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70-656: The new law created an association between Church and state that lasted until the anti-clerical Ferry laws in the early 1880s established free and secular education in the Third Republic . The Falloux laws provided universal primary schooling in France and expanded opportunities for secondary schooling. In practice, the curricula in Catholic and state schools were similar. Catholic schools were especially useful in schooling for girls, which had long been neglected. The main objectives of

140-488: A constitutional monarchy . Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother, the Count of Artois, ascended to the throne in 1824, as Charles X . Supported by the ultra-royalists , Charles X was an extremely unpopular reactionary monarch whose aspirations were far more grand than those of his deceased brother. He had no desire to rule as a constitutional monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch and weaken that of

210-511: A deaf ear to the reform movement, and discontent among wide sections of the French people continued to grow. Social and political discontent sparked revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848, which in turn inspired revolts in other parts of Europe. Workers lost their jobs, bread prices rose, and people accused the government of corruption . The French revolted and set up a republic. French successes led to other revolts, including those who wanted relief from

280-410: A guaranteed minimum wage. Any town could transfer its public collège to the Catholic system. All schools were inspected by government officials and the state alone had the right to award the baccalauréat. The law worked as intended to increase the Catholic role. The growth in Catholic schools 1854 to 1867 was 75 percent, as opposed to 34 percent for the secondary school system as a whole. The Falloux Law

350-516: A large-scale protest against the government of François Guizot , it later developed into a violent uprising against the monarchy. After intense urban fighting, large crowds managed to take control of the capital, leading to the abdication of King Louis Philippe on 24 February and the subsequent proclamation of the Second Republic. Under the Charter of 1814 , Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of

420-517: A mob on the 25th. After Louis Philippe's abdication, his daughter-in-law Helena, Duchess of Orléans , became the presumptive regent of France as the mother of Philippe, Count of Paris. She therefore, along with her son, went from the Tuileries to the Chamber of Deputies to try to prevent the abolition of the monarchy. However, following their victory at the Tuileries, the revolutionary crowd broke into

490-609: A proposition by the moderate Republican Pascal Duprat . This parallel Commission was presided by the Minister of Public Instruction de Vaulabelle and had as secretary the Republican Jules Simon . Parliamentary debates focused on Article 9 of the new Constitution concerning education. Catholic deputy Charles de Montalembert then described the University's monopoly in the education system as "intellectual communism" and claimed

560-427: A third of Paris was on social welfare . Writers such as Louis Blanc ("The right to work ") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (" Property is theft !") proliferated. Bastiat, who was one of the most famous political writers of the 1840s, had written countless works concerning the economic situation before 1848, and provided a different explanation of why the French people were forced to rise in the revolt. He believed that

630-527: The Ancien Régime . The Bourbon Restoration had in part satisfied these wants, by tolerating teaching by religious congregations, although it still theoretically remained prohibited, and had also granted more weight to bishops in the education system, enabling schooling programs to give more attention to Catholicism. However, the July Monarchy was much less friendly to this reactionary trend. Although

700-637: The February Revolution ( Révolution de février ), was a period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic . It sparked the wave of revolutions of 1848 . The revolution took place in Paris , and was preceded by the French government's crackdown on the campagne des banquets . Starting on 22 February as

770-539: The Guizot Law of 1833 partially satisfied Catholics by authorising private teaching in primary education, it kept secondary and higher education under the University's supervision. Guizot also generalised the écoles normales primaires , which were responsible for the training of teachers. First created by the National Convention in 1794, these schools, related to the écoles normales supérieures , were organised on

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840-749: The Liberation , the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) did not repeal the teaching authorisation given to congregations. The Debré Law of 1959 went further, by having private schools' teachers paid by the state. Although the Falloux Laws have formally been repealed since the promulgation of the Education Code in 2000, several of their dispositions have been retained in the Code, and form

910-566: The lower house . In 1830, Charles X of France, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisers, Jules, Prince de Polignac , issued the Four Ordinances of St. Cloud . These ordinances abolished freedom of the press , reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked an immediate reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of 26–29 July 1830. Charles

980-589: The Atlantic Coast to file for bankruptcy, along with the one owned by Bastiat's family. Indeed, most of Bastiat's early works concern the situation in Bayonne and Bordeaux, two large merchant harbors before the Napoleonic Wars, gradually devastated first by Napoleon I's continental blockade, and later by the protectionist legislation of the nineteenth century. According to Bastiat's biographer, G.C. Roche, just prior to

1050-792: The Camp—the Rèforme and the National—March of Democracy" published in The Northern Star on 4 December 1847; "Reform Banquet at Lille—Speech of LeDru-Rollin" published in The Northern Star on 16 December 1847; "Reform Movement in France—Banquet of Dijon" published in The Northern Star on 18 December 1847; "The Réforme and the National" published in the Deutsche-Brüsseler-Zeitung on 30 December 1847; and "Louis Blanc's Speech at

1120-508: The Château d'Eau, a guard post on the way to the Tuileries held by about one hundred men of the Municipal Guard and the despised 14th Line Regiment. After intense fighting, the Château d'Eau was overrun and set on fire, with the surviving soldiers throwing away their weapons in surrender. With the insurgents closing in on the royal palace, Thiers advised Louis Philippe to leave Paris and crush

1190-592: The Dijon Banquet" published in the Deutsche-Brusseler-Zeitung on 30 December 1847. On 14 January 1848, ahead of the highly awaited next banquet in Paris, the government of prime minister François Guizot outlawed it. Nonetheless, the banquet's organizers decided that it would still be held, alongside a political demonstration, and scheduled it for 22 February. Aware of the political gatherings scheduled for

1260-587: The Falloux Laws was to replace the revolutionary and imperial system, which had placed the whole of the education system under the supervision of the University and of state-trained teachers, who were accused of spreading Republicans and anti-clerical ideas, by a system giving responsibility for education back to the clergy. This aim was largely achieved: the Falloux Law created a mixed system, public (and mostly secular) on one hand, and private and Catholic on

1330-561: The Institute, and three members representing "free" (i.e. private) teaching establishments. Similarly, bishops were included in the academic councils. Primary and secondary education were divided between state establishments, and private establishments, headed by non-profit organisations or religious congregations. Supervision of schools was the joint responsibility of the mayor and the priest. The law more strictly regulated teacher training colleges (écoles normales) and teachers were provided with

1400-534: The King then requested Count Molé to form a new government. Upon Guizot's resignation, the leaders of the Movement Party (known as the "dynastic opposition"), Adolphe Thiers and Odilon Barrot , congratulated themselves on achieving a change of ministry while preserving the monarchy. After news of Guizot's resignation spread through Paris, fighting gradually ceased and the crowds began to celebrate. However, despite

1470-510: The Minister Falloux himself, it had as vice-president Adolphe Thiers , and included Catholics such as the archbishop of Paris Mgr Sibour , the abbot Dupanloup (who later became bishop of Orléans ), etc. Surprisingly, Thiers, formerly a critic of the Church's involvement in education, was one of those who most supported Catholics' influence in the education system, being ready to hand over to

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1540-563: The Orléanists and opposed on his right by the Legitimists (former ultra-royalists) and on his left by the Republicans . Louis Philippe was an expert businessman and, by means of his businesses, he had become one of the richest men in France. Louis Philippe saw himself as the successful embodiment of a "small businessman" ( petite bourgeoisie ). He and his government did not look with favor on

1610-609: The Reform" ( Vive la réforme ). The National Guard was mobilized, however its soldiers refused to engage the crowds, and instead joined them in their demonstrations against Guizot and King Louis Philippe. In the early afternoon, Louis Philippe summoned Guizot to the Tuileries Palace , the king's residence, and reluctantly asked for his resignation. Guizot returned to the Parliament where he announced his resignation as prime minister, and

1680-458: The United Kingdom, including the ban on importing tea, perceived as destructive to the French national spirit. As the United Kingdom was the largest economy in the world in the nineteenth century, France deprived itself of its most important economic partner, one that could have supplied France with what it lacked and bought surplus French goods. Such governmental policies and obliviousness to

1750-516: The University and thus strengthening the notables' local influence. It reorganised the Superior Council of Education and academic councils, specifically by giving a large number of places to representatives of various religions, above all of Roman Catholicism. Eight University members had seats at the Superior Council of Public Instruction, alongside seven religious representatives (including four Catholics), three state counsellors , three members of

1820-688: The afternoon, protesters were dispersed from the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine. The crowds were too large to be arrested or contained, and so they spread out around the Champs-Élysées and back into southeast Paris, building the first barricades . In the evening, early skirmishes took place with the Municipal Guard. On 23 February, the Ministry of War requested more regular troops from outside Paris. Crowds marched past Guizot's residence shouting "Down with Guizot" ( À bas Guizot ) and "Long Live

1890-680: The balcony of the Hôtel de Ville and, followed by a euphoric cheering from the crowd, announced the proclamation of the French Republic. The February Revolution had a major impact in Europe, sparking a revolutionary wave known as the Revolutions of 1848 . The American chargé d'affaires to the Austrian Empire , William H. Stiles , reported the Revolution "fell like a bomb amid the states and kingdoms of

1960-567: The banquet leaders were recalled to their normal duties by the Prefect of Police . Only a small number of troops remained at critical points. Shortly before noon, large crowds began flooding out onto the streets of Paris, gathering from the eastern suburbs and the Latin Quarter towards the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine . Their appearance came as a surprise to the authorities, after

2030-487: The basis of the 1808 decree organising the University of France, and were accused by conservatives of promoting Republicanism, Socialism and anti-clericalism. After the 1848 Revolution , Lazare Hippolyte Carnot was named Minister of Public Instruction and prepared a draft reform. He named the Republican Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire president of the parliamentary commission which would write

2100-591: The big business (bourgeoisie), especially the industrial section of the French bourgeoisie, yet Louis Philippe did support the bankers, large and small. At the beginning of his reign in 1830, Jaques Laffitte, a banker and liberal politician who supported Louis Philippe's rise to the throne, said "From now on, the bankers will rule." During the reign of Louis Philippe, the privileged "financial aristocracy", i.e. bankers, stock exchange magnates, railroad barons, owners of coal mines, iron ore mines, and forests and all landowners associated with them, tended to support him, while

2170-501: The clergy the whole of the primary education establishments, whilst bishop Dupanloup and others strong Catholics calmed his excessive claims. Upset by this measure, in part because the December 1848 decree had given the initiative for the legislative process, concerning organic laws, to the Assembly, the latter nominated a new parliamentary Commission to re-establish its prerogatives following

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2240-445: The crowd not to pass, but the soldiers began to be pressed by the crowd. The officer then ordered his men to fix bayonets in order to keep people at distance. However, as they were performing this, an unidentified weapon was discharged, and in response the soldiers opened fire on the crowd in a fusillade . 52 people were killed and 74 others were injured, and the crowd immediately dispersed as people fled in all directions. News of

2310-582: The draft bill to the Assembly). Falloux also managed to bypass the Conseil d'Etat 's examination of the law, the latter being composed of several Republicans. In September 1849, Falloux fell sick, and was replaced in October as Minister of Public Instruction by Félix Esquirou de Parieu . On 11 January 1850, a minor law (named Parieu Law) was passed, simplifying procedures of suspension and revocation of teachers. The draft

2380-515: The draft. The latter would have made education mandatory for children of both sexes, as well as a three years of training for teachers, subsidised by the state. Although it favoured public schools, it still allowed private teaching establishments. Carnot's draft was however set aside after his resignation on 5 July 1848. Thus, parliamentary debates were resumed. The newly elected President Louis Napoléon Bonaparte replaced Carnot with Alfred de Falloux as Minister of Public Instruction in December 1848,

2450-521: The employment of children less than 13 years old for night-time work. This law was routinely flouted. The year 1846 saw a financial crisis and bad harvests, and the following year saw an economic depression. A poor railway system hindered aid efforts, and the peasant rebellions that resulted were forcibly crushed. According to French economist Frédéric Bastiat , the poor condition of the railway system can largely be attributed to French efforts to promote other systems of transport, such as carriages. Perhaps

2520-438: The evening, the final list of the eleven individuals who would form the Provisional Government was drawn up, with its members then being announced one by one to the crowd outside. Its composition was the result of a compromise between the moderate and radical tendencies of the republican movement, associated, respectively, with the newspapers Le National and La Réforme . In the early hours of 25 February, Lamartine came to

2590-524: The events were supposedly cancelled, and led to a confused initial response. The crowds, mostly unarmed, easily overcame the few Municipal Guardsmen, filling the squares and nearly invading the Palais Bourbon , the seat of the Chamber of Deputies . These demonstrations soon developed into a large-scale, popular revolt, making 22 February the first day of the Revolution. With the arrival of reinforcements in

2660-462: The fall of an unpopular government, underlying social pressures remained, and republicans still sought to secure a change of regime. At around 9:30 pm, a crowd of over six hundred gathered outside the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Boulevard des Capucines . The building was guarded by about two hundred men of the 14th Line Infantry Regiment  [ fr ] . The commanding officer ordered

2730-623: The first and second section of the Falloux Law. In 1904, among increasing voices to repeal entirely the Falloux Law, the Minister Emile Combes prohibited religious congregations from teaching, including in private schools. However, Catholics responded by creating "lay private schools", where religious education was maintained, although teaching was done by lay people, and not clergy. The Vichy Regime allowed again religious congregations to teach and strongly subsided private Catholic schools. Although these subsidies were interrupted following

2800-407: The following day, the French government banned the political banquets for the second time on 21 February. The ban succeeded in pressuring the organizing committee to cancel the events. However, the workers and students, mobilising in the previous days, refused to back down over the demonstrations. 22 February started quietly, and at 9 a.m., members of the Municipal Guard who had been assigned to arrest

2870-441: The forefront of French schooling and society, describing his program in his Memoirs : "God in education. The Pope at the head of the Church. The Church at the head of civilisation." Having dissolved Carnot's commission, Falloux created two new ministerial commissions, dedicated to preparing the draft laws for primary and secondary education, which quickly merged. Both were composed by a majority of conservative Catholics. Presided by

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2940-794: The government to expand the electoral franchise, just as Great Britain had done with the Reform Act 1832 . The more radical democrats of the reform movement coalesced around the newspaper, La Réforme ; the more moderate republicans and the liberal opposition rallied around the Le National newspaper. Starting in July 1847 the Reformists of all shades began to hold "banquets" at which toasts were drunk to "République française" (the French Republic), " Liberté, égalité, fraternité ", etc. Louis Philippe turned

3010-439: The industrial section of the bourgeoisie, which may have owned the land their factories sat on but not much more, were disfavored by Louis Philippe and actually tended to side with the middle class and laboring class in opposition to Louis Philippe in the Chamber of Deputies. Land-ownership was favored, and this elitism resulted in the disenfranchisement of much of the middle and working classes. By 1848, only about one percent of

3080-508: The king's throne, which would be burned the next day at the Place de la Bastille , they wrote, "The People of Paris to All Europe: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity . 24 February 1848". The Palais Royal , the historic seat of the Orléans family in Paris, was likewise invaded by a mob and sacked. Another Orléans residence just west of Paris, the Château de Neuilly , was pillaged and largely burned down by

3150-644: The latter remaining in Odilon Barrot 's government until May 1849. The decree of 11 December 1848 made the upcoming law on education an organic law , which should thus be reserved to the Constituent Assembly's initiative. A Legitimist (i.e. a conservative Royalist), Falloux officially withdrew Carnot's draft bill on 4 January 1849 and dissolved the Scientific and Literary Study Commission named by Carnot. Falloux clearly aimed at restoring Roman Catholicism to

3220-418: The latter would be determined by forthcoming laws. On 5 February 1849, Jules Simon presented to the Assembly the draft law, composed of 23 articles. However, Odilon Barrot's government claimed that the Constituent Assembly's mandate was coming to an end, and that further proposed laws would have to be examined by the succeeding National Assembly. Pressed for time, the Constituent Assembly thus decided to examine

3290-751: The main legislative framework for private schools. Jules Ferry laws Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.226 via cp1108 cp1108, Varnish XID 753694869 Upstream caches: cp1108 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 05:35:59 GMT 1848 Revolution in France [REDACTED] Revolutionaries [REDACTED] Government of France Non-centralized leadership Louis Philippe François Guizot Thomas Robert Bugeaud The French Revolution of 1848 ( French : Révolution française de 1848 ), also known as

3360-423: The main reasons were primarily the political corruption, along with its very complex system of monopolies, permits, and bureaucracy, which made those who were able to obtain political favors unjustly privileged and able to dictate the market conditions and caused a myriad of businesses to collapse, as well as protectionism which was the basis for the French foreign trade at the time, and which caused businesses along

3430-486: The massacre soon sparked anger among Parisians. After the crowd regrouped on the Boulevard des Capucines, some of the dead were loaded on to horse-drawn wagons and paraded through the streets by workers calling for vengeance, as a general call to arms. During the night between 23 and 24 February, over 1,500 barricades were erected throughout Paris, and many railways leading to the city were sabotaged . By 24 February, Paris

3500-411: The meeting hall of the Chamber. The effort by the dynastic opposition to secure a regency was defeated by popular calls for a Republic, and a preliminary list of members of a provisional government was announced by deputy Alphonse de Lamartine . Responding to cries of "To the Hôtel de Ville!", Lamartine, along with the left-wing republican deputy Ledru-Rollin , marched to the Hôtel de Ville. There, on

3570-511: The most pressing laws. Deputy Boubée , a scientist and University lecturer, proposed that the draft education law be one of those scrutinised, but his motion was rejected by 458 votes against 307. Discussion of the new law would thus have to wait the May 1849 legislative election . But these ones gave an absolute majority to the conservative Parti de l'Ordre , mainly composed of Catholic monarchists, whether Orleanists or Legitimists, such as Falloux who

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3640-417: The other. This law allowed the clergy and members of ecclesiastical orders, male and female, to teach without any further qualifications. This exemption was extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools, where a university degree was demanded from lay teachers. The primary schools were put under the management of the curés . The Falloux Law created one academy for each department , decentralising

3710-603: The population held the franchise. Although France had a free press and trial by jury , only landholders were permitted to vote , which alienated the petty bourgeoisie and even the industrial bourgeoisie from the government. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orléanist liberals , such as Adolphe Thiers , had turned against Louis Philippe, disappointed by his opposition to parliamentarism . A reform movement developed in France which urged

3780-511: The real reasons of economic troubles were, according to Bastiat, the main causes of the French Revolution of the 1848 and the rise of socialists and anarchists in the years preceding the revolution itself. Because political gatherings and demonstrations were outlawed in France, activists of the largely middle class opposition to the government began to hold a series of fund-raising banquets. This campaign of banquets ( Campagne des banquets ),

3850-411: The revolution from outside with an overwhelming force of regular troops; however, this strategy was soundly rejected by Thiers' colleagues, including Barrot. While the Château d'Eau burned, the king received conflicting pieces of advice from his allies, and briefly collapsed on his study. Émile de Girardin was the first of his advisors to suggest abdication. At around noon, realizing no further defense

3920-520: The revolution, 100,000 citizens of Lyon were described as "indigent" and by 1840 there were at least 130,000 abandoned children in France. International markets were not similarly troubled at the time, which Bastiat attributed to the freedom of trade. Indeed, a large part of French economic problems in the 1830s and 1840s were caused by the shortage and unnaturally high prices of different products which could have easily been imported from other countries, such as textiles, machines, tools, and ores, but doing so

3990-660: The suffering caused by the Industrial Revolution, and nationalism sprang up hoping for independence from foreign rulers. Alexis de Tocqueville observed, "We are sleeping together in a volcano. ... A wind of revolution blows, the storm is on the horizon." Lacking the property qualifications to vote, the lower classes were about to erupt in revolt. The French middle class watched changes in Britain with interest. When Britain's Reform Act 1832 extended enfranchisement to any man paying taxes of £10 or more per year (previously

4060-457: The system was "inferior to that of the Ancien Régime". Article 9 proclaimed that "education is free" (" L'enseignement est libre ")" while adding that this "freedom of education" was determined by legislation and exercised "under state supervision." While authorising private establishments, this article thus ensured that education in general was placed under the watch of the state. The extent of

4130-633: The upper-hand. It included Salomon (from the Meuse ), the Protestant theologian Coquerel , Baze, the theologian Armand de Melun (who had been a collaborator of late Denys Affre , former archbishop of Paris), de l'Espinay , Sauvaire-Barthélemy (a grandnephew of the marquis de Barthélémy ), Dufougeray, Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire , de Montalembert , Rouher , Thiers , Beugnot, Fresneau, Janvier, Parisis (bishop of Langres ). The Commission chose Thiers as president and Beugnot as " rapporteur " (in charge of presenting

4200-439: The vote was restricted to landholders), France's free press took interest. Meanwhile, economically, the French working class may perhaps have been slightly better off than Britain's working class. Still, unemployment in France threw skilled workers down to the level of the proletariat. The only nominally social law of the July Monarchy was passed in 1841. This law prohibited the use of labor of children under eight years of age, and

4270-423: Was a barricaded city, and King Louis Philippe remained without a government, as first Molé, then Thiers, failed to form a cabinet. After hearing of the massacre on the Boulevard des Capucines, Louis Philippe called for a government to be installed by Barrot, who represented a significant concession to the reformists. At the same time, however, the king gave the command of the troops in Paris to Marshal Bugeaud , who

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4340-543: Was captured by the insurgents at Vincennes . The seat of the city administration, the Hôtel de Ville , was taken by the revolutionary National Guards. Bugeaud ordered all his soldiers to fall back and consolidate the defense around the Tuileries Palace. During the morning, heavy fighting broke out in several parts of Paris, with the largest combat taking place at the Place du Château d'Eau . There, armed insurgents attacked

4410-421: Was despised by the crowds for his reputation of brutality in suppressing protests. In the early morning, Bugeaud sent four columns through the city in an attempt to defeat the insurgents at the barricades. However, Louis Philippe, intending to avoid even more bloodshed, ordered the officers in charge to attempt to negotiate before opening fire. Several barracks in Paris were attacked, and a convoy of ammunition

4480-558: Was discussed again starting on 14 January 1850. During these debates, Victor Hugo , although member of the Parti de l'Ordre, criticised the renewed influence of the clergy. The law was finally adopted on 15 March 1850, by 399 votes against 237. The Third Republic abrogated or reformed most dispositions of the Falloux Laws. The 27 February 1880 law reduced the clergy's representation in educational councils. The Ferry Laws established mandatory, free and laic education. The Goblet Law abrogated

4550-517: Was either outright illegal at the time or unprofitable due to the system of punitive tariffs. Bastiat has also noted that the French legislators were entirely unaware of the reality and the effects of their radical policies. One of the members of the French Chamber of Deputies reportedly received a standing ovation when he proposed that the depression of 1847 was due primarily to "external weakness" and "idle pacifism". Nationalist tendencies caused France to severely restrict all international contacts with

4620-613: Was elected deputy. Despite having been dissolved, the Commission presided by Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire and named by Carnot submitted its draft and report to the Assembly on 10 April 1849. This work was ignored during further discussions. On 18 June 1849, Falloux submitted to the Assembly the draft bill elaborated by the ministerial commission which he had himself named. Falloux thus resumed his plans: "Instruction has remained too much isolated from education; education has remained too much isolated from religion." The Assembly hereby named another parliamentary commission, where Catholics had again

4690-410: Was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for the United Kingdom. As a result, Louis Philippe , of the Orléanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830 , and his rule became known as the July Monarchy . Nicknamed the "Bourgeois Monarch", Louis Philippe sat at the head of a moderately liberal state controlled mainly by an educated elite. He was supported by

4760-439: Was intended to circumvent the governmental restriction on political meetings and provide a legal outlet for popular criticism of the regime. The campaign began in July 1847. Friedrich Engels was in Paris dating from October 1847 and was able to observe and attend some of these banquets. He wrote a series of articles on them, including "The Reform Movement in France" which was published in La Rèforme on 20 November 1847; "Split in

4830-431: Was possible, Louis Philippe called off all resistance and formally abdicated in favor of his nine-year-old grandson Philippe, Count of Paris . Louis Philippe and Queen Maria Amalia boarded a carriage awaiting at the Place de la Concorde , from where escorted by the cavalry, they drove off and left Paris. After the royal couple's departure, the revolutionaries finally seized the now nearly deserted Tuileries Palace. On

4900-440: Was promulgated in a context in which French Catholics were worried about the increasing role of the state in education since the Revolution of 1789 and the reorganisation of the imperial University . They thought that the imperial education system, inherited from the First Empire 's reforms, excessively diffused Enlightenment , republican and socialist ideas. Thus, they wanted the education system to return to its basis during

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