Misplaced Pages

#419580

161-435: His writings on decoration and on the relationship between form and function in architecture had a fundamental influence on a whole new generation of architects, including all the major Art Nouveau artists: Antoni Gaudí , Victor Horta , Hector Guimard , Henry van de Velde , Henri Sauvage and the École de Nancy , Paul Hankar , Otto Wagner , Eugène Grasset , Émile Gallé , and Hendrik Petrus Berlage . He also influenced

322-402: A building is not to maintain it, repair it or remake it: it is to re-establish it in a complete state which may never have existed at any given moment." He then explained that it had to meet four conditions: (1) The "re-establishment" had to be scientifically documented with plans and photographs and archeological records, which would guarantee exactness. (2) The restoration had to involve not just

483-408: A castle begun by Louis of Orleans in 1396, then dismantled in 1617 after several sieges by Louis XIII of France . Napoleon bought the ruin for 5000 francs in 1812, and Mérimée declared it an historic monument in 1848. In 1857 Viollet-le-Duc began designing an entirely new chateau on the ruins. This structure was not designed to recreate anything exactly that had existed, but a castle which recaptured

644-519: A celebrated poster of Sarah Bernhardt in 1890. In Paris, he taught at the Guérin school of art ( École normale d'enseignement du dessin ), where his students included Augusto Giacometti and Paul Berthon . Swiss-born Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen created the famous poster for the Paris cabaret Le Chat noir in 1896. The Czech artist Alphonse Mucha (1860–1939) arrived in Paris in 1888, and in 1895, made

805-479: A coherent whole. He commissioned the sculptor Alfred Crick and the painter Adolphe Crespin  [ fr ] to decorate the façades of houses with their work. The most striking example was the house and studio built for the artist Albert Ciamberlani at 48, rue Defacqz / Defacqzstraat in Brussels, for which he created an exuberant façade covered with sgraffito murals with painted figures and ornament, recreating

966-759: A collection of Far Eastern art, especially Japanese. New technologies in printing and publishing allowed Art Nouveau to quickly reach a global audience. Art magazines, illustrated with photographs and colour lithographs , played an essential role in popularizing the new style. The Studio in England, Arts et idèes and Art et décoration in France, and Jugend in Germany allowed the style to spread rapidly to all corners of Europe. Aubrey Beardsley in England, and Eugène Grasset , Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec , and Félix Vallotton achieved international recognition as illustrators. With

1127-543: A dispute with the doctrines of the École des Beaux-Arts , the leading architectural school of France, which he refused to attend as a student, and where he taught briefly as a professor, before being pressured to depart. In 1846 he engaged in a fervent exchange in print with Quatremère de Quincy , the Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy, on the question, "Is it suitable, in the 19th century, to build churches in

1288-613: A famous symbol of the style, the Glasgow Rose". Léon-Victor Solon , made an important contribution to Art Nouveau ceramics as art director at Mintons. He specialised in plaques and in tube-lined vases marketed as "secessionist ware" (usually described as named after the Viennese art movement ). Apart from ceramics, he designed textiles for the Leek silk industry and doublures for a bookbinder (G.T.Bagguley of Newcastle-under-Lyme), who patented

1449-460: A fault; for us, this is a quality which we too often neglect in our modern construction....Why should we build expensive walls two meters thick, if walls fifty centimeters thick [with reinforced supports], offer sufficient stability? In the structure of the Middle Ages, every portion of a work fulfilled a function and possessed an action." During the entire career of Viollet-le-Duc, he was engaged in

1610-481: A figure holding a lamp and mirror symbolises light and truth. German Art Nouveau is commonly known by its German name, Jugendstil , or 'Youth Style'. The name is taken from the artistic journal, Jugend ('Youth'), which was published in Munich. The magazine was founded in 1896 by Georg Hirth , who remained editor until his death in 1916. The magazine survived until 1940. During the early 20th century, Jugendstil

1771-497: A general audience. He also devoted more time to studying the geography of the Alps around Mont-Blanc. He spent his summers hiking in the mountains and writing articles about his travels. He launched a public campaign for the re-forestation of the Alps, and published a detailed map of the area in 1876. He spent more and more time at La Vedette , the villa he constructed in Lausanne, a house on

SECTION 10

#1732844359420

1932-573: A glass bathtub. Josef Hoffmann designed the Viennese exhibit at the Paris exposition, highlighting the designs of the Vienna Secession . Eliel Saarinen first won international recognition for his imaginative design of the pavilion of Finland. While the Paris Exposition was by far the largest, other expositions did much to popularize the style. The 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition marked

2093-478: A handful of new buildings. He tired of the confrontations and resigned on 16 May 1863, and continued his writing and teaching outside the Beaux-Arts. In response to the Beaux-Arts he initiated the creation of the École Spéciale d'Architecture in Paris in 1865. In the beginning of 1864, he celebrated the conclusion of his most important project, the restoration of Notre-Dame. In January of the same year he completed

2254-452: A lightness needed in a building of such great dimensions. We can still see (and this is only found in Gothic architecture) that human proportions are the one fixed rule." Viollet-le-Duc was often accused by certain critics, in his own time and later, of pursuing the spirit of the Gothic style in some of his restorations instead of strict historical accuracy. Many art historians also consider that

2415-783: A mixture of Art Nouveau and Beaux-Arts architecture : the main exhibit hall, the Grand Palais had a Beaux-Arts façade completely unrelated to the spectacular Art Nouveau stairway and exhibit hall in the interior. French designers all made special works for the Exhibition: Lalique crystal and jewellery; jewellery by Henri Vever and Georges Fouquet ; Daum glass; the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres in porcelain ; ceramics by Alexandre Bigot ; sculpted glass lamps and vases by Émile Gallé ; furniture by Édouard Colonna and Louis Majorelle ; and many other prominent arts and crafts firms. At

2576-419: A new architecture. For each function its material; for each material its form and its ornament." This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan , Victor Horta , Hector Guimard , and Antoni Gaudí . The French painters Maurice Denis , Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration. "I believe that before everything

2737-561: A new project for restoration of the Cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand , a project which continued for ten years. He also undertook an unusual project for Napoleon III; the design and construction of six railway coaches with neo-Gothic interior décor for the Emperor and his entourage. Two of the cars still exist; the salon of honour car, with a fresco on the ceiling, is at the Château de Compiègne , and

2898-457: A new spire, ornamented with statuary, which was taller than the original and modified to resist the weather, but in harmony with the rest of the design. In the 19th and 20th century, his flèche was a target for critics. He was also criticized later for his modifications of the choir of Notre-Dame, which had been rebuilt in the Louis XIV style during the reign of that king. Viollet-le-Duc took out

3059-436: A number of private residences and new buildings in Paris. He also participated in the most important competition of the period, for the new Paris Opera . There were one hundred seventy-one projects proposed in the original competition, presented the 1855 Paris Universal Exposition . A jury of noted architects narrowed it down to five, including projects from Viollet-le-Duc and Charles Garnier , age thirty-five. Viollet-le-Duc

3220-408: A painting must decorate", Denis wrote in 1891. "The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing. It is by the value of tones, the coloured surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions." These painters all did both traditional painting and decorative painting on screens, in glass, and in other media. Another important influence on the new style was Japonism . This

3381-579: A poster for actress Sarah Bernhardt in the play Gismonda by Victorien Sardou in Théâtre de la Renaissance . The success of this poster led to a contract to produce posters for six more plays by Bernhardt. The city of Nancy in Lorraine became the other French capital of the new style. In 1901, the Alliance provinciale des industries d'art , also known as the École de Nancy , was founded, dedicated to upsetting

SECTION 20

#1732844359420

3542-423: A precursor of Art Nouveau design. In France, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc , a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style , whose theories on rationalism were derived from his study of medieval art : Viollet-le-Duc was himself a precursor of Art Nouveau: in 1851, at Notre-Dame de Paris , he created a series of mural paintings typical of

3703-641: A presence as strong as several forces". In 1906, he departed Belgium for Weimar (Germany), where he founded the Grand-Ducal School of Arts and Crafts, where the teaching of historical styles was forbidden. He played an important role in the German Werkbund , before returning to Belgium. The debut of Art Nouveau architecture in Brussels was accompanied by a wave of Decorative Art in the new style. Important artists included Gustave Strauven , who used wrought iron to achieve baroque effects on Brussels façades;

3864-450: A republic to an empire. The coup accelerated some of Viollet-le-Duc's projects as his patron Prosper Mérimée had introduced him to the new Emperor. He moved forward with the slow work of restoration of the Cathedral of Reims and Cathedral of Amiens . In Amiens, he cleared the interior of the French classical decoration added under Louis XIV, and proposed to make it resolutely Gothic. He gave

4025-462: A series of innovative glass display windows for Brussels shops, restaurants and galleries, in what a local critic called "a veritable delirium of originality". He died in 1901, just as the movement was beginning to receive recognition. Henry van de Velde , born in Antwerp , was another founding figure in the birth of Art Nouveau. Van de Velde's designs included the interior of his residence in Brussels,

4186-542: A strong influence on the work of the young Hector Guimard , who came to see the Hôtel Tassel under construction, and later declared that Horta was the "inventor" of the Art Nouveau. Horta's innovation was not the façade, but the interior, using an abundance of iron and glass to open up space and flood the rooms with light, and decorating them with wrought iron columns and railings in curving vegetal forms, which were echoed on

4347-480: A very different use. He designed the residence of a prominent Belgian chemist, Émile Tassel, on a very narrow and deep site. The central element of the house was the stairway, not enclosed by walls, but open, decorated with a curling wrought-iron railing, and placed beneath a high skylight. The floors were supported by slender iron columns like the trunks of trees. The mosaic floors and walls were decorated with delicate arabesques in floral and vegetal forms, which became

4508-454: Is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art , especially the decorative arts . It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and flowers. Other characteristics of Art Nouveau were a sense of dynamism and movement, often given by asymmetry or whiplash lines , and the use of modern materials, particularly iron, glass, ceramics and later concrete, to create unusual forms and larger open spaces. It

4669-413: Is only 4 metres (13 ft) wide, but is given extraordinary height by his elaborate architectural inventions. It is entirely covered by polychrome bricks and a network of curling vegetal forms in wrought iron , in a virtually Art Nouveau-Baroque style. Other important Art Nouveau artists from Belgium included the architect and designer Henry van de Velde , though the most important part of his career

4830-464: Is the greatest builder of all, and nature makes nothing that is parallel and nothing that is symmetric." Parisians welcomed Guimard's original and picturesque style; the Castel Béranger was chosen as one of the best new façades in Paris, launching Guimard's career. Guimard was given the commission to design the entrances for the new Paris Métro system, which brought the style to the attention of

4991-597: The Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world. At the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it was managed by the Société des Artistes Français . In 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (a division of

Eugène Viollet-le-Duc - Misplaced Pages Continue

5152-562: The Académie des beaux-arts ), held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré . The Salon's original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts , which was created by Cardinal Mazarin , chief minister of France, in 1648. Exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in

5313-657: The Arts and Crafts movement . At the International Exhibition of 1862 in London , the aesthetic works of Edward Burne-Jones , Christina Rossetti , Philip Webb , William Morris, Simeon Solomon , and Edward Poynter were directly influenced from drawings in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary. Viollet-le-Duc was born in Paris in 1814. His grandfather was an architect, and his father was a high-ranking civil servant, who in 1816 became

5474-514: The Franco-Prussian War , and the city was now part of Germany. The German government invited Viollet-le-Duc to comment on their plans for the restoration, which involved a more grandiose Romanesque tower. Viollet-le-Duc informed the German architect that the planned new tower was completely out of character with the original facade and style of the cathedral. His advice was accepted, and the church

5635-542: The July Revolution of 1830. The new spire was completed, taller and more strongly built to withstand the weather; it was decorated with statues of the apostles, and the face of Saint Thomas, patron saint of architects, bore a noticeable resemblance to Viollet-le-Duc. The spire was destroyed on 15 April 2019, as a result of the Notre-Dame de Paris fire . When not engaged in Paris, Viollet-le-Duc continued his long tours into

5796-618: The Modern Style in English. The style is often related to, but not always identical with, styles that emerged in many countries in Europe and elsewhere at about the same time. Their local names were often used in their respective countries to describe the whole movement. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the floral designs of William Morris , and in the Arts and Crafts movement founded by

5957-623: The Paris Salon , and began making a travel book, Picturesque and romantic images of the old France , for which, between 1838 and 1844, he made nearly three hundred engravings. In October 1838, with the recommendation of Achille Leclère , the architect with whom he had trained, he was named deputy inspector of the enlargement of the Hôtel Soubise , the new home of the French National Archives. His uncle, Delécluze, then recommended him to

6118-525: The Sutherland binding in 1895. George Skipper was perhaps the most active Art Nouveau architect in England. The Edward Everard building in Bristol, built during 1900–01 to house the printing works of Edward Everard , features an Art Nouveau façade. The figures depicted are of Johannes Gutenberg and William Morris , both eminent in the field of printing. A winged figure symbolises the "Spirit of Light", while

6279-596: The Villa Bloemenwerf (1895). The exterior of the house was inspired by the Red House , the residence of writer and theorist William Morris , the founder of the Arts and Crafts movement . Trained as a painter, Van de Velde turned to illustration, then to furniture design, and finally to architecture. For the Villa Bloemenwerf, he created the textiles, wallpaper, silverware, jewellery, and even clothing, that matched

6440-622: The railway station in Haarlem (1906–1908), and the former office building of the Holland America Lines (1917) in Rotterdam , now the Hotel New York . Prominent graphic artists and illustrators in the style included Jan Toorop , whose work inclined toward mysticism and symbolism , even in his posters for salad oil. In their colors and designs, they also sometimes showed the influence of

6601-601: The 1880s could also be adduced, or some flat floral textile designs, most of which owed some impetus to patterns of 19th century design. Other British graphic artists who had an important place in the style included Walter Crane and Charles Ashbee . The Liberty department store in London played an important role, through its colourful stylised floral designs for textiles, and the silver, pewter, and jewellery designs of Manxman (of Scottish descent) Archibald Knox . His jewellery designs in materials and forms broke away entirely from

Eugène Viollet-le-Duc - Misplaced Pages Continue

6762-487: The 1900 Exposition, the capital of Art Nouveau was Paris. The most extravagant residences in the style were built by Jules Lavirotte , who entirely covered the façades with ceramic sculptural decoration. The most flamboyant example is the Lavirotte Building , at 29, avenue Rapp (1901). Office buildings and department stores featured high courtyards covered with stained glass cupolas and ceramic decoration. The style

6923-465: The 1900 Paris Exposition, Siegfried Bing presented a pavilion called Art Nouveau Bing , which featured six different interiors entirely decorated in the Style. The Exposition was the first international showcase for Art Nouveau designers and artists from across Europe and beyond. Prize winners and participants included Alphonse Mucha , who made murals for the pavilion of Bosnia-Herzegovina and designed

7084-879: The Art Nouveau work of artists such as Louis Tiffany . It appeared in graphic arts in the posters of Alphonse Mucha , and the glassware of René Lalique and Émile Gallé . From Britain, Belgium and France, Art Nouveau spread to the rest of Europe, taking on different names and characteristics in each country (see Naming section below). It often appeared not only in capitals, but also in rapidly growing cities that wanted to establish artistic identities ( Turin and Palermo in Italy; Glasgow in Scotland; Munich and Darmstadt in Germany; Barcelona in Catalonia , Spain), as well as in centres of independence movements ( Helsinki in Finland, then part of

7245-490: The British architectural writer John Ruskin and William Morris were ferocious opponents of Viollet le Duc's restorations. But Ruskin never criticised Viollet le Duc's restoration work in itself, but criticised the principle of restoration itself. Indeed, at the beginning of his career Ruskin had a very radical opinion on restoration: "a building should be looked after and if not it should be left to die". Viollet le Duc's position on

7406-587: The Cemetery of Bois-le-Vaux (Section XVIII) in Lausanne. Viollet-le-Duc married Elisabeth Tempier in Paris on 3 May 1834. The couple had two children, but separated a few years after marriage, and spent little time together; he was continually on the road. The writer Geneviève Viollet-le-Duc (winner of the prix Broquette-Gonin in 1978) was his great-granddaughter. Viollet-le-Duc famously defined restoration in volume eight of his Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XI au XVI siecle of 1858: "To restore

7567-613: The Commune had been suppressed and saw the ruins of most of the public buildings of the city, burned by the Commune in its last days. He received his only commission from the new government of the French Third Republic ; Jules Simon , the new Minister of Culture and Public Instruction, asked him to design a plaque to be placed before Notre-Dame to honor the hostages killed by the Paris Commune in its final days. The new government of

7728-540: The Emperor a tour of his project in September 1853; the Empress immediately offered to pay two-thirds of the cost of the restoration. In the same year he undertook the restoration of the Château de Vincennes , long occupied by the military, along with its chapel, similar to Sainte-Chapelle . A devotee of the pure Gothic, he described the chapel as "one of the finest specimens of Gothic in decline". In November 1853, he provided

7889-939: The French Third Republic made little use of his expertise in the restoration of the major government buildings which had been burned by the Paris Commune , including the Tuileries Palace , the Palace of the Legion of Honor , the Palais-Royal , the library of the Louvre , the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Finance. The only reconstruction on which he was consulted was that of the Hotel de Ville . The writer Edmond de Goncourt called for leaving

8050-500: The French provinces, inspecting and checking the progress of more than twenty different restoration projects that were under his control, including seven in Burgundy alone. New projects included the Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse , and the Basilica of Saint-Denis just outside Paris. Saint-Denis had undergone a restoration by a different architect, Francois Debret, who had rebuilt one of

8211-453: The Gothic style?" De Quincy and his followers denounced the Gothic style as incoherent, disorderly, unintelligent, decadent and without taste. Viollet-le-Duc responded, "What we want, messieurs , is the return of an art which was born in our country....Leave to Rome what belongs to Rome, and to Athens what belongs to Athens. Rome didn't want our Gothic (and was perhaps the only one in Europe to reject it) and they were right, because when one has

SECTION 50

#1732844359420

8372-555: The Hankar House, his own residence in Brussels. With a goal to create a synthesis of fine arts and decorative arts, he brought together the sculptor René Janssens and the painter Albert Ciamberlani to decorate the interior and exterior with sgraffiti , or murals. The façade and balconies featured iron decoration and curling lines in stylised floral patterns, which became an important feature of Art Nouveau. Based on this model, he built several houses for his artist friends. He also designed

8533-462: The Modern Style is Arthur Mackmurdo 's design for the cover of his essay on the city churches of Sir Christopher Wren , published in 1883, as is his Mahogany chair from the same year. Other important innovators in Britain included the graphic designers Aubrey Beardsley whose drawings featured the curved lines that became the most recognizable feature of the style. Free-flowing wrought iron from

8694-625: The Pension Moran, in Fontenay-aux-Roses . He returned to Paris in 1829 as a student at the college de Bourbon (now the Lycée Condorcet ). He passed his baccalaureate examination in 1830. His uncle urged him to enter the École des Beaux-Arts , which had been created in 1806, but the École had an extremely rigid system, based entirely on copying classical models, and Eugène was not interested. Instead he decided to get practical experience in

8855-610: The Russian Empire). By 1914, with the beginning of the First World War , Art Nouveau was largely exhausted. In the 1920s, it was replaced as the dominant architectural and decorative art style by Art Deco and then Modernism . The Art Nouveau style began to receive more positive attention from critics in the late 1960s, with a major exhibition of the work of Hector Guimard at the Museum of Modern Art in 1970. The term Art Nouveau

9016-527: The Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected. In order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés , containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde . The Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874, 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882 and 1886. In 1881

9177-471: The Salon marked a sign of royal favor. In 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre , when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris . In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre , became public. They were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis (25 August) and run for some weeks. Once made regular and public,

9338-399: The Salon's status was "never seriously in doubt". In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced. From this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every available inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of many other paintings, including Pietro Antonio Martini 's Salon of 1785 . Printed catalogues of

9499-435: The Salons are primary documents for art historians. Critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic . The French salon, a product of the Enlightenment in the early 18th century, was a key institution in which women played a central role. Salons provided a place for women and men to congregate for intellectual discourse. The French Revolution opened

9660-402: The Salons. After the French Revolution of 1848 liberalized the Salon, far fewer works were refused. Medals were introduced in 1849. The increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists' shift away from traditional painting styles. In 1863

9821-463: The Secession Style in Vienna. His architectural creations included the Glasgow Herald Building (1894) and the library of the Glasgow School of Art (1897). He also established a major reputation as a furniture designer and decorator, working closely with his wife, Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh , a prominent painter and designer. Together they created striking designs that combined geometric straight lines with gently curving floral decoration, particularly

SECTION 60

#1732844359420

9982-506: The age of twenty, he married Élisabeth Templier, and in the same year he was named an associate professor of ornamental decoration at the Royal School of Decorative Arts, which gave him a more regular income. His first pupils there included Léon Gaucherel . With the money from the sale of his drawings and paintings, Viollet-le-Duc set off on a long tour of the monuments of Italy, visiting Rome, Venice, Florence and other sites, drawing and painting. In 1838, he presented several of his drawings at

10143-591: The altar of the cathedral: "The great restoration, carried to fruition by Viollet-le-Duc following the death of Lassus, supplied new radiance to the cathedral – whatever reservations one might have about the choices that were made. The work of the nineteenth century is now as much a part of the architectural history of Notre-Dame as that undertaken in previous centuries." Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( / ˌ ɑː r ( t ) n uː ˈ v oʊ / AR(T) noo- VOH , French: [aʁ nuvo] ; lit.   ' New Art ' ), Jugendstil  in German,

10304-425: The appearance of the monument, or the effect that it produced, but also its structure; it had to use the most efficient means to assure the long life of the building, including using more solid materials, used more wisely. (3) the restoration had to exclude any modification contrary to obvious evidence; but the structure could be adapted to conform to more modern or rational uses and practices, which meant alterations to

10465-465: The architect Jean-Baptiste Lassus he began the restoration of Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, which had been turned into a storage depot after the Revolution. In February 1843, King Louis Philippe sent him to the Château of Amboise , to restore the stained glass windows in the chapel holding the tomb of Leonardo da Vinci . The windows were unfortunately destroyed in 1940 during World War II. In 1843, Mérimée took Viollet-le-Duc with him to Burgundy and

10626-430: The architectural offices of Jacques-Marie Huvé and Achille Leclère , while devoting much of his time to drawing medieval churches and monuments around Paris. At sixteen he participated in the July 1830 revolution which overthrew Charles X , building a barricade. Following the revolution, which brought Louis Philippe to power, his father became chief of the bureau of royal residences. The new government created, for

10787-423: The architecture and interior design of houses designed by Paul Hankar , Henry van de Velde , and especially Victor Horta , whose Hôtel Tassel was completed in 1893. It moved quickly to Paris, where it was adapted by Hector Guimard , who saw Horta's work in Brussels and applied the style to the entrances of the new Paris Métro . It reached its peak at the 1900 Paris International Exposition , which introduced

10948-419: The armed force of the Paris Commune who subsequently condemned him to death. He escaped to Pierrefonds, where he had a small apartment before going in exile in Lausanne , where he engage in his passion for mountains, making detailed maps and a series of thirty-two drawings of the alpine scenery. While in Lausanne he was also asked to undertake the restoration of the cathedral. He returned later to Paris after

11109-610: The art of Java. Important figures in Dutch ceramics and porcelain included Jurriaan Kok and Theo Colenbrander . They used colorful floral pattern and more traditional Art Nouveau motifs, combined with unusual forms of pottery and contrasting dark and light colors, borrowed from the batik decoration of Java. Art Nouveau had its roots in Britain, in the Arts and Crafts movement which started in 1860s and reached international recognition by 1880s. It called for better treatment of decorative arts, and took inspiration in medieval craftmanship and design, and nature. One notable early example of

11270-674: The beginning of 1860, a Far Eastern influence suddenly manifested. In 1862, art lovers from London or Paris, could buy Japanese artworks , because in that year, Japan appeared for the first time as an exhibitor at the International Exhibition in London. Also in 1862, in Paris, La Porte Chinoise store, on Rue de Rivoli , was open, where Japanese ukiyo-e and other objects from the Far East were sold. In 1867, Examples of Chinese Ornaments by Owen Jones appeared, and in 1870 Art and Industries in Japan by R. Alcock, and two years later, O. H. Moser and T. W. Cutler published books about Japanese art. Some Art Nouveau artists, like Victor Horta , owned

11431-406: The beginning of the Modernisme style in Spain, with some buildings of Lluís Domènech i Montaner . The Esposizione internazionale d'arte decorativa moderna of 1902 in Turin, Italy, showcased designers from across Europe, including Victor Horta from Belgium and Joseph Maria Olbrich from Vienna, along with local artists such as Carlo Bugatti , Galileo Chini and Eugenio Quarti . Following

11592-450: The choir built under Louis XIV. Viollet-le-Duc himself turned down a proposal to add two new spires atop the towers, arguing that such a monument "would be remarkable but would not be Notre-Dame de Paris". Instead, he proposed to rebuild the original medieval spire and bell tower over the transept, which had been removed in 1786 because it was unstable in the wind. Once the project was approved, Viollet-le-Duc made drawings and photographs of

11753-459: The construction and reported to Mérimée: "The young Leduc seems entirely worthy of your confidence. He needed a magnificent audacity to take charge of such a desperate enterprise; it's certain that he arrived just in time, and if we had waited only ten years the church would have been a pile of stones." This restoration work lasted 19 years. Viollet-le-Duc's success at Vezelay led to a large series of projects. In 1840, in collaboration with his friend

11914-423: The continued restoration of Notre-Dame. Viollet-le-Duc was also to replace the great bestiary of mythical beasts and animals which had decorated the cathedral in the 18th century. In 1856, using examples from other medieval churches and debris from Notre-Dame as his model, his workshop produced dragons, chimeras, grotesques, and gargoyles, as well as an assortment of picturesque pinnacles and fleurons . He engaged in

12075-582: The costs and plans for the medieval ramparts of Carcassonne which he had first begun planning in 1849. The first fortifications had been built by the Visigoths ; on top of these, in the Middle Ages Louis ;XI and then Philip the Bold had built a formidable series of towers, galleries, walls, gates and interlocking defences that resisted all sieges until 1355. The fortifications were largely intact, since

12236-416: The danger of fires, as long as the new structure was not heavier than the original, and kept the original balance of forces found in medieval structures. "The monuments of the Middle Ages were carefully calculated, and their organism is delicate. There is nothing in excess in their works, nothing useless. If you change one of the conditions of these organisms, you change all the others. Many people consider this

12397-554: The decorative architecture of the Quattrocento , or 15th-century Italy. Hankar died in 1901, when his work was just receiving recognition. Gustave Strauven began his career as an assistant designer working with Horta, before he started his own practice at age 21, making some of the most extravagant Art Nouveau buildings in Brussels. His most famous work is the Saint-Cyr House at 11, square Ambiorix / Ambiorixsquare . The house

12558-463: The defence platforms, roofs on the towers and shelters for archers that would have been used during a siege. He found many of the original mountings for weapons still in place. To accompany his work, he published a detailed history of the city and its fortifications, with his drawings. Carcassonne became the best example of medieval military architecture in France, and also an important tourist attraction. Napoleon III provided additional funding for

12719-534: The design of the fair, and Henri Privat-Livemont created the poster for the exhibition. The Franco-German art dealer and publisher Siegfried Bing played a key role in publicizing the style. In 1891, he founded a magazine devoted to the art of Japan, which helped publicize Japonism in Europe. In 1892, he organized an exhibit of seven artists, among them Pierre Bonnard , Félix Vallotton , Édouard Vuillard , Toulouse-Lautrec and Eugène Grasset , which included both modern painting and decorative work. This exhibition

12880-412: The designs of the textiles and batik from Java . The most important architect and furniture designer in the style was Hendrik Petrus Berlage , who denounced historical styles and advocated a purely functional architecture. He wrote, "It is necessary to fight against the art of illusion, to and to recognize the lie, in order to find the essence and not the illusion." Like Victor Horta and Gaudí , he

13041-555: The dining car, with a massive golden eagle as the centrepiece of the décor, is at the Railroad Museum of Mulhouse . Napoleon III asked Viollet-le-Duc if he could restore a medieval chateau for the Emperor's own use near Compiègne, where the Emperor traditionally passed September and October. Viollet-le-Duc first studied a restoration of the Château de Coucy , which had the highest medieval tower in France. When this proved too complicated, he settled upon Château de Pierrefonds ,

13202-486: The entire structure, and always have an aspect of resistance, of force and stability which reassures the eye and the spirit; The vaults, built with materials that are easy to mount and to place at a great height, are combined in an easy disposition that places the totality of their weight on the piles; that the most simple means are always employed...and that all the parts of these constructions, independent of each other, even as they rely on each other, present an elasticity and

13363-530: The exact battlefield. Viollet-le-Duc conducted excavations at various purported sites, and finally found vestiges of the walls built at the time. He also designed the metal frame for the six-metre-high statue of the Gallic chief Vercingétorix that would be placed on the site. He later designed a similar frame for a much larger statue, the Statue of Liberty , but died before that statue was finished. In 1863, Viollet-le-Duc

13524-484: The exhibition to foreign artists. In the 19th century the idea of a public Salon extended to an annual government-sponsored juried exhibition of new painting and sculpture, held in large commercial halls, to which the ticket-bearing public was invited. The vernissage (varnishing) of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier . Charles Baudelaire , Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of

13685-404: The existing decorative elements; then they were removed and a stream of sculptors began making new statues of saints, gargoyles, chimeras and other architectural elements in a workshop he established, working from his drawings and photographs of similar works in other cathedrals of the same period. He also designed a new treasury in the Gothic style to serve as the museum of the cathedral, replacing

13846-479: The few Art Nouveau products that could be mass-produced was the perfume bottle, and these are still manufactured in the style today. Belgium was an early centre of Art Nouveau, thanks largely to the architecture of Victor Horta , who designed one of the first Art Nouveau houses, the Hôtel Tassel in 1893, and three other townhouses in variations of the same style. They are now UNESCO World Heritage sites . Horta had

14007-402: The first modern architects, Frank Lloyd Wright , Mies van der Rohe , Auguste Perret , Louis Sullivan , and Le Corbusier , who considered Viollet-le-Duc as the father of modern architecture. The English architect William Burges admitted in his late life "We all cribbed on Viollet-le-Duc even though no one could read French". His writings also influenced John Ruskin , William Morris , and

14168-572: The first phase of the restoration of the Cathedral of Saint Sernin in Toulouse, one of the landmarks of French Romanesque architecture. Napoleon III invited Viollet-le-Duc to study possible restorations overseas, including in Algeria, Corsica, and in Mexico, where Napoleon had installed a new Emperor, Maximilian, under French sponsorship. He also saw the consecration of the third church that he had designed,

14329-439: The first time, the position of Inspector General of Historic Monuments. Eugène's uncle Delécluze agreed to take Eugène on a long tour of France to see monuments. They travelled from July to October 1831 throughout the south of France, and he returned with a large collection of detailed paintings and watercolours of churches and monuments. On his return to Paris, he moved with his family into the Tuileries Palace , where his father

14490-473: The flaws of construction that had caused the building to start to collapse in the first place and to construct a more solid and stable structure. He lightened the roof and built new arches to stabilize the structure, and slightly changed the shape of the vaults and arches. He was criticized for these modifications in the 1960s, though, as his defenders pointed out, without them the roof would have collapsed under its own weight. Mérimée's deputy, Lenormant, inspected

14651-491: The floors and walls, as well as the furniture and carpets which Horta designed. Paul Hankar was another pioneer of Brussels' Art Nouveau. His house was completed in 1893, the same year as Horta's Hôtel Tassel, and featured sgraffiti murals on the façade. Hankar was influenced by both Viollet-le-Duc and the ideas of the English Arts and Crafts movement . His conception idea was to bring together decorative and fine arts in

14812-423: The furniture designer Gustave Serrurier-Bovy , known for his highly original chairs and articulated metal furniture; and the jewellery designer Philippe Wolfers , who made jewellery in the form of dragonflies, butterflies, swans and serpents. The Brussels International Exposition held in 1897 brought international attention to the style; Horta, Hankar, Van de Velde, and Serrurier-Bovy, among others, took part in

14973-430: The good fortune to possess a national architecture, the best thing is to keep it." "If you study for a moment a church of the 13th century", he wrote, "you see that all of the construction is carried out according to an invariable system. All the forces and the weights are thrust out to the exterior, a disposition which gives the interior the greatest open space possible. The flying buttresses and contreforts alone support

15134-651: The government decided to preserve the Renaissance facade, but otherwise to completely demolish and rebuild the building. Throughout his life Viollet le Duc wrote over 100 publications on architecture, decoration, history, archeology etc.... some of which would become international best-sellers: Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century (1854–1868), Entretiens sur l'architecture (1863–1872), L'histoire d'une Maison (1873) and Histoire d'un Dessinateur: Comment on Apprend à Dessiner (1879). In his Entretiens sur l'architecture he concentrated in particular on

15295-438: The government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, and a group of artists organized the Société des Artistes Français to take responsibility for the show. In December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français , William-Adolphe Bouguereau , proposed that the Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet-awarded, artists. Ernest Meissonier , Puvis de Chavannes , Auguste Rodin and others rejected

15456-472: The hierarchy that put painting and sculpture above the decorative arts. The major artists working there included the glass vase and lamp creators Émile Gallé , the Daum brothers in glass design, and the designer Louis Majorelle , who created furniture with graceful floral and vegetal forms. The architect Henri Sauvage brought the new architectural style to Nancy with his Villa Majorelle in 1902. The French style

15617-512: The historical traditions of jewellery design. For Art Nouveau architecture and furniture design, the most important centre in Britain was Glasgow , with the creations of Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School , whose work was inspired by Scottish baronial architecture and Japanese design. Beginning in 1895, Mackintosh displayed his designs at international expositions in London, Vienna, and Turin; his designs particularly influenced

15778-530: The interior: rebuilding two of the bays to their original medieval height of four storeys, and removing the marble neoclassical structures and decoration which had been added to the choir during the reign of Louis XIV. Mérimée warned them to be careful: "In such a project, one cannot act with too much prudence or discretion...A restoration may be more disastrous for a monument than the ravages of centuries." The Commission on Historical Monuments approved most of Viollet-le-Duc's plans, but rejected his proposal to remove

15939-486: The largest iconography on the subject to this day. In 1844, with the backing of Mérimée, Viollet-le-Duc, just thirty years old, and Lassus, then thirty-seven, won a competition for the restoration of Notre-Dame Cathedral which lasted twenty-five years. Their project involved primarily the facade, where many of the statues over the portals had been beheaded or smashed during the Revolution. They proposed two major changes to

16100-563: The menu for the restaurant of the pavilion; the decorators and designers Bruno Paul and Bruno Möhring from Berlin; Carlo Bugatti from Turin ; Bernhardt Pankok from Bavaria ; The Russian architect-designer Fyodor Schechtel , and Louis Comfort Tiffany and Company from the United States. The Viennese architect Otto Wagner was a member of the jury, and presented a model of the Art Nouveau bathroom of his own town apartment in Vienna, featuring

16261-412: The metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé , in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. He became engaged in

16422-452: The millions of visitors to the city's 1900 Exposition Universelle . The Paris 1900 Exposition universelle marked the high point of Art Nouveau. Between April and November 1900, it attracted nearly fifty million visitors from around the world, and showcased the architecture, design, glassware, furniture and decorative objects of the style. The architecture of the Exposition was often

16583-445: The mission of restoring and reconstructing the church so it would not collapse, while "respecting exactly in his project of restoration all the ancient dispositions of the church". The task was all the more difficult because up until that time no scientific studies had been made of medieval building techniques, and there were no schools of restoration. He had no plans for the original building to work from. Viollet-le-Duc had to discover

16744-438: The model of a Savoyard chalet, but with a minimum of decoration, illustrating his new doctrine of form following function. He made one last visit to inspect Carcassonne, whose work was now under his son's direction. After an exhausting summer of hiking in the Alps in 1879, he became ill and died in Lausanne on 17 September 1879. He was buried in the cemetery of La Sallaz in Lausanne. In 1946 his grave and monument were transferred to

16905-633: The most popular signature of the style. In a short period, Horta built three more town houses, all with open interiors, and all with skylights for maximum interior light: the Hôtel Solvay , the Hôtel van Eetvelde (for Edmond van Eetvelde ), and the Maison & Atelier Horta . All four are now part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Paul Hankar was also an innovator of early Art Nouveau. Born at Frameries , in Hainaut ,

17066-626: The name Munich Secession for the Association of Visual Artists of Munich . The Vienna Secession , founded in 1897, and the Berlin Secession also took their names from the Munich group. The journals Jugend and Simplicissimus , published in Munich, and Pan , published in Berlin, were important proponents of the Jugendstil . Jugendstil art combined sinuous curves and more geometric lines, and

17227-483: The neo-Gothic church of Saint-Denis de l'Estree, in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis . Between 1866 and 1870, his major project was the ongoing transformation of Pierrefonds from a ruin into a royal residence. His plans for the metal framework he had designed for Pierrefonds were displayed at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1867 . He also began a new area of study, researching the geology and geography of

17388-418: The new Commission of Historic Monuments of France, led by Prosper Mérimée , who had just published a book on medieval French monuments. Though he was just twenty-four years old and had no degree in architecture, he was asked to go to Narbonne to propose a plan for the completion of the cathedral there. The project was rejected by the local authorities as too ambitious and too expensive. His first real project

17549-421: The new gargoyles and monsters on examples from other cathedrals of the period. He was later criticized also for the stained glass windows he designed and had made for the chapels around the ground level of the cathedral, which feature intricate Gothic designs in grisaille , which allow more light into the church. The contemporary view of the controversy of his restoration is summarized on a descriptive panel near

17710-429: The new style, between 1895 and 1898. Parisians had been complaining of the monotony of the architecture of the boulevards built under Napoleon III by Georges-Eugène Haussmann . The Castel Beranger was a curious blend of Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau, with curving whiplash lines and natural forms. Guimard, a skilled publicist for his work, declared: "What must be avoided at all cost is...the parallel and symmetry. Nature

17871-516: The old choir, including the altar where Napoleon Bonaparte had been crowned Emperor and replaced them with a Gothic altar and decoration which he designed. When he modified the choir, he also constructed new bays with small Gothic rose windows modelled on those in the church of Chars , in the Oise Valley. Some historians condemned these restorations as non-historical invention. His defenders pointed out that Viollet-le-Duc did not make any decisions on

18032-429: The original plan; and (4) The restoration should preserve older modifications made to the building, with the exception of those which compromised its stability or its conservation, or those which gravely violated the value of its historical presence. He drew conclusions from medieval architecture that he applied to modern architecture. He noted that it was sometimes necessary to employ an iron frame in restoration to avoid

18193-401: The original tiles. He was also criticized for the materials and ornaments he added to the towers, including gargoyles. His structural design was preserved, but in 1925 his gargoyles and original ornamentation were removed, and the spire was recovered with tiles. His reputation had reached outside of France. The spire and roof of Strasbourg Cathedral had been damaged by German artillery during

18354-461: The overseer of the royal residences of Louis XVIII. His uncle Étienne-Jean Delécluze was a painter, a former student of Jacques-Louis David , an art critic and hosted a literary salon, which was attended by Stendhal and Sainte-Beuve . His mother hosted her own salon, which women could attend as well as men. There, in 1822 or 1823, Eugène met Prosper Mérimée , a writer who would play a decisive role in his career. In 1825 he began his education at

18515-592: The planning and construction of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1878 . He proposed to the Minister of Education, Jules Ferry , that the Trocadéro Palace , the main building of the Exposition on the hilltop of Chaillot, be transformed after the Exposition into a museum of French monuments, displaying models of architecture and sculpture from landmarks around France. This idea was accepted. The National Museum of French Monuments opened in 1882, after his death. The Palais

18676-657: The posters by Jules Chéret for dancer Loie Fuller in 1893, and by Alphonse Mucha for actress Sarah Bernhardt in 1895, the poster became not just advertising, but an art form. Sarah Bernhardt set aside large numbers of her posters for sale to collectors. The first Art Nouveau town houses, the Hankar House by Paul Hankar (1893) and the Hôtel Tassel by Victor Horta (1892–1893), were built almost simultaneously in Brussels . They were similar in their originality, but very different in their design and appearance. Victor Horta

18837-456: The press, and was elected to the Paris municipal council. While planning the design and construction of the Statue of Liberty ( Liberty Enlightening the World ) sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi interested Viollet-le-Duc, his friend and mentor, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with

18998-647: The principles of constructivism . Everything was functional, including the lines of rivets that decorated the walls of the main room. He often included very tall towers to his buildings to make them more prominent, a practice used by other Art Nouveau architects of the period, including Joseph Maria Olbrich in Vienna and Eliel Saarinen in Finland. Other buildings in the style include the American Hotel (1898–1900), also by Berlage; and Astoria (1904–1905) by Herman Hendrik Baanders and Gerrit van Arkel in Amsterdam ;

19159-644: The proposal and broke way to create the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts , with its own exhibition, immediately referred to in the press as the Salon du Champ de Mars or the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux–Arts . Soon, it was also widely known as the Nationale . In 1903, in response to what many artists at the time felt was a bureaucratic and conservative organization, a group of painters and sculptors, led by Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Auguste Rodin , organized

19320-639: The pupils of Morris. Early prototypes of the style include the Red House with interiors by Morris and architecture by Philip Webb (1859), and the lavish Peacock Room by James Abbott McNeill Whistler . The new movement was also strongly influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite painters, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones , and especially by British graphic artists of the 1880s, including Selwyn Image , Heywood Sumner , Walter Crane , Alfred Gilbert , and especially Aubrey Beardsley . The chair designed by Arthur Mackmurdo has been recognized as

19481-455: The region around Mont Blanc in the Alps. While on his mapping excursion in the Alps in July 1870, he learned that war had been declared between Prussia and France. As the Franco-Prussian War commenced, Viollet-le-Duc hurried back to Paris, and offered his services as a military engineer; he was put into service as a colonel of engineers, preparing the defenses of Paris. In September, the Emperor

19642-479: The residence of the Archbishop, which had been destroyed in a riot in 1831. The bells in the two towers had been taken out in 1791 and melted down to make cannons. Viollet-le-Duc had new bells cast for the north tower and a new structure built inside to support them. Viollet-le-Duc and Lassus also rebuilt the sacristy, on the south side of the church, which had been built in 1756, but had been burned by rioters during

19803-467: The restoration of Amiens Cathedral , one of the largest in France, which had been built over many centuries in a variety of different styles. He wrote, "his goal should be to save in each part of the monument its own character, and yet to make it so that the united parts don't conflict with each other; and that can be maintained in a state that is durable and simple." The French coup d'état of 1851 brought Napoleon III to power and transformed France from

19964-593: The restoration of Notre-Dame by himself; all of his plans were approved by Prosper Mérimée, the Inspector of Historical Monuments, and by the Commission of historic monuments. He was criticized for the abundance of Gothic gargoyles, chimeras, fleurons, and pinnacles which he added to Notre-Dame Cathedral. These decorations had existed in the Middle Ages but had largely been removed during the reign of Louis XIV. The last original gargoyles had been taken down in 1813. He modelled

20125-469: The ruin of the Hotel de Ville exactly as it was, "a ruin of a magical palace, A marvel of the picturesque. The country should not condemn it without appeal to restoration by Viollet-le-Duc." The government asked Viollet-le-Duc to organize a competition. He presented two options; to either restore the building to its original state, with its historic interior; or to demolish it and build a new city hall. In July 1872

20286-493: The son of a master stone cutter, he had studied ornamental sculpture and decoration at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels from 1873 to 1884, whilst working as an ornamental sculptor. From 1879 to 1904, he worked in the studio of the prominent architect Henri Beyaert , a master of eclectic and neoclassical architecture . Through Beyaert, Hankar also became an admirer of Viollet-le-Duc. In 1893, Hankar designed and built

20447-400: The south of France, on one of his long inspection tours of monuments. Viollet-le-Duc made drawings of the buildings and wrote detailed accounts of each site, illustrated with his drawing, which were published in architectural journals. With his experience he became the most prominent academic scholar on French medieval architecture and his medieval dictionnary, with over 4000 drawings, contains

20608-587: The spirit of the Gothic, with lavish neo-Gothic decoration and 19th-century comforts. Pierrefonds and its inside decorations would not only influence William Burges and his Cardiff and Coch castles but also the castles of Ludwig II of Bavaria ( Neuschwanstein Castle ) and the Haut-Kœnigsbourg of the Emperor Wilhelm II . While most of his attention was devoted to restorations, Viollet-le-Duc designed and built

20769-469: The style of the residence. Van de Velde went to Paris, where he designed furniture and decoration for the German-French art dealer Siegfried Bing , whose Paris gallery gave the style its name. He was also an early Art Nouveau theorist, demanding the use of dynamic, often opposing lines. Van de Velde wrote: "A line is a force like all the other elementary forces. Several lines put together but opposed have

20930-633: The style was known as the Nieuwe Stijl ('New Style'), or Nieuwe Kunst ('New Art'), and it took a different direction from the more floral and curving style in Belgium. It was influenced by the more geometric and stylised forms of the German Jugendstil and Austrian Vienna Secession . It was also influenced by the art and imported woods from Indonesia , then the Dutch East Indies , particularly

21091-471: The style. These paintings were removed in 1945 as deemed non academic. At the Château de Roquetaillade in the Bordeaux region, his interior decorations dating from 1865 also anticipate Art Nouveau. In his 1872 book Entretiens sur l'architecture , he wrote, "Use the means and knowledge given to us by our times, without the intervening traditions which are no longer viable today, and in that way we can inaugurate

21252-432: The subject was more nuanced: "if a building has not been upkept it should be restored". The existence of an opposition between Ruskin and Viollet le Duc on restoration is today questioned by new research based on Ruskin's own writtings: "there is no book on architecture which has everything correct apart from Viollet le Duc’s Dictionnary". And at the end of his life Ruskin expressed the regret that "no one in England had done

21413-406: The surroundings of the city were still a military defensive zone in the 19th century, but the towers were without tops and a large number of structures had been built up against the old walls. Once he obtained funding and made his plans, he began demolishing all structures which had been added to the ramparts over the centuries, and restored the gates, walls and towers to their original form, including

21574-481: The time of its creation, did not aspire in any way to have the honor of becoming a generic term. It was simply the name of a house opened as a rallying point for all the young and ardent artists impatient to show the modernity of their tendencies." The style was quickly noticed in neighbouring France. After visiting Horta's Hôtel Tassel, Hector Guimard built the Castel Béranger , among the first Paris buildings in

21735-414: The two towers. However, in 1846, the new tower, overloaded with masonry, began to crack, and Viollet-le-Duc was called in. He found no way the building could be saved and had to oversee the demolition of the tower, saving the stones. He concentrated on restoring the interior of the church, and was able to restore the original burial chamber of the kings of France. In May 1849, he was named the architect for

21896-416: The use of iron and other new materials, and the importance of designing buildings whose architecture was adapted to their function, rather than to a particular style. The book was translated into English in 1881 and won a large following in the United States. The Chicago architect Louis Sullivan , one of the inventors of the skyscraper, often invoked the phrase, "Form follows function." Lausanne Cathedral

22057-416: The work that Viollet le Duc had done in France". Viollet-le-Duc's restorations sometimes involved non-historical additions, either to assure the stability of the building, or sometimes simply to maintain the harmony of the design. The flèche or spire of Notre-Dame de Paris, which had been constructed in about 1250, was removed in 1786 after it was damaged by the wind. Viollet-le-Duc designed and constructed

22218-461: The work to the finest details, including the floor tiles, the gas lights in the salons, the ovens in the kitchen, and the electric bells for summoning servants. In 1874 Viollet-le-Duc resigned as diocesan architect of Paris and was succeeded by his contemporary, Paul Abadie . In his final years, he continued to supervise the restoration projects that were underway for the Commission of Historical Monuments. He engaged in polemics about architecture in

22379-458: The years that remain to me in study and in the most modest possible life." Always the scholar, he wrote a detailed study of the effectiveness and deficiencies of the fortifications of Paris during the siege, which was to be used for the 1917 defense of Verdun and the construction of the Maginot line in 1938. In May 1871 he left his home in Paris just before national guardsmen arrived to draft him into

22540-685: Was a disaster as he wrote in his journal on the 14th December 1870: "Disorganization is everywhere. The officers have no confidence in the troops, and the troops have no confidence in the officers. Each day, new orders and new projects which contravene those of the day before." He fought with the French army against the Germans at Buzenval on 24 January 1871. The battle was lost, and the French capitulated on 28 January. Viollet-le-Duc wrote to his wife on February 28, "I don't know what will become of me, but I do not want to return any more to administration. I am disgusted by it forever, and want nothing more than to pass

22701-614: Was a restoration of the Vézelay Abbey , which many considered as impossible. The church had been sacked by the Huguenots in 1569, and during the French Revolution, the facade and statuary on the facade were destroyed. The vaults of the roof were weakened, and many of the stones had been carried off for other projects. When Mérimée visited to inspect the structure he heard stones falling around him. In February 1840 he gave Viollet-le-Duc

22862-527: Was a wave of enthusiasm for Japanese woodblock printing , particularly the works of Hiroshige , Hokusai , and Utagawa Kunisada , which were imported into Europe beginning in the 1870s. The enterprising Siegfried Bing founded a monthly journal, Le Japon artistique in 1888, and published thirty-six issues before it ended in 1891. It influenced both collectors and artists, including Gustav Klimt . The stylised features of Japanese prints appeared in Art Nouveau graphics, porcelain, jewellery, and furniture. Since

23023-451: Was among the most influential architects of early Art Nouveau, and his Hôtel Tassel (1892–1893) in Brussels is one of the style's landmarks. Horta's architectural training was as an assistant to Alphonse Balat , architect to King Leopold II , constructing the monumental iron and glass Royal Greenhouses of Laeken . He was a great admiror of Viollet-le-Duc , whose ideas he completely identified with. In 1892–1893, he put this experience to

23184-570: Was an admirer of architectural theories of Viollet-le-Duc . His furniture was designed to be strictly functional, and to respect the natural forms of wood, rather than bending or twisting it as if it were metal. He pointed to the example of Egyptian furniture, and preferred chairs with right angles. His first and most famous architectural work was the Beurs van Berlage (1896–1903), the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange, which he built following

23345-566: Was applied only to the graphic arts. It referred especially to the forms of typography and graphic design found in German magazines such as Jugend , Pan , and Simplicissimus . Jugendstil was later applied to other versions of Art Nouveau in Germany, the Netherlands. The term was borrowed from German by several languages of the Baltic states and Nordic countries to describe Art Nouveau (see Naming section). In 1892 Georg Hirth chose

23506-514: Was captured at the Battle of Sedan , a new Republican government took power, and the Empress Eugénie fled into exile, as Germans marched as far as Paris and put it under siege. At the same time, on September 23, Viollet-le-Duc's primary patron and supporter, Prosper Mérimée, died peacefully in the south of France. Viollet-le-Duc supervised the construction of new defensive works outside Paris. The war

23667-455: Was finally eliminated and this put an end to Viollet le Duc's wish to construct public buildings. Napoleon III also called upon Viollet-le-Duc for a wide variety of archeological and architectural tasks. When he wished to put up a monument to mark the Battle of Alesia , where Julius Caesar defeated the Gauls, a siege whose actual site was disputed by historians, he asked Viollet-le-Duc to locate

23828-629: Was first used in the 1880s in the Belgian journal L'Art Moderne to describe the work of Les Vingt , twenty painters and sculptors seeking reform through art. The name was popularized by the Maison de l'Art Nouveau ('House of the New Art'), an art gallery opened in Paris in 1895 by the Franco-German art dealer Siegfried Bing . In Britain, the French term Art Nouveau was commonly used, while in France, it

23989-447: Was his final major restoration project; it was rebuilt following his plans between 1873 and 1876. Work continued after his death. His reconstruction of the bell tower was later criticized; he eliminated the original octagonal base and added a new spire, which rested on the walls, and not on the vaulting, like the original spire. He also added new decoration, crowning the spire at mid-height with gables, another original element, and removing

24150-402: Was influenced by William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement . German architects and designers sought a spiritually uplifting Gesamtkunstwerk ('total work of art') that would unify the architecture, furnishings, and art in the interior in a common style, to uplift and inspire the residents. The first Art Nouveau houses and interior decoration appeared in Brussels in the 1890s, in

24311-505: Was named a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts, the school where he had refused to become a student. In the fortress of neoclassical Beaux-Arts architecture there was much resistance against him, but he attracted two hundred students to his course, who applauded his lecture at the end. But while he had many supporters, the faculty professors and certain students campaigned against him. His critics complained that, aside from having little formal architectural training himself, he had only built

24472-488: Was now governor of royal residences. His family again urged him to attend the École des Beaux-Arts, but he still refused. He wrote in his journal in December 1831, "the École is just a mould for architects. they all come out practically identical." He was a talented and meticulous artist; he travelled around France to visit monuments, cathedrals, and other medieval architecture, made detailed drawings and watercolours. In 1834, at

24633-614: Was often called by the term Style moderne (akin to the British term Modern Style ), or Style 1900 . In France, it was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne (after the novelist Jules Verne ), Style Métro (after Hector Guimard 's iron and glass subway entrances), Art Belle Époque , or Art fin de siècle . Art Nouveau is known by different names in different languages: Jugendstil in German, Stile Liberty in Italian, Modernisme in Catalan, and also known as

24794-515: Was particularly popular in restaurants and cafés, including Maxim's at 3, rue Royale , and Le Train bleu at the Gare de Lyon (1900). The status of Paris attracted foreign artists to the city. The Swiss-born artist Eugène Grasset was one of the first creators of French Art Nouveau posters. He helped decorate the famous cabaret Le Chat Noir in 1885, made his first posters for the Fêtes de Paris and

24955-717: Was popular between 1890 and 1910 during the Belle Époque period, and was a reaction against the academicism , eclecticism and historicism of 19th century architecture and decorative art. One major objective of Art Nouveau was to break down the traditional distinction between fine arts (especially painting and sculpture) and applied arts. It was most widely used in interior design, graphic arts, furniture, glass art, textiles, ceramics, jewellery and metal work. The style responded to leading 19th century theoreticians, such as French architect Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) and British art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900). In Britain, it

25116-558: Was reconstructed into the Palais de Chaillot in 1937, but the Museum of French Monuments was preserved and can be seen there today. In his final years his son Eugène-Louis became the head of the Commission of Historic Monuments. He took on just one new project, the restoration of the cloister of the Augustines at Toulouse. He completed his series of dictionaries of architectural periods, designed for

25277-409: Was restored to its original form. In 1872 Viollet-le-Duc was engaged in the reconstruction of the Château d'Amboise , owned by the descendants of the former King, Louis-Philippe. The chateau had been confiscated by Napoleon III in 1848 but was returned to the family in 1872. It was a massive project to turn it into a residence, involving at times three hundred workers. Viollet-le-Duc designed all

25438-697: Was shown at the Société nationale des beaux-arts in 1895. In the same year, Bing opened a new gallery at 22 rue de Provence in Paris, the Maison de l'Art Nouveau , devoted to new works in both the fine and decorative arts. The interior and furniture of the gallery were designed by the Belgian architect Henry van de Velde , one of the pioneers of Art Nouveau architecture. The Maison de l'Art Nouveau showed paintings by Georges Seurat , Paul Signac and Toulouse-Lautrec , glass from Louis Comfort Tiffany and Émile Gallé , jewellery by René Lalique , and posters by Aubrey Beardsley . The works shown there were not at all uniform in style. Bing wrote in 1902, "Art Nouveau, at

25599-464: Was spent in Germany; he strongly influenced the decoration of the Jugendstil . Others included the decorator Gustave Serrurier-Bovy , and the graphic artist Fernand Khnopff . Belgian designers took advantage of an abundant supply of ivory imported from the Belgian Congo ; mixed sculptures, combining stone, metal and ivory, by such artists as Philippe Wolfers , was popular. In the Netherlands,

25760-401: Was used for covers of novels, advertisements, and exhibition posters. Designers often created original styles of typeface that worked harmoniously with the image, e.g. Arnold Böcklin typeface in 1904. Paris Salon The Salon ( French : Salon ), or rarely Paris Salon (French: Salon de Paris [salɔ̃ də paʁi] ), beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of

25921-499: Was widely propagated by new magazines, including The Studio , Arts et Idées and Art et Décoration , whose photographs and colour lithographs made the style known to designers and wealthy clients around the world. In France, the style reached its summit in 1900, and thereafter slipped rapidly out of fashion, virtually disappearing from France by 1905. Art Nouveau was a luxury style, which required expert and highly-paid craftsmen, and could not be easily or cheaply mass-produced. One of

#419580