World War II, society was divided and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century. In
4410-440: The beginning of the interwar period, less than 30% of those elected were in favor of the establishment of a republican regime. In this context, the rise of Benito Mussolini 's fascist movement was based on the bitterness generated by the " mutilated victory ", the fear of social unrest and the rejection of revolutionary, republican and Marxist ideology. The liberal political system and part of the aristocracy chose to erect fascism as
4508-438: The communists out of government." General Maletti declared, in 2001, that he had not known about Sogno's relations to the CIA and had not been informed of the right-wing coup, known as Golpe Bianco (White Coup), and prepared with Randolfo Pacciardi . General Vito Miceli , chief of the SIOS military intelligence agency from 1969 on, and head of the SID from 1970 to 1974, was arrested in 1974 on charges of "conspiracy against
4606-412: The conquest of the whole of southern Italy during the Expedition of the Thousand , Garibaldi handed over the conquered territories to the king of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II , which were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia after a plebiscite. This earned him heavy criticism from numerous republicans who accused him of treason. While a laborious administrative unification began, a first Italian parliament
4704-428: The crisis by buying the government bonds of eurozone member states. ECB board members Axel A. Weber and Jürgen Stark resigned in protest at this policy, even if it helped prevent states from defaulting. IMF economist Pau Rabanal argued that Trichet "maintained a relatively expansionary monetary policy," but even "sacrificed the ECB's inflation target for the sake of greater economic growth and jobs creation, and not
4802-452: The death of Felice Cavallotti in 1898, the radical left gave up on posing the institutional problem. In Italian politics, the socialist party progressively divided into two tendencies: a maximalist one, led among others by Arturo Labriola and Enrico Ferri , and supporting the use of strikes; the other, reformist and pro-government, was led by Filippo Turati . A nationalist movement emerged, led in particular by Enrico Corradini , as well as
4900-483: The early 1970s onwards, and between 1969 and 1978, average real wages rose by 72%. Various fringe benefits were raised to the extent that they amounted to an additional 50% to 60% on wages, the highest in any country in the Western world. In addition, working hours were reduced so that by the end of the decade they were lower than any other country apart from Belgium. Some categories of workers who were laid off received generous unemployment compensation which represented only
4998-399: The eurozone, Draghi stated in a panel discussion that the ECB "...is ready to do whatever it takes to preserve the Euro. And believe me, it will be enough." This statement led to a steady decline in bond yields (borrowing costs) for eurozone countries, in particular Spain, Italy and France. In light of slow political progress on solving the eurozone crisis, Draghi's statement has been seen as
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#17328555902355096-411: The final phases of World War II , King Victor Emmanuel III , tainted by his former support for the Fascist regime , had tried to save the monarchy by nominating his son and heir Umberto "general lieutenant of the kingdom"; the king promised that after the end of the war the Italian people could choose its form of government through a referendum . In April 1945, the Allies of World War II advanced in
5194-433: The first 12–13 years of the euro! Impeccably! I would like very much to hear some congratulations for this institution, which has delivered price stability in Germany over almost 13 years at approximately 1.55% - as the yearly average of inflation - we will recalculate the figure to the second decimal. This figure is better than any ever obtained in this country over a period of 13 years in the past 50 years. So, my first remark
5292-404: The foundations of political science and republicanism. But it was Giuseppe Mazzini who revived the republican idea in Italy in the 19th century. An Italian nationalist in the historical radical tradition and a proponent of a republicanism of social-democratic inspiration, Mazzini helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. Mazzini's thoughts had
5390-448: The historian Paul Ginsborg, the affluent society to this section of the Italian population "might have meant a television set but precious little else". During the First Republic, the Christian Democracy slowly but steadily lost support, as society modernised and the traditional values at its ideological core became less appealing to the population. Various options of extending the parliamentary majority were considered, mainly an opening to
5488-403: The impetus of these groups, the Action Party , Mazzini's former republican party, was re-established. Between the end of 1942 and the beginning of 1943, Alcide De Gasperi wrote The reconstructive ideas of Christian Democracy , which laid the foundations of the new Catholic-inspired party, the Christian Democracy . It brought together the veterans of Luigi Sturzo 's Italian People's Party and
5586-497: The impoverished South to the booming industrial North, took place. This however exacerbated social contrasts, including between the old-established "worker aristocracy" and the new less qualified immigrants ("operaio-massa") of Southern origin. In addition, a wide gap between rich and poor continued to exist. By the end of the Sixties, it was estimated that 4 million Italians (out of a population of 54.5 million) were unemployed, underemployed, and casual labourers. As noted by
5684-403: The larger working class. An interesting exception were the "red regions" ( Emilia Romagna , Tuscany, Umbria ) where the Italian Communist Party has historically had a wide support. This is considered a consequence of the particular sharecropping ("mezzadria") farming contracts used in these regions. The Holy See actively supported the Christian Democracy, judging it would be a mortal sin for
5782-402: The late 1960–1970s came to be known as the Opposti Estremismi , (from left-wing and right-wing extremists riots), later renamed Years of Lead ( anni di piombo ) because of a wave of bombings and shootings – the first victim of this period was Antonio Annarumma , a policeman, killed on 12 November 1969 in Milan during a left-wing demonstration. In December, four bombings struck in Rome
5880-404: The left ( apertura a sinistra ), i.e., to the Socialist Party (PSI), which after the 1956 events in Hungary had moved from a position of total subordination to the Communists to an independent position. Proponents of such a coalition proposed a series much-needed "structural reforms" that would modernize the country and create a modern social-democracy. In 1960, an attempt by the right wing of
5978-435: The markets. He had however made some mistakes during the crisis, for example by: raising interest rates just after inflation topped out and just prior to the recession triggered by the Lehman Brothers collapse ; also by its early timidity in buying eurozone state bonds. In his final appearance (his 35th) before the European Parliament, Trichet called for more political unity, including; significant new powers to be granted to
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#17328555902356076-410: The need for such a law was obviated by the Ciaculli massacre in June of the following year, in which seven policemen and soldiers were killed attempting to defuse a car bomb in the suburbs of Palermo. The existence of the bomb had been disclosed by an anonymous telephone call. The massacre took place in the frame of the First Mafia War in the 1960s, with the bomb intended for Salvatore Greco , head of
6174-416: The newly nationalised electric-power industry), which led to a rise in consumer demand. Urged on by the PSI, the government also made brave attempts to tackle issues relating to welfare services, hospitals, the agrarian structure, urban development, education, and overall planning. For instance, during the Centre-Left Government's time in office, social security was extended to previously uncovered categories of
6272-439: The next two decades, serving as prime minister again from 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. The rise of the new conservative right saw the old centre and left consolidate into the Olive Tree coalition, comprising the post-Communist Democrats of the Left and Christian democratic The Daisy , which together founded the Democratic Party (PD) in 2007. They competed against Berlusconi's centre-right coalition , comprising Forza Italia,
6370-444: The oath of loyalty to the monarchy, necessary to be elected, was the subject of controversy within the republican forces. In 1873 Felice Cavallotti , one of the most committed Italian politicians against the monarchy, preceded his oath with a declaration in which he reaffirmed his republican beliefs. In 1882, a new electoral law lowered the census limit for voting rights, increasing the number of voters to over two million, equal to 7% of
6468-485: The other way round." While straying from his mandate, he has however still kept interest rates under control and maintained greater price stability than the Deutsche Bundesbank did before the euro. As well as defending the ECB's independence and balancing its commitment to interest rates and economic stability, Trichet also fought Sarkozy for automatic sanctions in the EU fiscal reforms and opposite Merkel's against private sector involvement in bail outs so as not to scare
6566-409: The outbreak of World War I , Italy began to be counted among the world's liberal democracies. After World War I, Italian political life was animated by four great movements. Two of these movements were in favor of democratic development within the framework of existing monarchical institutions: the reformist socialists and the Italian People's Party . Two other movements challenged these institutions:
6664-407: The parliamentary majority, an operation called the Historic Compromise . At this point, the PCI was the largest communist party in western Europe; this was largely due to its reformist orientation, to its growing independence from Moscow and to the new Eurocommunism doctrine. In the period of terror attacks of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the parliamentary majority was composed by the parties of
6762-497: The participation of populist parties. The COVID-19 pandemic and its associated economic issues brought about a government of national unity led by Mario Draghi , the former president of the European Central Bank . In the history of Italy there are several so-called "republican" governments that have followed one another over time. Examples are the ancient Roman Republic and the medieval maritime republics . From Cicero to Niccolò Machiavelli , Italian philosophers have imagined
6860-403: The popular Catholic movement and other liberal movements. This coalition dissolved on 5 May 1934 and, in August of the same year, the pact of unity of action was signed between the Italian Socialist Party and the Italian Communist Party. In the meantime, in Italy, clandestine anti-fascist nuclei were formed, in particular in Milan with Ferruccio Parri and in Florence with Riccardo Bauer . Under
6958-443: The population. In addition, entrance to university by examination was abolished in 1965. Despite these important reforms, however, the reformist drive was soon lost, and the most important problems (including the mafia, social inequalities, inefficient state/social services, north–south imbalance) remained largely untackled. The Italian Parliament voted, in December 1962, a law which created an Antimafia Commission . Any question about
7056-615: The population. In the same year the Italian Workers' Party was created, which in 1895 became the Italian Socialist Party . In 1895 the intransigent republicans agreed to participate in the political life of the Kingdom, establishing the Italian Republican Party . Two years later, the far left reached its historical maximum level in Parliament with 81 deputies, for the three radical-democratic, socialist components and Republican. With
7154-580: The presidency of the Pope . Subsequently, the philosopher Carlo Cattaneo promoted a secular and republican Italy in the extension of Mazzini's ideas, but organized as a federal republic. The political projects of Mazzini and Cattaneo were thwarted by the action of the Piedmontese Prime Minister Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , and Giuseppe Garibaldi . The latter set aside his republican ideas to favor Italian unity. After having obtained
7252-590: The principles of freedom, independence and unity, but also to oust the monarchic regimes pre-existing the unification, including the Kingdom of Sardinia . The foundation of the Young Italy constitutes a key moment of the Italian Risorgimento and this republican program precedes in time the proposals for the unification of Italy of Vincenzo Gioberti and Cesare Balbo , aimed at reunifying the Italian territory under
7350-501: The publishing of books and articles, warning the Italians of the perceived consequences of a Communist victory. The CIA also funded the centre-right political parties and was accused of publishing forged letters to discredit the leaders of the PCI. The PCI itself was accused of being funded by Moscow and the Cominform , and in particular via export deals to the communist countries . Fears in
7448-404: The relatively poor South was significantly increased, while new laws relating to index-linked pay, public housing, and pension provision were also passed. In 1975, a law was passed entitling redundant workers to receive at least 80% of their previous salary for up to a year from a state insurance fund. Living standards also continued to rise, with wages going up by an average of about 25% a year from
7546-507: The right to vote. In the political panorama of the time there was a republican political movement which had its martyrs, such as the soldier Pietro Barsanti . Barsanti was a supporter of republican ideas, and was a soldier in the Royal Italian Army with the rank of corporal. He was sentenced to death and shot in 1870 for having favored an insurrectional attempt against the Savoy monarchy and
7644-522: The right-wing National Alliance , and northern Italian regionalist Northern League . The collapse of Berlusconi's fourth cabinet in 2011 resulted in the formation of the technocratic Monti Cabinet until 2013. Enduring dissatisfaction saw the rise of the populist Five Star Movement (M5S) and the Northern League (rebranded League, Lega ). After the Italian general elections of 2013 and 2018 , grand coalition governments were formed, this time with
7742-403: The same time, the doubling of Italian GDP, which occurred between 1950 and 1962 Italians families used their newfound wealth to purchase consumer durables for the first time. In 1955, only 3% of households owned refrigerators and 1% washing machines; by 1975, the respective figures were 94% and 76%. In addition, 66% of all homes had come to possess cars. As noted by the historian Paul Ginsborg: In
7840-414: The south had no running drinking water, and only 57% had a lavatory. In the 1950s, several important reforms were launched: e.g., agrarian reform ( legge Scelba ), fiscal reform ( legge Vanoni ), and the country enjoyed a period of extraordinary economic development (Italian: miracolo economico , lit. 'economic miracle'). In this period of time, a massive population transfer, from
7938-616: The state". Following his arrest, the Italian secret services were reorganized with a 24 October 1977 law in a democratic attempt to regain civilian and parliamentary control of them. The SID was divided into the current SISMI , the SISDE and the CESIS , which had a coordination role and was directly led by the President of the Council . Furthermore, a Parliamentary Committee on Secret services control (Copaco)
8036-522: The twenty years from 1950 to 1970 per capita income in Italy grew more rapidly than in any other European country: from a base of 100 in 1950 to 234.1 in 1970, compared to France's increase from 100 to 136 in the same period, and Britain's 100 to 132. By 1970 Italian per capita income, which in 1945 had lagged far behind that of the northern European countries, had reached 60 per cent of that in France and 82 per cent of that in Britain. A gaping north–south divide
8134-484: The young people of Catholic associations, in particular of the University Federation. Not only did Victor Emmanuel III appeal to Mussolini to form the government in 1922 and allow him to proceed with the domestication of Parliament, but he did not even draw the consequences of the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti in 1924. He accepted the title of emperor in 1936 at the end of Second Italo-Ethiopian War , then
8232-408: Was a major factor of socio-economic weakness, a problem that still exists today, and even now there is a huge difference in official income between northern and southern regions and municipalities. Christian Democracy's main support areas (sometimes known as "vote tanks") were the rural areas in South, Center and North-East Italy, whereas the industrial North-West had more left-leaning support because of
8330-581: Was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus , which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians ( Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians , choosing to maintain Italian citizenship. Later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending
8428-426: Was assassinated in Milan. Sixteen years later, Adriano Sofri , Giorgio Pietrostefani and Ovidio Bompressi and Leonardo Marino were arrested in Milan, accused by the confession of Leonardo Marino, one of the participants in the assassination. Highly controversial, the trial concluded, after an alternance of convictions and acquittals, to their guilt. During a ceremony in honour of Luigi Calabresi on 17 May 1973, where
8526-578: Was created at the same occasion. 1978 was the year with the most terrorist actions. Christian Democrat Aldo Moro was assassinated in May 1978 by the Red Brigades , a terrorist leftist group then led by Mario Moretti . Before his murder, Aldo Moro, a central figure in the Christian Democrat Party, several times prime minister, was trying to include the Communist Party, headed by Enrico Berlinguer , in
8624-532: Was elected consul for the first of three years in a row. Civil wars would follow with the first breaking out in 238, another in 249 followed by a third in 253. From 235 through 284 the average reign of a Roman Emperor was just 18 months, down from average just over 9 years during the first centuries of the Empire. President of the European Central Bank The president of the European Central Bank
8722-479: Was elected and, on 17 March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy . From 1861 to 1946, Italy was a constitutional monarchy founded on the Albertine Statute , named after the king who promulgated it in 1848, Charles Albert of Sardinia . The parliament included a Senate , whose members were appointed by the king, and a Chamber of Deputies , elected by census vote. In 1861 only 2% of Italians had
8820-603: Was formed on 29 March 1927 in Paris, the " Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana ", which brought together the Italian Republican Party , the Italian Socialist Party , the Socialist Unitary Party of Italian Workers , the Italian League for Human Rights and the foreign representation of the Italian General Confederation of Labour . Some movements remained outside, including the Italian Communist Party ,
8918-538: Was huge. Fast economic expansion induced massive inflows of migrants from rural Southern Italy to the industrial cities of the North. Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the "industrial triangle", the name for the region placed between the major manufacturing centres of Milan and Turin and the seaport of Genoa . Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities and creating large metropolitan areas. At
9016-487: Was made and stated in February 2002 that he would stay in office until his 68th birthday on 9 July 2003. In the meanwhile Jean-Claude Trichet was not cleared of legal accusations before 1 June 2002, so he was not able to begin his term after Duisenberg's first four years. Even on 9 July 2003 Trichet was not cleared, and therefore Duisenberg remained in office until 1 November 2003. Duisenberg died on 31 July 2005. Jean-Claude Trichet became president in 2003 and served during
9114-517: Was marked by violence, it was also a time of great social and economic progress. Following the civil disturbances of the 1960s, Christian Democracy and its allies in government (including the PSI) introduced a wide range of political, social, and economic reforms. Regional governments were introduced in the spring of 1970, with elected councils provided with the authority to legislate in areas like public works, town planning, social welfare, and health. Spending on
9212-556: Was mayor of Palermo and Vito Ciancimino (DC) was assessor for public works, was later referred to as the " Sack of Palermo ". In 1965, the SIFAR intelligence agency was transformed into the SID following an aborted coup d'état , Piano Solo , which was to give the power to the Carabinieri , then headed by General De Lorenzo . The difficult equilibrium of Italian society was challenged by
9310-702: Was particularly active, shook Italy during the 1969 Hot Autumn ( autunno caldo ), leading to the occupation of the Fiat factory in Turin. In March 1968, clashes occurred at La Sapienza university in Rome, during the " Battle of Valle Giulia ". Mario Capanna , associated with the New Left , was one of the figures of the student movement, along with the members of Potere Operaio and Autonomia Operaia such as Antonio Negri , Oreste Scalzone , Franco Piperno and of Lotta Continua such as Adriano Sofri . The period of
9408-425: Was president from 1 November 2011 until 31 October 2019 (succeeded by Christine Lagarde ). Pascal Canfin , Member of the European Parliament for France, asserted that Draghi had been involved in swaps for European governments, namely Greece, trying to disguise their countries' economic status. Draghi responded that the deals were "undertaken before my joining Goldman Sachs [and] I had nothing to do with" them, in
9506-404: Was radically transformed in the early 1990s due to two major shocks: the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the wide-reaching Tangentopoli corruption scandal from 1992 to 1994. The former caused the dissolution and split of the PCI and splintering of the opposition, while the latter led to the collapse of nearly every established political party in Italy, including Christian Democracy,
9604-484: Was the first time that the whole Italian Peninsula was under a form of republican governance since the end of the ancient Roman Republic . The House of Savoy , the Italian royal family, was exiled. Victor Emmanuel left for Egypt , where he died in 1947. Umberto, who had been king for only a month, moved to Portugal . The referendum at the origin of the Italian republic was, however, the subject of some controversy, not least because of some contested results and because of
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