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Syndical Federation of Bolivian Mineworkers

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The Syndical Federation of Bolivian Mineworkers ( Spanish : Federación Sindical de Trabajadores Mineros de Bolivia ; FSTMB ) is a labor union in Bolivia that represents miners . Bolivia's miners are commonly regarded as the country's most class-conscious workers. The FSTMB has played an important role in Bolivia's recent history.

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95-651: The union emerged in the wake of a violent clash between government troops and striking tin miners in Oruro and Potosí in 1942. The FSTMB was founded on June 11, 1944 at a congress held in Huanuni, Oruro. The Huanuni Congress included delegates from 25 local unions, the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), and the Revolutionary Workers' Party (POR, a Trotskyist group). The newly formed union had

190-525: A classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet

285-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After

380-718: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

475-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in

570-532: A major "tin crisis" ensued—tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about three years. ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, fell to $ 4 per pound and remained around that level through the 1990s. The price increased again by 2010 with a rebound in consumption following the 2007–2008 economic crisis , accompanying restocking and continued growth in consumption. London Metal Exchange (LME)

665-554: A membership of 60,000 miners. Juan Lechín , the leader of the miners' movement and POR member, was chosen as the union's Executive Secretary. Divisions emerged in the union's leadership over how to relate to the new government of Major Gualberto Villarroel . MNR members wanted the FSTMB to support Major Villarroel, but the Lechín and the other members of the POR wanted the union to remain independent of

760-526: A phenomenon known as " tin pest " or "tin disease". Some unverifiable sources also say that, during Napoleon 's Russian campaign of 1812, the temperatures became so cold that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated over time, contributing to the defeat of the Grande Armée , a persistent legend. The α-β transformation temperature is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it well below 0 °C (32 °F). With

855-551: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through

950-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to

1045-695: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

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1140-552: A solution with most metals and elements so tin does not have much solid solubility. Tin mixes well with bismuth , gallium , lead , thallium and zinc , forming simple eutectic systems. Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72  K and was one of the first superconductors to be studied. The Meissner effect , one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. Tin resists corrosion from water , but can be corroded by acids and alkalis . Tin can be highly polished and

1235-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be

1330-618: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

1425-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as

1520-608: A tin or tin-lead coolant, the tin would first have to go through isotopic separation to remove the isotopes with odd mass number. Combined, these three isotopes make up about 17% of natural tin but represent nearly all of the capture cross section. Of the remaining seven isotopes tin-112 has a capture cross section of 1 barn. The other six isotopes forming 82.7% of natural tin have capture cross sections of 0.3 barns or less, making them effectively transparent to neutrons. Tin has 31 unstable isotopes, ranging in mass number from 99 to 139. The unstable tin isotopes have half-lives of less than

1615-689: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

1710-448: A year except for tin-126 , which has a half-life of about 230,000 years. Tin-100 and tin-132 are two of the very few nuclides with a " doubly magic " nucleus which despite being unstable, as they have very uneven neutron–proton ratios , are the endpoints beyond which tin isotopes lighter than tin-100 and heavier than tin-132 are much less stable. Another 30 metastable isomers have been identified for tin isotopes between 111 and 131,

1805-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

1900-626: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

1995-628: Is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced

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2090-467: Is evidence that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin. Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal contents had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had a tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are believed to be

2185-548: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from

2280-563: Is generated via the long s -process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of the Sun ), and finally by beta decay of the heavy isotopes of indium . Tin is the 49th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 2  ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead. Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 )

2375-661: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

2470-958: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

2565-528: Is the least common stable isotope. The isotopes with even mass numbers have no nuclear spin , while those with odd mass numbers have a nuclear spin of 1/2. It is thought that tin has such a great multitude of stable isotopes because of tin's atomic number being 50, which is a " magic number " in nuclear physics. Tin is one of the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy , which relies on molecular weight and its chemical shifts are referenced against tetramethyltin ( SnMe 4 ). Of

2660-590: Is the nonmetallic form. It is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F) and is brittle . α-tin has a diamond cubic crystal structure, as do diamond and silicon . α-tin does not have metallic properties because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. α-tin is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than specialized semiconductor applications. γ-tin and σ-tin exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F)  and pressures above several GPa . In cold conditions β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin,

2755-443: Is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite , cylindrite , franckeite , canfieldite , and teallite . Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock, usually at a level of 1% tin oxide content. Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from

2850-628: Is tin's principal trading site. Other tin contract markets are Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) and Indonesia Tin Exchange (INATIN). Due to factors involved in the 2021 global supply chain crisis , tin prices almost doubled during 2020–21 and have had their largest annual rise in over 30 years. Global refined tin consumption dropped 1.6 percent in 2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global manufacturing industries. In 2018, just under half of all tin produced

2945-425: Is used as a protective coat for other metals. When heated in air it oxidizes slowly to form a thin passivation layer of stannic oxide ( SnO 2 ) that inhibits further oxidation. Tin has ten stable isotopes , the greatest number of any element. Their mass numbers are 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, and 124. Tin-120 makes up almost a third of all tin. Tin-118 and tin-116 are also common. Tin-115

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3040-444: Is widely used for food packaging as " tin cans ". Some organotin compounds can be extremely toxic. Tin is a soft, malleable , ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal . When a bar of tin is bent a crackling sound known as the " tin cry " can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. This trait is shared by indium , cadmium , zinc , and mercury in its solid state. Tin melts at about 232 °C (450 °F),

3135-531: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

3230-505: The r -process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers . Tin isotopes 115, 117 through 120, and 122 are produced via both the s -process and the r -process, The two lightest stable isotopes, tin-112 and tin-114, cannot be made in significant amounts in the s - or r -processes and are among the p-nuclei whose origins are not well understood. Some theories about their formation include proton capture and photodisintegration . Tin-115 might be partially produced in

3325-620: The Bolivian Workers' Center (COB), a new umbrella organization for all labor unions. Most of the large-scale tin mines were nationalized and placed under the control of a new government agency, the Corporación Minera de Bolivia (COMIBOL). COMIBOL was managed jointly by the government and the FSTMB. From 1964 to 1982, a series of military dictators ruled Bolivia. The FSTMB and the COB often faced harsh government repression, most notably under

3420-454: The Bronze Age . In modern times, tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin-lead soft solders , which are typically 60% or more tin, and in the manufacture of transparent, electrically conducting films of indium tin oxide in optoelectronic applications. Another large application is corrosion -resistant tin plating of steel . Because of the low toxicity of inorganic tin, tin-plated steel

3515-811: The English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As

3610-512: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

3705-602: The International Monetary Fund and World Bank . As part of the plan, the government closed or privatized most of the state-controlled tin mines. Between 1985 and 1987, the workforce of the state mining company fell from 30,000 to just 7,000. This devastated the membership of the FSTMB. Many retired mining workers remained active in political life, including as members of the Mining Pensioners' Association (Asociación de Rentistas Mineras). Despite its setbacks,

3800-557: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

3895-553: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it

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3990-622: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which

4085-508: The diamond cubic structure. Metallic tin does not easily oxidize in air and water. The first tin alloy used on a large scale was bronze , made of 1 ⁄ 8  tin and 7 ⁄ 8   copper (12.5% and 87.5% respectively), from as early as 3000 BC. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter , which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper , antimony , bismuth, and sometimes lead and silver, has been used for flatware since

4180-608: The s -process, both directly and as the daughter of long-lived indium-115 , and also from the decay of indium-115 produced via the r -process. The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic * tin-om ; cognates include German Zinn , Swedish tenn and Dutch tin . It is not found in other branches of Indo-European , except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g., Irish tinne from English). The Latin name for tin, stannum , originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in

4275-617: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

4370-463: The FSTMB remained active in the labor movement and politics. The union was at the forefront of the movement against water privatization in 2000, and has campaigned for nationalization of Bolivia's natural gas reserves . The FSTMB was also involved in the protests that brought the resignations of President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003 and President Carlos Mesa in June 2005. They have also pressured

4465-580: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

4560-502: The MNR a plurality, leading the military to nullify the elections. The FSTMB and POR formed militias of workers that fought on the side of the MNR. These militias fought government forces and stormed army bases. These struggles culminated in the "Bolivian National Revolution" in April 1952, which placed the MNR in control of the government. Following the revolution, the FSTMB became the main component of

4655-459: The Near East where arsenic is commonly found with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures. Cassiterite ( SnO 2 ), the oxide form of tin,

4750-581: The United States has neither mined (since 1993) nor smelted (since 1989) tin, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006. New deposits are reported in Mongolia , and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia. Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke. Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used: The ten largest tin-producing companies produced most of

4845-461: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

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4940-552: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

5035-496: The addition of antimony or bismuth the transformation might not occur at all, increasing durability. Commercial grades of tin (99.8% tin content) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase the hardness of tin. Tin easily forms hard, brittle intermetallic phases that are typically undesirable. It does not mix into

5130-602: The arts to stain porcelain . Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through

5225-497: The author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into

5320-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

5415-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name

5510-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as

5605-588: The complex agreements between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921. Earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a series that effectively collapsed in 1985. Through these agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices. ITC supported the price of tin during periods of low prices by buying tin for its buffer stockpile and

5700-461: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

5795-493: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

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5890-406: The early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed

5985-570: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin

6080-593: The expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and

6175-537: The fourth century —the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum , or "white lead". Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum (meaning the same substance), the origin of the Romance and Celtic terms for tin , such as French étain , Spanish estaño , Italian stagno , and Irish stán . The origin of stannum / stāgnum is unknown; it may be pre- Indo-European . The Meyers Konversations-Lexikon suggests instead that stannum came from Cornish stean , and

6270-489: The government to re-nationalize the country's mines. The current Executive Secretary of the FSTMB is Miguel Zubieta Miranda , who previously led the union's local in Huanuni. Tin Tin is a chemical element ; it has symbol Sn (from Latin stannum ) and atomic number 50. A silvery-colored metal, tin is soft enough to be cut with little force, and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent,

6365-532: The government. The MNR's position was defeated in 1946 when the FSTMB adopted the "Pulacayo Thesis," which called for a workers' revolution and other radical goals. In 1947, POR members formed a caucus in the union, the Bloque Parlamentario Minero , to represent their interests. The FSTMB faced renewed government suppression following a series of strikes in 1949, forcing Lechín and other union leaders into exile. New elections were held in 1951 that gave

6460-439: The great majority of its compounds, tin has the oxidation state II or IV. Compounds containing bivalent tin are called stannous while those containing tetravalent tin are termed stannic . Halide compounds are known for both oxidation states. For Sn(IV), all four halides are well known: SnF 4 , SnCl 4 , SnBr 4 , and SnI 4 . The three heavier members are volatile molecular compounds, whereas

6555-504: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

6650-412: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

6745-451: The late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. reduced its strategic tin stockpile, partly to take advantage of historically high tin prices. The 1981–82 recession damaged the tin industry. Tin consumption declined dramatically. ITC was able to avoid truly steep declines through accelerated buying for its buffer stockpile; this activity required extensive borrowing. ITC continued to borrow until late 1985 when it reached its credit limit. Immediately,

6840-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became

6935-460: The lowest in group 14, and boils at 2,602 °C (4,716 °F), the second lowest (ahead of lead ) in its group. The melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11 nm particles. β-tin, also called white tin , is the allotrope (structural form) of elemental tin that is stable at and above room temperature. It is metallic and malleable, and has body-centered tetragonal crystal structure. α-tin, or gray tin ,

7030-451: The market and mining technology. It is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of mine-able tin in 40 years. In 2006 Lester Brown suggested tin could run out within 20 years based on conservative estimates of 2% annual growth. Scrap tin is an important source of the metal. Recovery of tin through recycling is increasing rapidly as of 2019. Whereas

7125-412: The most stable being tin-121m, with a half-life of 43.9 years. The relative differences in the abundances of tin's stable isotopes can be explained by how they are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis . Tin-116 through tin-120, along with tin-122, are formed in the s -process (slow neutron capture) in most stars which leads to them being the most common tin isotopes, while tin-124 is only formed in

7220-462: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there

7315-609: The primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or the sea. The most economical ways of mining tin are by dredging , hydraulicking , or open pits . Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which can contain as little as 0.015% tin. About 253,000 tonnes of tin were mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t). Estimates of tin production have historically varied with

7410-472: The reaction of hydrochloric acid and tin produces SnCl 2 and hydrogen gas. Alternatively SnCl 4 and Sn combine to stannous chloride by a process called comproportionation : Tin can form many oxides, sulfides, and other chalcogenide derivatives. The dioxide SnO 2 (cassiterite) forms when tin is heated in the presence of air . SnO 2 is amphoteric , which means that it dissolves in both acidic and basic solutions. Stannates with

7505-476: The regimes of Colonel Hugo Banzer (1971–78) and General Luis García Meza (1980–81). Many of the union's leaders were jailed or forced into exile during these years. The FSTMB became a leading force in Bolivian politics once again with the restoration of democracy in 1982. In 1985 the world tin market crashed. The MNR-led government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro conceded to an economic restructuring plan set forward by

7600-456: The result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed molds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects appear first in

7695-427: The slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element on Earth, making up 0.00022% of its crust, and with 10 stable isotopes, it has the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table, due to its magic number of protons. It has two main allotropes : at room temperature, the stable allotrope is β-tin, a silvery-white, malleable metal; at low temperatures it is less dense grey α-tin, which has

7790-411: The so-called " tin cry " can be heard as a result of twinning in tin crystals. Tin is a post-transition metal in group 14 of the periodic table of elements. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite , which contains stannic oxide , SnO 2 . Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead , and has two main oxidation states , +2 and

7885-586: The stable isotopes, tin-115 has a high neutron capture cross section for fast neutrons, at 30 barns . Tin-117 has a cross section of 2.3 barns, one order of magnitude smaller, while tin-119 has a slightly smaller cross section of 2.2 barns. Before these cross sections were well known, it was proposed to use tin-lead solder as a coolant for fast reactors because of its low melting point. Current studies are for lead or lead-bismuth reactor coolants because both heavy metals are nearly transparent to fast neutrons, with very low capture cross sections. In order to use

7980-678: The structure [ Sn(OH) 6 ] , like K 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ], are also known, though the free stannic acid H 2 [ Sn(OH) 6 ] is unknown. Sulfides of tin exist in both the +2 and +4 oxidation states: tin(II) sulfide and tin(IV) sulfide ( mosaic gold ). Stannane ( SnH 4 ), with tin in the +4 oxidation state, is unstable. Organotin hydrides are however well known, e.g. tributyltin hydride (Sn(C 4 H 9 ) 3 H). These compounds release transient tributyl tin radicals, which are rare examples of compounds of tin(III). Organotin compounds, sometimes called stannanes, are chemical compounds with tin–carbon bonds. Of

8075-420: The tetrafluoride is polymeric. All four halides are known for Sn(II) also: SnF 2 , SnCl 2 , SnBr 2 , and SnI 2 . All are polymeric solids. Of these eight compounds, only the iodides are colored. Tin(II) chloride (also known as stannous chloride) is the most important commercial tin halide. Illustrating the routes to such compounds, chlorine reacts with tin metal to give SnCl 4 whereas

8170-523: The tetraorgano derivatives, are prepared by redistribution reactions : Divalent organotin compounds are uncommon, although more common than related divalent organogermanium and organosilicon compounds. The greater stabilization enjoyed by Sn(II) is attributed to the " inert pair effect ". Organotin(II) compounds include both stannylenes (formula: R 2 Sn, as seen for singlet carbenes ) and distannylenes (R 4 Sn 2 ), which are roughly equivalent to alkenes . Both classes exhibit unusual reactions. Tin

8265-588: The tin compounds, the organic derivatives are commercially the most useful. Some organotin compounds are highly toxic and have been used as biocides . The first organotin compound to be reported was diethyltin diiodide ((C 2 H 5 ) 2 SnI 2 ), reported by Edward Frankland in 1849. Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids or solids that are stable to air and water. They adopt tetrahedral geometry. Tetraalkyl- and tetraaryltin compounds can be prepared using Grignard reagents : The mixed halide-alkyls, which are more common and more important commercially than

8360-586: The world's tin in 2007. Most of the world's tin is traded on LME, from 8 countries, under 17 brands. The International Tin Council was established in 1947 to control the price of tin. It collapsed in 1985. In 1984, the Association of Tin Producing Countries was created, with Australia, Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, and Zaire as members. Tin is unique among mineral commodities because of

8455-458: Was able to restrain the price during periods of high prices by selling from the stockpile. This was an anti-free-market approach, designed to assure a sufficient flow of tin to consumer countries and a profit for producer countries. However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large, and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from 1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies. During

8550-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at

8645-549: Was most likely the original source of tin. Other tin ores are less common sulfides such as stannite that require a more involved smelting process. Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels as placer deposits because it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the accompanying granite . Cassiterite is usually black or dark in color, and these deposits can be easily seen in river banks . Alluvial ( placer ) deposits may incidentally have been collected and separated by methods similar to gold panning . In

8740-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and

8835-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in

8930-431: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

9025-415: Was used in solder. The rest was divided between tin plating, tin chemicals, brass and bronze alloys, and niche uses. Pigment Yellow 38, tin(IV) sulfide , is known as mosaic gold . Purple of Cassius , Pigment Red 109, a hydrous double stannate of gold , was mainly, in terms of painting, restricted to miniatures due to its high cost. It was widely used to make cranberry glass . It has also been used in

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