139-511: Ernest Gordon (31 May 1916 – 16 January 2002) was the former Presbyterian dean of the chapel at Princeton University . A native of Greenock, Scotland , and the son of James Gordon and Sarah R MacMillan, as an officer in the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , Gordon spent three years in a Japanese prisoner of war (POW) camp during the Second World War . He chronicled his experiences on
278-632: A synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ; some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually
417-532: A Lord High Commissioner unless they choose to attend in person; the role is purely formal, and the monarch has no right to take part in deliberations. The church is committed to its 'distinctive call and duty to bring the ordinances of religion to the people in every parish of Scotland through a territorial ministry' (Article 3 of its Articles Declaratory ). The church played a leading role in providing universal education in Scotland (the first such provision in
556-600: A GA in May 2021, a draft plan might still be being considered by commissioners prior to being shared with all presbyteries for their consideration under the Church of Scotland's Barrier Act 1697 and being brought back to a future General Assembly. On 23 May 2022 the GA voted in favour of same-sex marriage with 274 for and 136 against. Clergy will be allowed to conduct the marriages but will not be forced to. Many church congregations and clergy affirm
695-540: A call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member. Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for
834-655: A chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland . In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of
973-699: A distinct change from attitudes in certain quarters of the church in the early twentieth century and before, when opposition to Irish Roman Catholic immigration was vocal (see Catholicism in Scotland ). The Church of Scotland is a member of the World Council of Churches , the Conference of European Churches , the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe , and the World Communion of Reformed Churches . The Church of Scotland
1112-604: A full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite ), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments : Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by
1251-607: A major split, the Salter's Hall controversy , occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine. A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in
1390-608: A new grouping of congregations within the church was begun "to declare their clear commitment to historic Christian orthodoxy", known as the Fellowship of Confessing Churches . In May 2011, the GA of the Church of Scotland voted to appoint a theological commission with a view to fully investigating the matter, reporting to the General Assembly of 2013. Meanwhile, openly homosexual ministers ordained before 2009 would be allowed to keep their posts without fear of sanction. On 20 May 2013,
1529-635: A prisoner of war. Gordon found his sense of self and spirituality while a prisoner and one of the participant soldiers who helped build The Bridge on the River Kwai . As history shows, the Japanese were especially cruel to their prisoners. The death rate was quite high. He underwent very torturous events, that led to his being placed in the "Death Ward" designated for those who were not expected to survive. (These conditions included malnutrition , beriberi , malaria , tropical ulcer , and an appendectomy .) He
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#17328554164981668-505: A privileged claim for possession of a particular territory". The Scottish Council of Jewish Communities sharply criticised the report, describing it as follows: "It reads like an Inquisition-era polemic against Jews and Judaism. It is biased, weak on sources, and contradictory. The picture it paints of both Judaism and Israel is barely even a caricature. The arrogance of telling the Jewish people how to interpret Jewish texts and Jewish theology
1807-448: A revival of faith and hope for life. Gordon, an agnostic, was impressed by Dusty's simplicity and firm Christian faith in the face of the severe treatment the prisoners received at the hands of their captors. Dusty was one who did not lose faith and never met the cruel treatment he received with anger. In a surprising turn of events, Gordon survived the war. Upon liberation as he sought news of his friends he found that two weeks before
1946-469: A revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one. Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to
2085-453: A striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect Harold E. Wagoner . Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Catholic church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by
2224-553: A table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at
2363-745: Is anti-abortion , stating that it should be allowed "only on grounds that the continuance of the pregnancy would involve serious risk to the life or grave injury to the health, whether physical or mental, of the pregnant woman." The Church of Scotland also opposes euthanasia : "The General Assembly has consistently stated that: 'the Christian recognises no right to dispose of his own life even although he may regard those who commit or may attempt to commit suicide with compassion and understanding rather than condemnation'. The church has frequently stressed its opposition to various attempts to introduce legislation to permit euthanasia, even under strictly controlled circumstances as incompatible with Christianity." The church
2502-754: Is nec tamen consumebatur ( Latin )—"Yet it was not consumed", an allusion to Exodus 3:2 and the Burning Bush . In 2023, the Church of Scotland published a report which detailed its connections to the Atlantic slave trade . It noted that from 1707 to the 1830s, Church of Scotland ministers and elders inherited wealth from familial relatives which were made on West Indian slave plantations and numerous church buildings (including Glasgow Cathedral ) contain memorials to and accepted donations from individuals who profited from slavery. The report also noted that enslaved Black people were used to build Church of Scotland churches in
2641-527: Is a Presbyterian denomination of Christianity that holds the status of the national church in Scotland . It is one of the country's largest, having 259,200 members in 2023. While active membership in the church has declined significantly in recent decades (in 1982 it had nearly 920,000 members), the government Scottish Household Survey found that 20% of the Scottish population, or over one million people, identified
2780-596: Is a member of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland and, through its Presbytery of England, is a member of Churches Together in England . The Church of Scotland continues to foster relationships with other Presbyterian denominations in Scotland even where agreement is difficult. In May 2016 the Church of Scotland ratified the Columba Agreement (approved by the Church of England's General Synod in February 2016), calling for
2919-738: Is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London, as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form
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#17328554164983058-634: Is an Italian Protestant denomination. The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in
3197-459: Is associated with the Care Not Killing organisation in "Promoting more and better palliative care./ Ensuring that existing laws against euthanasia and assisted suicide are not weakened or repealed during the lifetime of the current Parliament./ Influencing the balance of public opinion further against any weakening of the law." Historically, the Church of Scotland supported the death penalty;
3336-463: Is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism . The manner of subscription , or
3475-684: Is breathtaking." The report was also criticised by the Anti-Defamation League and the Israeli envoy to the United Kingdom. In response to criticism, the church quickly replaced the original version with a modified one, stating that criticism of Israel's policies toward the Palestinians "should not be misunderstood as questioning the right of the State of Israel to exist". The Church of Scotland
3614-536: Is celebrated once a month. Theologically, the Church of Scotland is Reformed (ultimately in the Calvinist tradition) and is a member of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches . The Church of Scotland is a member of ACTS ( Action of Churches Together in Scotland ) and, through its Committee on Ecumenical Relations, works closely with other denominations in Scotland. The present inter-denominational co-operation marks
3753-651: Is chaired by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . According to traditional Scottish historiography, the first Christians in Scotland were converted by Saint Ninian around 400 AD. Early Christian missionaries included Saint Columba , who founded a mission at Iona two centuries later. In 1192, the Papal bull Cum universi separated the Scottish church from the Archbishopric of York , creating an independent national church with no higher authority except
3892-566: Is conducted by the parish minister, participation and leadership by members who are not ministers in services is becoming more frequent, especially in the Highlands and the Borders. In common with other Reformed denominations, the church recognises two sacraments : Baptism and Holy Communion (the Lord's Supper ). The church baptises both believing adults and the children of Christian families. Communion in
4031-403: Is granted on those matters "which do not enter into the substance of the faith" (Art. 2 and 5). (The 19th century Scottish distinction was between ' evangelicals ' and ' moderates '.) There is no official document in which substantial matters and insubstantial ones are clearly demarcated. The Church of Scotland has no compulsory prayer book , although it does have a hymn book (the 4th edition
4170-551: Is more of a faint image, with a more modern design. John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of
4309-494: Is normally no sung or responsive liturgy, but worship is the responsibility of the minister in each parish, and the style of worship can vary and be quite experimental. In recent years, a variety of modern song books have been widely used to appeal more to contemporary trends in music, and elements from alternative liturgies including those of the Iona Community are incorporated in some congregations. Although traditionally worship
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4448-527: Is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism , one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism , or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow
4587-695: The Apostles' Creed ), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession , the Heidelberg Catechism , the Second Helvetic Confession ), and 20th century documents ( The Theological Declaration of Barmen , Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith ). The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of
4726-684: The Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer . What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant . The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War . Following the restoration of
4865-663: The Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales. Presbyterianism ( Irish : Preispitéireachas , Ulster Scots : Prisbytairinism ) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and
5004-543: The Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland . King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud ,
5143-612: The Culdees practiced Christian monasticism , a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another." The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure . The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to
5282-653: The Death Railway in his book Through the Valley of the Kwai . The book served as an inspiration to the film To End All Wars , where he was portrayed by actor Ciarán McMenamin . The film opened in 2001 , and the film's DVD release, which came out after his death, dedicated the film to his memory. Captain Ernest Gordon was a company commander with the 2nd Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. He fought in several battles in
5421-506: The Disruption of 1843 when a large portion of the church broke away to form the Free Church of Scotland . The seceding groups tended to divide and reunite among themselves—leading to a proliferation of Presbyterian denominations in Scotland, as is demonstrated in the timeline above. The UK Parliament passed the Church of Scotland Act 1921 , finally recognising the complete independence of
5560-631: The Kingdom of Great Britain . In fact, most Presbyterians in England have a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America , mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. Scotland's Presbyterian denominations hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches that use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of
5699-574: The L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s. In Wales , Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales , which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than
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5838-720: The Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting
5977-422: The Malayan Campaign and the Battle of Singapore . He was one of the last Allied soldiers to cross the causeway from Johore before it was blown up. After the capture of Singapore, he escaped to Java, and attempted to sail several thousand miles from Padang to Sri Lanka with a group of other British officers in a native fishing boat. His boat was captured by some Japanese warships, and he was returned to Singapore as
6116-418: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America , the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO). Church of Scotland The Church of Scotland ( CoS ; Scots : The Kirk o Scotland ; Scottish Gaelic : Eaglais na h-Alba )
6255-401: The Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries . In time,
6394-428: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church . There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk , which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France . The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV)
6533-407: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the ' Didasko Presbytery' , the International Presbyterian Church and two congregations of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster . Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland. Within Scotland the term ' kirk ' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of
6672-426: The Reformed Presbyterians , would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody , as well as eschew the celebration of holy days. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble , but also cassock and surplice (typically
6811-410: The Scottish Episcopal Church . Most of the remaining Covenanters disagreed with the Restoration Settlement on various political and theological grounds, most notably because the Settlement did not acknowledge the National Covenant and Solemn League and Covenant, also did not join the Church of Scotland, instead forming the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland in 1690. Controversy still surrounded
6950-465: The Scottish Parliament in 1997. Indeed, from 1999 to 2004 the Parliament met in the church's Assembly Hall in Edinburgh, while its own building was being constructed. The Church of Scotland supports the Scottish Churches Parliamentary Office in Edinburgh, an ecumenical partnership which is staffed and resourced by the Church. Since 1968, all ministries and offices in the church have been open to women and men on an equal basis. In 2004, Alison Elliot
7089-549: The United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as
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#17328554164987228-424: The episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England . Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to
7367-421: The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719
7506-404: The history of Christianity , but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th century Protestant Reformation . As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations. Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin , who is credited with
7645-488: The 'plainness' of the Scottish service, he, together with his Archbishop of Canterbury , William Laud , sought to introduce the kind of liturgical practice in use in England. The centrepiece of this new strategy was the Scottish Prayer Book of 1637 , a slightly modified version of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . Although a panel of Scottish bishops devised this, Charles's insistence that it be drawn up secretly and adopted sight unseen led to widespread discontent. When
7784-498: The 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court , and St Columba's , Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There
7923-411: The 2011 national census, 32% of Scots identified their religion as "Church of Scotland", more than any other faith group, but falling behind the total of those without religion for the first time. However, by 2013 only 18% of Scots self-identified as Church of Scotland. Though according to the 2014 Scottish Annual Household Survey, 27.8%, or 1.5 million adherents, identified the Church of Scotland as
8062-414: The 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the modernist movement characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans. Prominent examples include Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the National Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., features
8201-496: The 20th century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement , including the World Council of Churches . Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches . Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists . Presbyterians in
8340-406: The Bible supports an essentially Jewish state of Israel. This raises an increasing number of difficulties and current Israeli policies regarding the Palestinians have sharpened this questioning", and that "promises about the Land of Israel were never intended to be taken literally". The church responded to criticism by saying that "The Church has never and is not now denying Israel's right to exist; on
8479-484: The Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation . Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of
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#17328554164988618-435: The British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship , developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans , initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Parliament of Scotland , and became one of
8757-407: The Church of Scotland as their religious identity in 2019. The Church of Scotland's governing system is presbyterian in its approach, therefore, no one individual or group within the church has more or less influence over church matters. There is no one person who acts as the head of faith, as the church believes that role is the "Lord God's". As a proper noun , the Kirk is an informal name for
8896-419: The Church of Scotland in 1929), the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland (which broke from the Free Church of Scotland in 1893), the Associated Presbyterian Churches (which emerged as a result of a split in the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland in the 1980s) and the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) (which emerged from a split in the Free Church of Scotland in 2000). The motto of the Church of Scotland
9035-408: The Church of Scotland paid £1 million in damages to three siblings who had been abused at the Lord and Lady Polwarth children's home. The basis of faith for the Church of Scotland is the Word of God , which it views as being "contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament". Its principal subordinate standard is The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), although here liberty of opinion
9174-445: The Church of Scotland today is open to Christians of whatever denomination, without precondition. If baptised as an infant, one is expected to make the public profession of faith as part of a confirmation ceremony. Communion services are usually taken fairly seriously in the church; traditionally, a congregation held only three or four per year, although practice now greatly varies between congregations. In some congregations, communion
9313-428: The Church of Scotland used in the media and by the church itself. The Church of Scotland was principally shaped by John Knox in the Reformation of 1560 when it split from the Catholic Church and established itself as a church in the Reformed tradition. The church belongs to the Presbyterian tradition of Reformed Christianity (Calvinism), having no head of faith or leadership group and believing that God invited
9452-523: The Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of
9591-426: The Church. In November 1638, the General Assembly in Glasgow, the first to meet for twenty years, not only declared the Prayer Book unlawful but went on to abolish the office of bishop itself. The Church of Scotland was then established on a Presbyterian basis. Charles' attempt to resist these developments led to the Bishops' Wars . In the ensuing civil wars , the Scots Covenanters at one point made common cause with
9730-405: The English parliamentarians—resulting in the Westminster Confession of Faith being agreed by both. This document remains the subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland but was replaced in England after the Restoration . Episcopacy was reintroduced to Scotland after the Restoration, which caused considerable discontent, especially in the country's southwest, where the Presbyterian tradition
9869-488: The GA voted in favour of a proposal that allowed liberal parishes to opt out of the church's policy on homosexuality. Since 2008, 25 out of 808 (3%) ministers had left over the issue. It was reported that seceding congregations had a combined annual income of £1 million. In 2015, the Church of Scotland's GA voted in favour of recommending that gay ministers be able to enter into same-sex marriages. and allowing pastors to enter in same-sex civil partnerships. On 21 May 2016,
10008-443: The GA voted in favour of the approval for gay and lesbian ministers to enter into same-sex marriages. In 2017, there was a report to be debated at the church's General Assembly in May that proposed "having a church committee research allowing nominated ministers and deacons to carry out the ceremonies, but...to retain the ability for 'contentious refusal' from those opposed to same-sex marriage." A Theological Forum report calling for
10147-607: The General Assembly created a Church and Nation Committee, which in 2005 became the Church and Society Council , and in 2019 merged with the World Mission Council to create the Faith Impact Forum. The Church of Scotland is a firm opponent of nuclear weaponry . Supporting devolution , it was one of the parties involved in the Scottish Constitutional Convention , which resulted in the setting up of
10286-494: The General Assembly once called for the "vigorous execution" of Thomas Aikenhead , who was found guilty of blasphemy in 1696. Nowadays, the church strongly disapproves of the death penalty: "The Church of Scotland affirms that capital punishment is always and wholly unacceptable and does not provide an answer even to the most heinous of crimes. It commits itself to working with other churches and agencies to advance this understanding, oppose death sentences and executions and promote
10425-455: The General Assembly voted in favour of permitting the church's clergy to conduct same-sex marriages. In May 2009, there was opposition to an attempt to install as minister an openly homosexual man who intended to live with his partner once appointed to his post. In a landmark decision on 23 May 2009 the General Assembly (GA) ratified by 326 to 267 the appointment of Scott Rennie , the church's first out, non-celibate gay minister. Rennie had won
10564-672: The Pope. The Church of Scotland, in its current form, traces its origins to the Scottish Reformation of 1560. At that point, many in the then church in Scotland broke with Rome in a process of Protestant reform led, among others, by John Knox . It reformed its doctrines and government, drawing on the principles of John Calvin , which Knox had been exposed to while living in Geneva , Switzerland. An assembly of some nobles, lairds , and burgesses, as well as several churchmen, claiming in defiance of
10703-595: The Prayer Book was finally introduced at St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh in mid-1637, it caused an outbreak of rioting, which, starting with Jenny Geddes , spread across Scotland. In early 1638, the National Covenant was signed by large numbers of Scots, protesting the introduction of the Prayer Book and other liturgical innovations that had not first been tested and approved by free Parliaments and General Assemblies of
10842-564: The Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism . Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith , which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to
10981-560: The Queen to be a Scottish Parliament, abolished papal jurisdiction and approved the Scots Confession , but did not accept many of the principles laid out in Knox's First Book of Discipline , which argued, among other things, that all of the assets of the old church should pass to the new. The 1560 Reformation Settlement was not ratified by the crown, as Mary I , a Catholic, refused to do so, and
11120-555: The Roman date, not the Celtic date." Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms , many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". Presbyterian history is part of
11259-546: The Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith , and the larger and shorter catechisms , which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649. Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine , institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship , often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of
11398-465: The Scottish population. The Scottish Church Census of 2016 reported that just under 137,000 people worshipped on an average Sunday in a Church of Scotland, approximately 41% of the stated membership. However, according to the 2024 Assembly Trustees Report, only 61,580 were attending an average Sunday worship service in person during 2023. In 2016 the church faced a £5.7 million deficit amid costly upkeep of many older ecclesiastical buildings. In response
11537-622: The Union of that year met at Industrial Hall on Annandale Street in north Edinburgh. Some independent Scottish Presbyterian denominations still remain. These include the Free Church of Scotland —sometimes given the epithet The Wee Frees —(originally formed of those congregations which refused to unite with the United Presbyterian Church in 1900), the United Free Church of Scotland (formed of congregations which refused to unite with
11676-600: The United States came largely from Scottish , Scots-Irish immigrants , and also from New England communities that were originally Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas. Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland , traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba , through the 6th century Hiberno-Scottish mission . Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John ,
11815-602: The United States, he preached at churches in Amagansett and Montauk, Long Island. Gordon came to Princeton University in Princeton, N.J., as Presbyterian chaplain in 1954 and was named dean of the chapel the following year. Presbyterian Christianity • Protestantism Presbyterianism is a Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders . Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar,
11954-517: The West Indies, and the church distributed money made from slavery to Scottish parishes to fund philanthropic efforts that assisted Scotland's poor. It ended by recommending to the General Assembly that "a statement of acknowledgment and apology should be brought to a future General Assembly and a dedicated page about the Church’s connections to the slave trade should be created for its website." In 2019,
12093-400: The approval of same-sex marriage, and an apology to homosexuals for past mistreatment was approved by the General Assembly on 25 May 2017. In 2018, the church's assembly voted in favour of drafting a new church law to allow same-sex marriages and to give ministers the option of performing same-sex marriages. The church was expected to vote on a final poll in 2021 but, after being considered at
12232-416: The cause of abolition of the death penalty worldwide." The Church of Scotland does not consider marriage to be a sacrament, and thus not binding forever, and has no moral objection to the remarriage of divorced persons. The minister who is asked to perform a ceremony for someone who has a prior spouse living may inquire for the purpose of ensuring that the problems which led to the divorce do not recur. At
12371-454: The chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on
12510-449: The church decided to 'prune to grow', reducing ministry provision plans from 1,234 to 1,000 funded posts (1,075 established FTE posts, of which 75 would be vacant at any one time) supported by a variety of voluntary and part-time ministries. At the same time the number of candidates accepted for full-time ministry has reduced from 24 (2005) to 8 (2009). Since 2014, the number of full-time candidates accepted into training each year has been in
12649-583: The church enjoys complete independence from the state in spiritual matters. When in Scotland, the British monarch simply attends church, as opposed to their role in the English Church as Supreme Governor . The monarch's accession oath includes a promise to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government". They are formally represented at the annual General Assembly by
12788-473: The church in matters spiritual, and as a result of this, and passage of the Church of Scotland (Property and Endowments) Act 1925 ( 15 & 16 Geo. 5 . c. 33), the church was able to unite with the United Free Church of Scotland in 1929. The United Free Church of Scotland was itself the product of the union of the former United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the majority of the Free Church of Scotland in 1900. The 1929 assembly of church leaders to effect
12927-469: The church of their religion. In 2019, according to the Scottish Household Survey, 20% of Scots self-reported themselves as adherents of the Church of Scotland. The Church of Scotland Guild , the church's historical women's movement and open to men and women since 1997, is still the largest voluntary organisation in Scotland. According to the 2011 census, among respondents who identified with
13066-407: The church would not survive." The proposal reduced the number of ministry posts by 40%; to 660 of which 60 would be vacant at any one time, and was said to offer the church a chance to thrive. By December 2022 the Church had 270,300 members, a 4.7% decline from 2021, and representing an overall decline of 35% since 2012. This lack of those in training towards ministry has threatened the viability of
13205-446: The church's adherents to worship Jesus . The Church of Scotland celebrates two sacraments , Baptism and the Lord's Supper , as well as five other ordinances , such as Confirmation and Matrimony . The church adheres to the Bible and the Westminster Confession of Faith and is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches . The annual meeting of the church's general assembly
13344-524: The church, 96% were white Scots, 3% were other white people, and 1% were from other ethnic groups; this broadly reflects Scotland's demographic make-up. Although it is the national church, it is not a state church ; this and other regards makes it dissimilar to the Church of England (the established church in England). Under its constitution (recognised by the 1921 act of the British Parliament ),
13483-567: The church, often referred to as " subordinate standards ". Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation . Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues
13622-518: The congregation ( elders ), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making ( presbytery , synod , and general assembly ). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world. Presbyterianism's roots lie in the Reformation of the 16th century. John Calvin's Republic of Geneva was particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In
13761-576: The contrary, it is questioning the policies that continue to keep peace a dream in Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory. This report is against the injustices levelled against the Palestinian people and how land is shared. It is also a reflection of the use or misuse of scripture to claim divine right to land by any group" and says it must "refute claims that scripture offers any peoples
13900-470: The degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard. Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to
14039-560: The denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text. Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led
14178-465: The development of Reformed theology , and the work of John Knox , a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco , a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560,
14317-527: The entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ
14456-614: The established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland . There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland , the United Free Church of Scotland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) , the Associated Presbyterian Church ,
14595-470: The first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA),
14734-529: The foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere. Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship , which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden. Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship. However, there
14873-501: The full congregation. Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders. Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly , although an intermediate level of
15012-464: The full inclusion of transgender and other LGBTI people within the church through Affirmation Scotland . In April 2013, the church published a report entitled "The Inheritance of Abraham: A Report on the 'Promised' Land" which included a discussion of Israeli and Jewish claims to the Land of Israel . The report said "there has been a widespread assumption by many Christians as well as many Jewish people that
15151-507: The historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read. The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland " but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and
15290-580: The larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps". Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton. In 1703
15429-727: The mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others. While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends,
15568-469: The modern world), largely due to its teaching that all should be able to read the Bible. However, it ceased operating its schools, which were transferred to the state, in the latter half of the 19th century. The Church of Scotland faces many current difficulties. Between 1966 and 2006, the number of members fell from over 1,230,000 to 504,000, reducing further to 446,000 in 2010 380,164 by 2014, 336,000 by 2017, and 325,695 by 2018, representing about 6% of
15707-608: The monarchy in 1660, Charles II , despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church. However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed
15846-656: The new Concordat, a Presbyterian party emerged headed by Andrew Melville , the author of the Second Book of Discipline . Melville and his supporters enjoyed some temporary successes—most notably in the Golden Act of 1592, which gave parliamentary approval to Presbyterian courts. James VI, however, believed that presbyterianism was incompatible with monarchy, declaring "No bishop, no king". By skillful manipulation of both church and state, steadily reintroduced parliamentary and then diocesan episcopacy ; this approximately mirrored
15985-462: The nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to
16124-483: The overwhelming support of his prospective church members at Queen's Cross, Aberdeen, but his appointment was in some doubt until extensive debate and this vote by the commissioners to the assembly. The GA later agreed upon a moratorium on the appointment of further non-celibate gay people until after a special commission has reported on the matter. (See: LGBT clergy in Christianity .) As a result of these developments,
16263-617: The power of the Holy Spirit remaking us like Jesus, we—with all Christians— worship God, enjoy His friendship and are available for Him to use in sharing and showing His love, justice, and peace locally and globally until Jesus returns ! In Jesus' name we gladly share with you God's message for all people—You matter to God! It was approved for use by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in May 1992. The national church has never shied from involvement in Scottish politics . In 1919,
16402-413: The puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the members , and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support
16541-503: The question of church government also remained unresolved. In 1572, the acts of 1560 were finally approved by the young James VI , but the Concordat of Leith also allowed the crown to appoint bishops with the church's approval. John Knox himself had no clear views on the office of bishop, preferring to see them renamed as 'superintendents' which is a translation of the Greek; but in response to
16680-455: The range of 13 to 16. At the 2016 General Assembly the Moderator pointed to issues such as: 25% of charges without a minister; all but two ministers over the age of 30; falling clergy numbers over the coming six years (anticipated that for each newly recruited minister there will be four retirements). By 2021 membership was continuing to decline year on year, leading to a new plan "without which
16819-484: The relationship between the Church of Scotland's independence and the civil law of Scotland. The interference of civil courts with church decisions, particularly over the appointment of ministers, following the Church Patronage (Scotland) Act 1711 , which gave landowners, or patrons, the right to appoint ministers to vacant pulpits, would lead to several splits. This began with the secession of 1733 and culminated in
16958-576: The second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland ), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England . An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster
17097-499: The step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993. Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches . Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this
17236-653: The structure of the Church of England , of which James had become Supreme Governor when he succeeded to the English throne in 1603 . By the time he died in 1625, the Church of Scotland had a full panel of bishops and archbishops. General Assemblies met only at times and places approved by the Crown. Charles I inherited a settlement in Scotland based on a balanced compromise between Calvinist doctrine and episcopal practice. Lacking his father's political judgment, he began to upset this by moving into more dangerous areas. Disapproving of
17375-637: The struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g. William Robertson Smith ). Some Presbyterian churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland , have no such " conscience clause". The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted the Book of Confessions , which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed ,
17514-436: The time of the 2001 census , the number of respondents who gave their religion as Church of Scotland was 2,146,251 which amounted to 42.4% of the population of Scotland. In 2013, the Church of Scotland had around 995 active ministers , 1,118 congregations , and its official membership at 398,389 comprised about 7.5% of the population of Scotland. Official membership is down some 66.5% from its peak in 1957 of 1.32 million. In
17653-420: The traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent , Christmas, Ash Wednesday , Holy Week , Easter, Pentecost , etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors , etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as
17792-529: The two churches to work more closely together on matters of common interest. In 2022, the Church of Scotland and the Catholic Bishops Conference of Scotland agreed a declaration of friendship between the Church of Scotland and the Catholic Church. While the Bible is the basis of faith of the Church of Scotland, and the Westminster Confession of Faith is the subordinate standard, a request
17931-516: The values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland. Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning
18070-475: The war's end Dusty had been crucified by a Japanese guard who was frustrated with Dusty's sense of calm in the face of hardship. Dinty, whom Gordon cared for and admired profoundly, died when the Allies sank his unmarked prisoner transport ship. Gordon returned home to Scotland to pursue the vocation he had found in the camp. He was ordained a minister of the Church of Scotland at Paisley Abbey in 1950. After moving to
18209-531: The word Presbyterian is applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War . Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God , the authority of the Scriptures , and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Scotland ensured Presbyterian church government in the 1707 Acts of Union , which created
18348-546: The world and in ourselves. The Bible tells us the Good News that God still loves us and has shown His love uniquely in His Son , Jesus Christ. He lived among us and died on the cross to save us from our sin . But God raised Him from the dead ! In His love, this living Jesus invites us to turn from our sins and enter by faith into a restored relationship with God Who gives true life before and beyond death . Then, with
18487-406: The worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of
18626-441: Was chosen to be Moderator of the General Assembly, the first woman in the post and the first non-minister to be chosen since George Buchanan , four centuries before. In May 2007 Sheilagh M. Kesting became the first female minister to be Moderator. There are currently 218 serving female ministers, with 677 male ministers. The Church of Scotland allows its clergy to enter into same-sex marriages and civil partnerships. In May 2022,
18765-466: Was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster ,
18904-488: Was presented to a General Assembly of the Church of Scotland for a statement explaining the historic Christian faith in jargon -free non-theological language. "God's Invitation" was prepared to fulfil that request. The full statement reads: God made the world and all its creatures with men and women made in His image . By breaking His laws people have broken contact with God, and damaged His good world. This we see and sense in
19043-473: Was published in 2005). Its Book of Common Order contains recommendations for public worship, which are usually followed fairly closely in the case of sacraments and ordinances. Preaching is the central focus of most services. Traditionally, Scots worship centred on the singing of metrical psalms and paraphrases, but for generations these have been supplemented with Christian music of all types. The typical Church of Scotland service lasts about an hour. There
19182-469: Was strongest. The modern situation largely dates from 1690, when after the Glorious Revolution , the majority of Scottish bishops were non-jurors ; that is, they believed they could not swear allegiance to William III of England and Mary II of England while James VII lived. To reduce their influence, the Scots Parliament guaranteed Presbyterian governance of the church by law, excluding what became
19321-459: Was treated there by two special soldiers in their late twenties, a Methodist named " Dusty Miller ", a simple gardener from Newcastle upon Tyne ; and "Dinty" Moore a devout Roman Catholic . The two gave 24-hour care to Gordon. They would boil rags and clean and massage Gordon's diseased legs every day. To the great surprise of everyone, Gordon survived, and as a consequence many of the POWs experienced
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