Eranos is an intellectual discussion group dedicated to humanistic and religious studies , as well as to the natural sciences which has met annually in Moscia (Lago Maggiore), the Collegio Papio and on the Monte Verità in Ascona , Switzerland since 1933.
165-509: It has also been the name for a circle of scholars at Heidelberg (Germany) in the early 20th century. Among others, Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch were members of the "Heidelberg Eranos". The name is derived from the Ancient Greek word ἔρανος meaning "a banquet to which the guests bring contributions of food, a no-host dinner." The circle at Moscia was founded by Olga Froebe-Kapteyn in 1933, and these conferences have been held annually on
330-499: A Protestant perspective to the political debate regarding the social question . In the same year, the Verein established a research program to examine the Ostflucht , which was the western migration of ethnically German agricultural labourers from eastern Germany and the corresponding influx of Polish farm workers into it. Weber was put in charge of the study and wrote a large part of
495-451: A VAT number . These exams are usually organized by the professional orders with the collaboration of area universities. In other cases, especially in the case of health professions or childcare professionals, not protected by a professional nature, the degree itself is a qualifying title. Finally, some habilitations, since their activities cannot be done autonomously, need to be hired in a suitable structure in order to effectively carry out
660-499: A biography of her late husband in 1926 which became one of the central historical accounts of his life. Weber's sociology treated social action as its central focus. He also interpreted it as having been an important part of the field's scientific nature. He divided social action into the four categories of affectional , traditional , instrumental, and value-rational action . In his methodology, he distinguished himself from Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx in that his primary focus
825-522: A breakdown after his father died following an argument. Weber ceased teaching and travelled until the early 1900s. He recovered and wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . During the First World War , he initially supported Germany's war effort but became critical of it and supported democratisation. He also gave the lectures " Science as a Vocation " and " Politics as a Vocation ". After
990-411: A camaraderie which fosters an atmosphere of free and open discussion. Each year a new theme is addressed, and each participant scholar delivers a two-hour lecture on a topic of his choice relating to the theme — his/her contribution to the ‘banquet’ of ideas — thereby attempting to draw these multifarious thinkers into productive intellectual discourse. Froebe-Kapteyn established this group at
1155-408: A century ago, almost unheard of in others (such as law ). The level of scholarship of a habilitation is considerably higher than for a doctoral dissertation in the same academic tradition in terms of quality and quantity, and must be accomplished independently, without direction or guidance of a faculty supervisor. In the sciences , publication of numerous (sometimes ten or more) research articles
1320-518: A cold and needed to cancel classes. By 14 June 1920, the cold had turned into influenza and he died of pneumonia in Munich. He had likely contracted the Spanish flu during the post-war pandemic and been subjected to insufficient medical care. Else von Richthofen, who was present by his deathbed alongside his wife, thought that he could have survived his illness if he had been given better treatment. His body
1485-570: A combination of their basis in natural law and the rising kulak class manipulating them for their own gain. His general interpretation of the Russian Revolution was that it lacked a clear leader and was not based on the Russian intellectuals' goals. Instead, it was the result of the peasants' emotional passions. In 1909, having become increasingly dissatisfied with the political conservatism and perceived lack of methodological discipline of
1650-478: A course of study, and the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift ), which opens the road to a professorship. Habilitation qualifications exist or existed in: A habilitation thesis can be either cumulative (based on previous research, be it articles or monographs) or monographical, i.e., a specific, unpublished thesis, which then tends to be very long. While cumulative habilitations are predominant in some fields (such as medicine ), they have been, since about
1815-466: A habilitation, where older candidates often feel discriminated against, for example under the DFG 's Emmy-Noether programme. Furthermore, internal "soft" money might only be budgeted to pay for younger postdoctoral scientists. Because of the need to chase short-term research contracts, many researchers in the natural sciences apply for more transparent career development opportunities in other countries. In summary,
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#17328479857811980-452: A habilitation. A typical procedure after completing the habilitation is that the successful researcher officially receives the so-called Venia legendi (Latin for "permission for lecturing") for a specific academic subject at universities (sometimes also referred to as Venia docendi , Latin for "right of teaching"). Someone in possession of the Venia legendi but not a professorship has
2145-647: A law student, later studying at the Royal Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin and the University of Göttingen . He practiced law and worked as a lecturer simultaneously with his studies. In 1886, Weber passed the Referendar examination, which was comparable to the bar association examination in the British and U.S. legal systems. Throughout the late 1880s, he continued to study law and history. Under
2310-661: A lecture titled " Politics as a Vocation ", which commented on the subject of politics. It was prompted by the early Weimar Republic 's political turmoil and was requested by the Free Student Youth. Shortly before he left to join the delegation in Versailles on 13 May 1919, Weber used his connections with the German National People's Party 's deputies to meet with Erich Ludendorff . He spent several hours unsuccessfully trying to convince Ludendorff to surrender himself to
2475-427: A peer-reviewed demonstration of a successful academic development and an international outlook is considered more than compensation for an habilitation where there is evidence of grant applications, well-cited publications, a network of collaborators, lecturing and organisational experience, and experience of having worked and published abroad. On the other hand, amongst many senior researchers, especially in medicine ,
2640-645: A personal chronology that his widow later destroyed. Its destruction was possibly caused by Marianne's fear that his work would have been discredited by the Nazis if his experience with mental illness were widely known. After recovering from his illness, Weber accepted a position as an associate editor of the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik ( Archive for Social Science and Social Policy ) in 1904, alongside his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart. It facilitated his reintroduction to academia and became one of
2805-573: A politician, he associated them with different types of people and mindsets. These different types of people and mindsets reflected the pacifists and those who wanted to reverse Germany's defeat in the First World War, respectively. Habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree , or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills
2970-516: A previously vacant chair in political economy that he had been in consideration for since October 1917. Later, in Munich , he was appointed to Lujo Brentano 's chair in social science, economic history, and political economy. He accepted the appointment in order to be closer to his mistress, Else von Richthofen. Responding to student requests, he gave a series of lectures on economic history. The student transcriptions of it were later edited and published as
3135-597: A professor. His condition forced him seek an exemption from his teaching obligations, which he was granted in 1899. He spent time in the Heilanstalt für Nervenkranke Konstanzer Hof in 1898 and in a different sanatorium in Bad Urach in 1900. Weber also travelled to Corsica and Italy between 1899 and 1903 in order to alleviate his illness. He fully withdrew from teaching in 1903 and did not return to it until 1918. Weber thoroughly described his ordeal with mental illness in
3300-546: A psychological justification for it in the form of the cycle of reincarnation . A person's position in the caste order was thought to have been determined by one's actions in their past life. As a result, advancement of the soul and obeying the predetermined order were more important than seeking advancement in the material world, including economic advancement. Weber ended his research of society and religion in India by bringing in insights from his previous work on China to discuss
3465-497: A relationship and semi-engagement with Emmy Baumgarten, the daughter of Hermann Baumgarten. Afterwards, he began a relationship with his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger in 1893 and married her on 20 September of that year. The marriage gave Weber financial independence, allowing him to leave his parents' household. They had no children. Marianne was a feminist activist and an author in her own right. Academically, between
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#17328479857813630-478: A research group, being a junior professor , or other achievements in research and teaching as a post-doctoral researcher. The habilitation in Germany is usually earned after several years of independent research and teaching, either "internally" while working at a university or "externally" as a research and teaching-oriented practitioner. Once the habilitation thesis ( Habilitationsschrift , often simply Habilitation ) and all other requirements are completed,
3795-522: A result of its creation of a worldly perspective. As a result, the inheritors of that system were entrapped in a socioeconomic iron cage. Weber's work in the field of sociology of religion began with the book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . It continued with the book series The Economic Ethics of the World Religions , which contained The Religion of China , The Religion of India , and Ancient Judaism . However, his work
3960-585: A scholar. Weber also began a sadomasochistic affair with Else von Richthofen the next year. Meanwhile, she was simultaneously conducting an affair with his brother, Alfred . Max Weber's affairs with Richtofen and Mina Tobler lasted until his death in 1920. After the war ended, Weber unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the Weimar National Assembly in January 1919 as a member of the liberal German Democratic Party , which he had co-founded. He also advised
4125-456: A seminar that contained a discussion of Oswald Spengler 's The Decline of the West . Weber respected him and privately described him as having been "a very brilliant and scholarly dilettante". That seminar provoked some of his students, who knew Spengler personally, to suggest that he debate Spengler alongside other scholars. They met in the Munich town hall and debated for two days. The audience
4290-475: A sign of salvation were representative of ascetic Protestantism. Ascetic Protestants practiced inner-worldly asceticism and sought to change the world to better reflect their beliefs. The notion of a religious calling, when combined with predestination , meant that each individual had to take action to prove their salvation to themselves. However, the success that these religious principles created ultimately removed them as an influence on modern capitalism as
4455-424: A theological or ethical lens, he interpreted it through a social one. Furthermore, he incorporated Friedrich Nietzsche 's concept of Ressentiment into his discussion of the topic. However, Weber disagreed with Nietzsche's emotional discussion of the topic and his interpretation of it as having been a Jewish-derived expression of slave morality . Weber divided theodicy into three main types: Weber defined
4620-600: A universal God became more popular and desirable. In The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism , Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe, especially those aspects that contrasted with Puritanism . As part of that, he questioned why capitalism had not developed in China. He focused on the issues of Chinese urban development, Chinese patrimonialism and officialdom and Chinese religion and philosophy – primarily Confucianism and Taoism – as
4785-565: A university could also obtain the habilitation if they meet the requirements. The French habilitation committee is constituted by a majority of external and sometimes foreign referees. The French habilitation entitles assistant professors ( maîtres de conférences ) to apply for full professor positions ( professeur des universités ). As such, the French habilitation is similar to the promotion to associate professor in North America. In other words,
4950-472: A university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil . ( Doctor habilitatus ), Dr hab. ( Doktor habilitowany ), or D.Sc. ( Doctor of Sciences in Russia and some CIS countries), is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. In German-speaking countries it allows
5115-467: A value-free organisation. Ultimately, that prompted his resignation from it. Rationalisation was a central theme in Weber's scholarship. This theme was situated in the larger context of the relationship between psychological motivations, cultural values, cultural beliefs, and the structure of the society. Weber understood rationalisation as having resulted in increasing knowledge, growing impersonality, and
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5280-480: A variety of other contributions to economic sociology , political sociology , and the sociology of religion . After his death, the rise of Weberian scholarship was slowed by the Weimar Republic 's political instability and the rise of Nazi Germany . In the post-war era, organised scholarship began to appear, led by Talcott Parsons . Other American and British scholars were also involved in its development. Over
5445-415: Is a schematic that represents a social action and considers the role of meaning in it. By its nature, it was an exaggeration of an empirical situation through its assumption that the involved individuals were rational, had complete situational knowledge, were completely aware of the situation, were completely aware of their actions, and made no errors. This was then contrasted with empirical reality, allowing
5610-481: Is a title (similar to Habilitation in Germany) granted to holders of doctorate degrees upon submission of a cumulative thesis followed by a viva voce examination . It has practically disappeared amongst Brazilian Federal HEIs . It is still required at a few institutions for admissions as a full professor ( professor titular ), most notably in the three state universities of the state of São Paulo , as well as at
5775-606: Is in practical contrast with the spirit of the Gelmini-reform. If an ASN habilitation application fails, the candidate can apply again, but only after a 12-month hiatus. The ASN habilitation was initially valid for four years, but this validity term was extended many times. Currently (2023), due to extreme scarcity of tenure track positions in Italy, the ASN habilitation validity has been recently increased to ten years by government decree. In
5940-484: Is required during the habilitation period of about four to ten years. In the humanities , a major book publication may be a prerequisite for defense. It is possible to get a professorship without habilitation, if the search committee attests the candidate to have qualifications equaling those of a habilitation and the higher-ranking bodies (the university's senate and the country's ministry of education) approve. However, while some subjects make liberal use of this (e.g.,
6105-453: Is restricted to the time of the appointment (UG2002 §98(13) – Habilitation ad positionem ). While the habilitation ensures the rights of the independent research and the supervision, it is on behalf of the statute of the universities to give those rights also to, e.g., associate professors without habilitation. Currently the major Austrian universities do that only for master's level students, but not for PhD programs. Livre-docência
6270-487: The Methodenstreit . In the first chapter of Economy and Society , he argued that only individuals "can be treated as agents in a course of subjectively understandable action". Despite the term's usage of "individualism", Weber did not interpret the individual as being the true source for sociological explanations. Instead, while only individuals could engage in intentional action, they were not necessarily separate from
6435-585: The Verein , he co-founded the German Sociological Association ( Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie ) and served as its first treasurer. Weber associated the society with the Verein and viewed the two organisations as not having been competitors. He unsuccessfully tried to steer the direction of the association. As part of that, Weber tried to make the Archiv its official journal. He resigned from his position as treasurer in 1912. That
6600-536: The venia , and thus the habilitation, is given only for certain sub-fields (such as criminal law , civil law , or philosophy of science , practical philosophy , etc.); in others, for the entire field. Although disciplines and countries vary in the typical number of years for obtaining habilitation after getting a doctorate, it usually takes longer than for the American academic tenure . For example, in Poland until 2018,
6765-548: The General Economic History by Siegmund Hellmann [ de ] and Melchior Palyi [ de ] in 1923. In terms of politics, he opposed the pardoning of the Bavarian Minister-President Kurt Eisner 's murderer, Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley . In response to that, right-wing students disrupted his classes and protested in front of his home. In early 1920, Weber gave
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6930-540: The Allies . This debate also shifted to other subjects, such as who was culpable for Germany's defeat in the war. Weber thought that the German high command had failed, while Ludendorff regarded Weber as a democrat who was partially responsible for the revolution. Weber tried to disabuse him of that notion by expressing support for a democratic system with a strong executive. Since he held Ludendorff responsible for Germany's defeat in
7095-530: The Bundestag (the federal parliament) cannot pass such a law, because the German constitution explicitly states that affairs of education are the sole responsibility of the states and declared the law to be invalid in June 2004. In reaction, a new federal law was passed, giving the states more freedom regarding habilitations and junior professors. The junior professor has since been legally established in all states, but it
7260-491: The European Commission Directorate-General for Research, and therefore usually implies the holder of such title has a degree equivalent to habilitation. In 2004, the habilitation was the subject of a major political debate in Germany. The former Federal Minister for Education and Science, Edelgard Bulmahn , aimed to abolish the system of the habilitation and replace it with the alternative concept of
7425-542: The National-Social Association , which was a Christian socialist and nationalist political organisation. Weber was pessimistic regarding the association's ability to succeed, and it dissolved after winning a single seat in the Reichstag during the 1903 German federal election . In 1896, he accepted an appointment to a chair in economics and finance at Heidelberg University . There, Weber and his wife became
7590-467: The Near East , with the exemplary prophecies found in mainland Asia that focused more on reaching to the educated elites and enlightening them on the proper ways to live one's life, usually with little emphasis on hard work and the material world. It was those differences that prevented Western countries from following the paths of the earlier Chinese and Indian civilisations. His next work, Ancient Judaism ,
7755-551: The brain drain of talented young researchers who think their chances of getting a professorship at a reasonable age to be better abroad and hence move, for example, to the UK or the USA. Many feel overly dependent on their supervising principal investigators (the professor heading the research group) since superiors have power to delay the process of completing the habilitation. A further problem comes with funding support for those who wish to pursue
7920-500: The humanities and the social sciences , the habilitation was—and still is—regarded as a valuable instrument of quality control before giving somebody a tenured position for life. Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, three states with conservative governments, filed suit at the German Constitutional Court against the new law replacing the habilitation with the junior professor. The Court concurred with their argument that
8085-704: The textile industry . Over time, Weber was affected by the marital and personality tensions between his father, who enjoyed material pleasures while overlooking religious and philanthropic causes, and his mother, a devout Calvinist and philanthropist. Weber entered the Doebbelinsche Privatschule in Charlottenburg in 1870, before attending the Kaiserin-Augusta-Gymnasium between 1872 and 1882. While in class, bored and unimpressed with his teachers, Weber secretly read all forty volumes by
8250-854: The Congress of Arts and Sciences that was held in connection with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis alongside his wife, Werner Sombart, Ernst Troeltsch, and other German scholars. Taking advantage of the fair, the Webers embarked on a trip that began and ended in New York City and lasted for almost three months. They travelled throughout the country, from New England to the Deep South . Different communities were visited, including German immigrant towns and African American communities. North Carolina
8415-561: The Eastern bloc is equivalent to a habilitation. The cumulative form of the habilitation can be compared to the higher doctorates , such as the D.Sc. ( Doctor of Science ), Litt.D. (Doctor of Letters), LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) and D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) found in the UK, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, which are awarded on the basis of a career of published work. However, higher doctorates from these countries (except Russia) are often not recognized by any German state as being equivalent to
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#17328479857818580-887: The Emperor and the Pope" and "About the Roman Imperial Period from Constantine to the Migration Period". Two years later, also during Christmastime, he wrote another historical essay, "Observations on the Ethnic Character, Development, and History of the Indo-European Nations". These three essays were non-derivative contributions to the philosophy of history and were derived from Weber's reading of "numerous sources". In 1882, Weber enrolled in Heidelberg University as
8745-703: The Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). The degree of Docteur d'État (State Doctor) or Doctorat d'État (State Doctorate), called Doctorat ès lettres (Doctor of Letters) or Doctorat ès sciences (Doctor of Sciences) before the 1950s, formerly awarded by universities in France had a somewhat similar purpose. In 1984, the Doctorat d'État was replaced by the Habilitation à diriger des recherches (or French habilitation ). The award of
8910-549: The French habilitation is a general requirement for being the main supervisor of PhD students and to be eligible for full professor positions. The official eligibility named qualification is granted by the French Conseil National des Universités (CNU). Members of Directeur de Recherche corps who are assimilated to full professors by the CNU do not require the French habilitation to supervise PhD students. Depending on
9075-518: The Italian system, for ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo b ). At the end of the three-year contract the assistant professor must have a valid ASN habilitation in order to become a permanent associate professor; otherwise, he or she is permanently laid off. To prevent this (which may be disastrous to already undermanned Italian departments), it is common practice to award RTDb positions to people already habilitated as associate or full professors, which
9240-510: The Jewish people as having been a pariah people, which meant that they were separated from the society that contained them. He examined the ancient Jewish people's origins and social structures. In his view, the Israelites maintained order through a covenant with the war god Yahweh and the practice of warrior asceticism. Under Solomon , that changed into a more organised and law-based society than
9405-605: The Middle Ages, Based on Southern European Documents , which he published in the same year. Two years later, Weber worked with the statistician August Meitzen to complete his habilitation , a post-doctoral thesis, titled Roman Agrarian History and Its Significance for Public and Private Law . Having thus become a Privatdozent , Weber joined the faculty of the Royal Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin, lecturing, conducting research, and consulting for
9570-595: The National Assembly in its drafting of the Weimar Constitution . While he was campaigning for his party, Weber critiqued the left and complained about Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg who led the leftist Spartacus League . He regarded the German Revolution of 1918–1919 as having been responsible for Germany's inability to fight against Poland 's claims on its eastern territories. His opposition to
9735-570: The North American ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor are equivalent to maître de conférences , French habilitation / qualification , and professeur des universités , respectively, in France. In order to hold the rank of a full professor ( W3 ) within the German university system, it is necessary to have obtained the habilitation (or "habilitation-equivalent achievements"). This can be demonstrated by leading
9900-605: The Puritans' religious calling to work caused them to systematically obtain wealth. They wished to prove that they were members of the elect who were destined to go to Heaven. Weber used Benjamin Franklin 's personal ethic, as described in his " Advice to a Young Tradesman ", as an example of the Protestant sects' economic ethic. Both rationalisation and the ideal type , concepts that later became central to his scholarship, appeared in
10065-533: The Spirit of Capitalism is Weber's most famous work. It was his first work on how religions affected economic systems' development. In the book, he put forward the thesis that the Protestant work ethic , which was derived from the theological ideas of the Reformation , influenced the development of capitalism. Weber was looking for elective affinities between the Protestant work ethic and capitalism. He argued that
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#173284798578110230-930: The Symbolism of Light in the Gnosis and in Early Christianity (1943), Man and Peace (1958), Creation and Organization (1966) and The Truth of Dreams (1995). Participants over the years have included Heinrich Zimmer (Indian religious art), Karl Kerényi (Greek mythology), Mircea Eliade (history of religions), Carl Gustav Jung and Erich Neumann (analytical psychology), Robert Eisler (gospel authorship), Alfons Rosenberg (symbolism), Gilles Quispel (gnostic studies), Gershom Scholem (Jewish mysticism), Henry Corbin (Islamic religion), Gilbert Durand (symbolic anthropology), Adolf Portmann (biology), Herbert Read (art history), Max Knoll (physics), and Joseph Campbell (comparative mythology). The Eranos conferences have resulted in
10395-469: The academic course report is replaced by a research proposal or a proposal for advanced PhD studies. After the candidate submits the habilitation thesis, a jury composed of five to nine full professors or coordinator researchers first evaluates the submitted documents; the majority needs to approve the candidate's request. If approved, the candidate then needs to defend their thesis in a two-day public defense. The public defense lasts for two hours each day. On
10560-549: The areas in which Chinese development significantly differed from the European route. According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism were superficially similar, but were actually largely different from one another. Instead, they were mutually exclusive types of rational thought , each attempting to prescribe a way of life based on religious dogma. Notably, they both valued self-control and restraint and did not oppose accumulation of wealth. However, both of those qualities were simply means to different final goals. Confucianism's goal
10725-576: The belief in supernatural interference in the material world. Due to disenchantment, this gave way to rational and scientific explanations for events. According to the Sociology of Religion religious activity began with actions in the material world that people associated with vague spirits and gave magical meanings to. Over time, these magical beliefs became increasingly systemised and the spirits became gods that were represented by symbols. This increasing theological systemisation resulted in polytheism and organised religion . Increasing rationality caused
10890-426: The calling quickly gave to the modern entrepreneur a fabulously clear conscience – and also industrious workers; he gave to his employees as the wages of their ascetic devotion to the calling and of co-operation in his ruthless exploitation of them through capitalism the prospect of eternal salvation. —Max Weber in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , 1905. The Protestant Ethic and
11055-450: The candidate (called Habilitand/in in German) "has habilitated him- or herself" and receives an extension to his/her doctoral degree, namely Dr. habil. (with the specification, such as Dr. rer. nat. habil. ). The habilitation is thus an additional qualification at a higher level than the German doctoral degree . Only those candidates receiving the highest (or second-highest) grade for their doctoral thesis are encouraged to proceed with
11220-438: The candidate) an external reviewer. Holding a habilitation allows academics to do research and supervise (PhD, MSc, ...) on behalf of this university. As it is an academic degree, this is even valid if the person is not enrolled (or not enrolled anymore) at this institution ( Habilitation ad personam ). Appointment to a full professorship with an international finding commission includes a venia docendi (UG2002 §98(12)), which
11385-492: The case needed to be dealt with by bourgeois reformers who were not "derailed". A year later, also in spring, he again holidayed in Ascona. The community contained several different expressions of the then-contemporaneous radical political and lifestyle reform movements. They included naturism , free love , and Western esotericism , among others. Weber was critical of the anarchist and erotic movements in Ascona, as he viewed their fusion as having been politically absurd. After
11550-438: The case, as that is determined by those value ideas in the light of which we look at "culture" in each individual case. —Max Weber in "The 'Objectivity' of Knowledge in Social Science and Social Policy", 1904. In terms of methodology, Weber was primarily concerned with the question of objectivity and subjectivity , distinguishing social action from social behavior and noting that social action must be understood through
11715-474: The central figures in the eponymous Weber Circle , which included Georg Jellinek , Ernst Troeltsch , and Werner Sombart . Younger scholars, such as György Lukács and Robert Michels , also joined it. In 1897, Weber had a severe quarrel with his father. Weber Sr. died two months later, leaving the argument unresolved. Afterwards, Weber became increasingly prone to depression, nervousness, and insomnia , which made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as
11880-479: The children in Heidelberg or move closer to Geheeb's Odenwaldschule ("Odenwald School") so that he could be alone in Munich with his mistress, Else von Richthofen . He left the decision to Marianne, but she said that only he could make the decision to leave for himself. While this was occurring, Weber began to believe that own life had reached its end. On 4 June 1920, Weber's students were informed that he had
12045-423: The choosing of values. With regards to economics, he argued that productivity was not a useful scientific concept, as it could impede the proper evaluation of economic phenomena. The principle of methodological individualism, which holds that social scientists should seek to understand collectivities solely as the result of individual people's actions, can be traced to Weber. The term "methodological individualism"
12210-486: The classification of legitimate authority into three ideal types – rational-legal , traditional , and charismatic – of which rational-legal was the dominant one in the modern world. In these works, Weber described what he saw as society's movement towards rationalisation. Bureaucratic states justified themselves through their own rationality and were supported by expert knowledge which made them rational. Rationalisation could also be seen in
12375-488: The classroom. He first articulated it in his writings on scientific philosophy, including "The 'Objectivity' of Knowledge in Social Science and Social Policy" and "Science as a Vocation". Weber was influenced by Heinrich Rickert 's concept of value-relevance. Rickert used it to relate historical objects to values while maintaining objectivity through explicitly defined conceptual distinctions. However, Weber disagreed with
12540-504: The collective group. He interpreted methodological individualism as having had close proximity to verstehende ("interpretive") sociology, as actions could be interpreted subjectively. Similarly, it was also related to ideal types in that it involved discussions of abstract and rational models of human behaviour. The ideal type was a central concept in Weber's methodology. He interpreted them as having been indispensable for it. Due their taking of meaning into account, they are unique to
12705-508: The completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in contemporary social policy . He joined the Verein für Socialpolitik ("Association for Social Policy") in 1888. The Verein was an organisation of reformist thinkers who were generally members of the historical school of economics . He also involved himself in politics, participating in the founding of the left-leaning Evangelical Social Congress in 1890. It applied
12870-479: The context of wider debates about social scientific methodology. The first of which was the Methodenstreit ("method dispute"). His position in it was close to historicism , as he thought that social actions were heavily tied to particular historical contexts. Furthermore, analysing social actions required an understanding of the relevant individuals' subjective motivations. Therefore, his methodology emphasised
13035-414: The course of the twentieth century, Weber's reputation rose due to the publication of translations of his works and scholarly interpretations of his life and works. As a result of these works, he began to be regarded as a founding father of sociology, alongside Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim , and one of the central figures in the development of the social sciences more generally. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber
13200-414: The creation of capitalism became unnecessary and it became able to propagate itself without them. What Weber depicted was not only the secularisation of Western culture , but also and especially the development of modern societies from the viewpoint of rationalisation. The new structures of society were marked by the differentiation of the two functionally intermeshing systems that had taken shape around
13365-424: The deadlines for habilitation for most scholars if they do not make it in time, and there is evidence that they are able to finish it in the near future. In Austria, the procedure is currently regulated by national law (Austrian University Act UG2002 §103 ). The graduation process includes additionally to the sub-commission of the senate (including students representatives for a hearing on the teaching capabilities of
13530-470: The degree holder to bear the title PD (for Privatdozent ). In a number of countries there exists an academic post of docent , appointment to which often requires such a qualification. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event (a lecture or a colloquium) with one or more opponents. Habilitation is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give
13695-448: The degrees is very similar, with minor changes. Any PhD holder can submit a habilitation thesis to obtain the degree. For agregação , the thesis is composed by a detailed CV of the achievements obtained after concluding the PhD, a detailed report of an academic course taught at the university (or a proposed course to be taught), and the summary of a lesson to be given. For habilitação ,
13860-402: The development of Western monotheism, which resulted in groups focusing on specific gods for political and economic purposes, creating a universal religion. According to Weber, Protestantism encouraged an increased pursuit of rationality that led to the devaluing of itself. In turn, this devaluation led to nihilism through its destruction of unifying values. The development of the concept of
14025-402: The development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China. In The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism , Weber dealt with the structure of Indian society, with the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism , with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on
14190-430: The economy, with the development of a highly rational and calculating capitalism. Capitalism's rationality related to its basis in calculation, which separated it from alternative forms of economic organisation. State bureaucracy and capitalism served as the twin pillars of the developing rational society. These changes eliminated the preexisting traditions that relied on the trades. Weber also saw rationalisation as one of
14355-439: The enhanced control of social and material life. He was ambivalent towards rationalisation. Weber admitted that it was responsible for many advances, particularly freeing humans from traditional, restrictive, and illogical social guidelines. However, he also criticised it for dehumanising individuals as "cogs in the machine" and curtailing their freedom, trapping them in the iron cage of rationality and bureaucracy. His studies of
14520-402: The event's romantic atmosphere. After he spoke at the first one, he became involved in the planning for the second one, as Diederichs thought that the conferences needed someone who could serve as an oppositional figure. In this capacity, he argued against the political romanticism that Max Maurenbrecher , a former theologian, espoused. Weber also opposed what he saw as the excessive rhetoric of
14685-430: The field of free regulated professions, protected by a professional body (architects, lawyers, engineers, doctors, pharmacists, journalists, etc.), it identifies the state examination, more properly called "state examination for the qualification for the exercise of professions" that allows already graduated students or those with the necessary titles to register on the list of professionals and work. Many state exams include
14850-501: The field, the French habilitation requires consistent research from five to ten years after appointment as an assistant professor ( maître de conférences ), a substantial amount of significant publications, the supervision of at least one PhD student from start to graduation, a successful track record securing extramural funding as a principal investigator, as well as a sound, ambitious, and feasible five-year research project. Outstanding postdoctoral researchers who are not yet appointed to
15015-600: The final report, which generated considerable attention and controversy, marking the beginning of his renown as a social scientist. From 1893 to 1899, Weber was a member of the Pan-German League ( Alldeutscher Verband ), an organisation that campaigned against the influx of Polish workers. The degree of his support for the Germanisation of Poles and similar nationalist policies continues to be debated by scholars. Weber and his wife moved to Freiburg in 1894, where he
15180-471: The first day, the curriculum of the candidate is discussed (for both degrees) and in the case of agregação , the candidate also needs to present the academic course selected. On the second day, the candidate needs to present a lecture ( agregação ) or a proposal of a research project ( habilitação ). The Doctor of Science in Russia and some other countries formerly part of the Soviet Union or
15345-537: The government. Weber's years as a university student were dotted with several periods of military service, the longest of which lasted between October 1883 and September 1884. During this time, he was in Strasbourg and attended classes at the University of Strasbourg that his uncle, the historian Hermann Baumgarten , taught. Weber befriended Baumgarten and he influenced Weber's growing liberalism and criticism of Otto von Bismarck 's domination of German politics. He
15510-600: The grounds of her estate (on the shores of Lago Maggiore near Ascona in Switzerland ) ever since. For over seventy years this event has served as a point of contact for thinkers from disparate fields of knowledge ranging from depth psychology and comparative religion to history, literary criticism and folklore , and provides a setting and a congenial group within which to discuss all things spiritual. Each conference takes place over eight days, during which time all participants eat, sleep and live together, thereby promoting
15675-688: The habilitation. In 1999, Russia and Germany signed a Statement on Mutual Academic Recognition of Russian Academic Degrees and German Academic Qualifications, including the equivalence of the Russian Doctor of Science and the German Habilitation qualification. Furthermore, the position or title of an associate professor (or higher) at a European Union-based university is systematically translated into or compared to titles such as Universitätsprofessor (W2) (Germany), førsteamanuensis (Norway), or Doktor hab. (Poland) by institutions such as
15840-567: The human mind would, "objectively" speaking, be less law-like, but for the following two reasons: (1) knowledge of social laws does not constitute knowledge of social reality, but is only one of the various tools that our intellect needs for that [latter] purpose; (2) knowledge of cultural occurrences is only conceivable if it takes as its point of departure the significance that the reality of life, with its always individual character, has for us in certain particular respects. No law can reveal to us in what sense and in what respects this will be
16005-473: The idea that a scholar could maintain objectivity while ascribing to a hierarchy of values in the way that Rickert did, however. His argument regarding value-freedom was connected to his involvement in the Werturteilsstreit . As part of it, he argued in favour of the idea that the social sciences needed to be value-free. During it, he unsuccessfully tried to turn the German Sociological Association into
16170-430: The importance of societal class within religion by examining the difference between the theodicies of fortune and misfortune and to what class structures they apply. The theodicy of fortune related to the desire of those who were successful to prove that they deserved it. They were also prone to not being satisfied with what they already had and wished to avoid the notion that they were illegitimate or sinful. Those without
16335-412: The importance of subjectivity in the social sciences made the creation of fool-proof, universal laws much more difficult than in the natural sciences and that the amount of objective knowledge that social sciences were able to create was limited. Overall, he supported objective science as a goal worth striving for but noted that it was ultimately an unreachable goal. Weber's methodology was developed in
16500-407: The intermediatory steps of polytheism , pantheism , and monotheism . According to him, this was the result of growing economic stability, which allowed for professionalisation and the evolution of an increasingly sophisticated priesthood. As societies grew more complex and encompassed different groups, a hierarchy of gods developed. Meanwhile, as their power became more centralised, the concept of
16665-569: The junior professor: a researcher should first be employed for up to six years as a "junior professor" (a non- tenured position roughly equivalent to assistant professor in the United States) and so prove his/her suitability for holding a tenured professorship. Many, especially researchers in the natural sciences , as well as young researchers, have long demanded the abandonment of the habilitation as they think it to be an unnecessary and time-consuming obstacle in an academic career, contributing to
16830-437: The main factors that set the West apart from the rest of the world. He also applied rationalisation to music in his The Rational and Social Foundations of Music . In writing it, he was influenced by his affair with the pianist Mina Tobler [ de ] and a sense that Western music was the only type that had become harmonic, while other cultures' music was more intense and focused on hearing. Weber argued that music
16995-405: The most prominent social science journals as a result of his efforts. Weber published some of his most seminal works in this journal, including his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , which became his most famous work and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of religion on the development of economic systems. Also in 1904, he was invited to participate in
17160-432: The natural sciences in order to employ candidates from countries with different systems and the arts to employ active artists), in other subjects it is rarely done. The habilitation is awarded after a public lecture, to be held after the thesis has been accepted, and after which the venia legendi (Latin: 'permission to read', i.e., to lecture) is bestowed. In some areas, such as law, philosophy, theology and sociology,
17325-424: The old confederation was. Religiously, the priests replaced the previous charismatic religious leaders. Weber thought that Elijah was the first prophet to have risen from the shepherds. Elijah promulgated political prophecies and opposed the monarchy . Weber used the concept of theodicy in his interpretation of theology and religion throughout his corpus. This involved both his scholarly and personal interests in
17490-418: The oppositional gesinnungsethik and verantwortungsethik [ de ] (the "ethic of ultimate ends" and the "ethic of responsibility"). An adherent of the verantwortungsethik justified their actions based on their consequences. Meanwhile, an adherent of the gesinnungsethik justified their actions based on their ideals. While Weber thought that both of them would ideally be present in
17655-745: The organisational cores of the capitalist enterprise and the bureaucratic state apparatus. Weber understood this process as the institutionalisation of purposive-rational economic and administrative action. To the degree that everyday life was affected by this cultural and societal rationalisation, traditional forms of life – which in the early modern period were differentiated primarily according to one's trade – were dissolved. — Jürgen Habermas in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures , 1990. Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on
17820-459: The origin of modern capitalism was in the religious ideas of the Reformation. According to him, certain types of Protestantism – notably Calvinism – were supportive of the rational pursuit of economic gain and the worldly activities that were dedicated to it, seeing those activities as having been endowed with moral and spiritual significance. The spirit of capitalism
17985-456: The outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Weber volunteered for service and was appointed as a reserve officer in charge of organising the army hospitals in Heidelberg, a role he fulfilled until the end of 1915. His views on the war and the expansion of the German Empire changed over the course of the conflict. Early on, he supported the German war effort , with some hesitation, viewing
18150-518: The pedagogue Paul Geheeb ended his affair with her. Weber thought positively of it, as he thought that her suicide was justified and that suicide in general could be an honourable act. Weber and his wife took in Lili's four children and planned to raise them. He was uncomfortable with his newfound role as a father figure, but he thought that Marianne was fulfilled as a woman by this event. She later formally adopted them in 1928. Weber wished for her to stay with
18315-531: The philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey , the jurist Levin Goldschmidt , and the historian Theodor Mommsen . The young Weber and his brother Alfred , who also became a sociologist, passed their formative years in this intellectual atmosphere. Meanwhile, Fallenstein was partly descended from the French Huguenot Souchay family [ de ] , which had obtained wealth through international commerce and
18480-530: The pianist Mina Tobler [ de ] . After a failed attempt to court Richthofen, Weber began an affair with Tobler in 1911. Later, during the spring of 1913, Weber holidayed in the Monte Verità community in Ascona , Switzerland . While holidaying, he was advising Frieda Gross in her custody battle for her children. He opposed Erich Mühsam 's involvement because Mühsam was an anarchist . Weber argued that
18645-403: The possession of a specific qualification among the requirements. For example, to take the habilitation exam for to become an architect or an engineer, one must have already graduated from a university. However, in order to actually practice the profession it is necessary to register with the relevant professional association and, if the profession is exercised independently, it is necessary to have
18810-465: The profession in question. This is for example the case of the education sector: once the qualifying examination has been passed, a public competition must be won for recruitment in an upper or lower secondary school. In the Portuguese legal system, there are two types of habilitation degree. The first is normally given to university professors and is named agregação or Decree of Law 239/2007 while
18975-434: The publication of a number of books. Anyone may attend the lectures upon payment of a small fee. See also: "Selected Bibliography", http://www.eranos.org/content/html/start_english.html Max Weber Maximilian Carl Emil Weber ( / ˈ v eɪ b ər / ; German: [maks ˈveːbɐ] ; 21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German sociologist , historian, jurist , and political economist who
19140-447: The religions of China , India , and ancient Judaism . In terms of government, Weber argued that states were defined by their monopoly on violence and categorised social authority into three distinct forms : charismatic , traditional , and rational-legal . He was also a key proponent of methodological antipositivism , arguing for the study of social action through interpretive rather than purely empiricist methods. Weber made
19305-427: The research and university teaching system (Italian Law 240 of year 2010 and subsequent modifications) has established the national scientific habilitation for the calls in the role of associate professor and full professor (called abilitazione scientifica nazionale , or ASN). This means that, as a prerequisite for being able to be selected by a university committee to fill these roles, it is necessary to have obtained
19470-775: The researcher to better understand it. However, ideal types are not direct representations of reality and Weber warned against interpreting them as such. He placed no limits on what could be analysed through the use of ideal types. Since, for him, rational methodology and science were synonymous with one another, ideal types were constructed rationally. Weber believed that social scientists needed to avoid making value-judgements. Instead, he wanted social scientific research to be value-free. This would give them objectivity, but it needed to be combined with an acknowledgement that their research connected with values in different ways. As part of his support for value-freedom, Weber opposed both instructors and students promoting their political views in
19635-543: The revolution may have prevented Friedrich Ebert , the new president of Germany and a member of the Social Democratic Party , from appointing him as a minister or ambassador. Weber was also critical of the Treaty of Versailles , which he believed unjustly assigned war guilt to Germany . Instead, he believed that many countries were guilty of starting it, not just Germany. In making this case, Weber argued that Russia
19800-461: The revolution's ability to succeed, Weber supported the establishment of a liberal democracy in Russia. He wrote two essays on it that were published in the Archiv . Weber interpreted the revolution as having been the result of the peasants' desire for land. He discussed the role of the obshchina , rural peasant communities, in Russian political debates. According to Weber, they were difficult for liberal agrarian reformers to abolish due to
19965-426: The right to carry the title Privatdozent (for men) or Privatdozentin (for women), abbreviated PD or Priv.-Doz. . The status as a PD requires doing some (generally unpaid) teaching in order to keep the title ( Titellehre or titular teaching). In the Italian legal system, habilitations are different types of acts and authorizations. Regarding university habilitations, the so-called Gelmini reform of
20130-472: The sacraments or actions that proved their right to possess greater wealth. In political sociology , one of Weber's most influential contributions is his lecture " Politics as a Vocation ", in which he defined the state as an entity that was " based on the legitimate use of force ". Accordingly, Weber proposed that politics is the sharing of state power between various groups, whereas political leaders were those who wielded this power. He divided action into
20295-491: The scientific qualification for the relative kind of teaching. For STEM fields (so called "bibliometric fields"), the qualifications requires a two-step evaluation: The successful candidate will then receive his or her ASN habilitation as associate or full professor (or, in some instances, for both) and may thus apply for those vacancies in Italian universities. The ASN habilitation also allows to compete for three-year tenure-track assistant professorship positions (called RTDb in
20460-610: The scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment. The term habilitation is derived from the Medieval Latin habilitare , meaning "to make suitable, to fit", from Classical Latin habilis "fit, proper, skillful". The degree developed in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in the seventeenth century ( c. 1652 ). Initially, habilitation
20625-538: The second is named habilitação (Decree of Law 124/99) and is used by doctoral researchers working in institutes outside universities. Legally, they are equivalent and are required for a professor ( agregação ) or a researcher ( habilitação ) to reach the top of their specific careers (full professor or coordinator researcher). Both degrees aim to evaluate if the candidate has achieved significant outputs in terms of scientific activity, including activities in postgraduation supervision. The process to obtain any of
20790-534: The secular ethic of Indian society. In Weber's view, Hinduism in India, like Confucianism in China, was a barrier for capitalism. The Indian caste system , which developed in post-Classical India and served as the source for legitimate social interactions, served as a key part of that. Both Hinduism and the Brahmins ' high status upheld the caste system. The Brahmins used their monopoly on education and theological authority to maintain their position, while Hinduism created
20955-580: The similarities of the Asian belief systems. He noted that these religions' believers used otherworldly mystical experiences to interpret the meaning of life. The social world was fundamentally divided between the educated elite who followed the guidance of a prophet or wise man and the uneducated masses whose beliefs are centered on magic. In Asia, there were no messianic prophecies to give both educated and uneducated followers meaning in their regular lives. Weber juxtaposed such Messianic prophecies, notably from
21120-442: The social sciences. The term "ideal type" was derived from Georg Jellinek 's use of it. Weber outlined it in " The 'Objectivity' of Knowledge in Social Science and Social Policy " and the first chapter of Economy and Society . The ideal types' three functions are the formulation of terminology, classifications, and hypotheses. The latter task was of the greatest importance of the three. In terms of their construction, an ideal type
21285-416: The social sciences. It originated with a debate in the Verein für Socialpolitik between the supporters of the idea that ethics was an important consideration in the field of economics and those who opposed it. Weber's position was that the social sciences should strive to be value-free . In his view, scholars and students needed to avoid promoting political values in the classroom. Science had no part in
21450-422: The statutory time for getting a habilitation (traditionally, although not obligatorily, relying on a book publication) is eight years. Theoretically, if an assistant professor does not succeed in obtaining habilitation in this time, they should be moved to a position of a lecturer, with a much higher teaching load and no research obligations, or even be dismissed. In practice, however, on many occasions schools extend
21615-444: The subject began with The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . In it, he argued that Protestantism 's – particularly Calvinism 's – redefinition of the connection between work and piety caused a shift towards rational efforts that were aimed at achieving economic gain. In Protestantism, piety towards God was expressed through one's secular vocation. The religious principles that influenced
21780-415: The subject. It was central to his conception of humanity, which he interpreted as having been connected with finding meaning. Theodicy was a popular subject of study amongst German scholars who sought to determine how a world created by an omnibenevolent and omnipotent being can contain suffering. As part of this tradition, Weber was careful in his study of the subject. Rather than interpreting it through
21945-417: The subjective relationships between individuals. According to him, the study of social action through interpretive means or verstehen ("to understand") needed to be based upon understanding the subjective meaning and purpose that individuals attached to their actions. Determining an individual's interpretation of their actions required either empathically or rationally derived evidence. Weber noted that
22110-585: The suggestion of the eminent German religious historian, Rudolf Otto . Froebe-Kapteyn was the Dutch foundress of the literary salon "Table Ronde" ( Round Table ), which is indicative of the Eranos’ ‘spiritualist’ bent. Indeed, Eranos was from its very outset interested in these issues and its first theme, ‘Yoga and Meditation in East and West’, was a truly pioneering subject in the early 1930s. Past themes include Ancient Sun Cults and
22275-501: The then-recent Russian Revolution of 1905 . He learned the Russian language in a few months, subscribed to Russian newspapers, and discussed Russian political and social affairs with the Russian émigré community in Heidelberg . He was personally popular in that community and twice entertained the idea of a trip to Russia . His schedule prevented it, however. While he was sceptical of
22440-418: The thesis. Rationalisation caused the West to be trapped in the stahlhartes Gehäuse ("iron cage" or "steel-hard casing") that was the modern capitalist economic order. Meanwhile, ideal types were representative figures, or case studies, that represented concepts. Christian religious devotion was historically accompanied by the rejection of mundane affairs, including economic pursuit. Weber argued that
22605-688: The tutelage of Levin Goldschmidt and Rudolf von Gneist , Weber earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a dissertation on legal history titled Development of the Principle of Joint Liability and a Separate Fund of the General Partnership out of the Household Communities and Commercial Associations in Italian Cities . It was a part of a longer work, On the History of Commercial Partnerships in
22770-488: The use of comparative historical analysis . As such, he was more interested in explaining how a certain outcome was the result of various historical processes than in predicting those processes' outcome in the future. The second debate that shaped Weber's perspective on methodology was the Werturteilsstreit ("value-judgement dispute"). This debate was held between 1909 and 1914 on the subject of value-judgements in
22935-496: The war and having sent many young Germans to die on the battlefield, Weber thought that he should surrender himself and become a political martyr. However, Ludendorff was not willing to do so and instead wanted to live off of his pension. Frustrated with politics, Weber resumed teaching, first at the University of Vienna in 1918, then at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1919. In Vienna , Weber filled
23100-500: The war as having been necessary to fulfill Germany's duty as a leading state power. In time, however, Weber became one of the most prominent critics of both German expansionism and the Kaiser's war policies . He publicly criticised Germany's potential annexation of Belgium and unrestricted submarine warfare , later supporting calls for constitutional reform, democratisation, and universal suffrage . His younger brother Karl, an architect,
23265-544: The war, Weber co-founded the German Democratic Party , unsuccessfully ran for office, and advised the drafting of the Weimar Constitution . Becoming frustrated with politics, he resumed teaching in Vienna and Munich . He died of pneumonia in 1920 at the age of 56, possibly as a result of the post-war Spanish flu pandemic. A book, Economy and Society , was left unfinished. One of Weber's main intellectual concerns
23430-400: The work ethic believed in the theodicy of misfortune, believing wealth and happiness were granted in the afterlife. Another example of how this belief of religious theodicy influenced class was that those of lower economic status tended towards deep religiousness and faith as a way to comfort themselves and provide hope for a more prosperous future, while those of higher economic status preferred
23595-516: The writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . Goethe later exerted an important influence on his thought and methodology. Before entering university, he read many other classical works, including those by the philosopher Immanuel Kant . For Christmas in 1877, a thirteen-year-old Weber gifted his parents two historical essays, entitled "About the Course of German History, with Special Reference to the Positions of
23760-503: The youth groups and nationalists at Lauenstein, instead supporting German democratisation. For Weber and the younger participants, the conferences' romantic intent was irrelevant to the determination of Germany's future. In November, shortly after the second conference, Weber was invited by the Free Student Youth, a student organisation, to give a lecture in Munich, resulting in " Science as a Vocation ". In it, he argued that an inner calling and specialisation were necessary for one to become
23925-428: Was "a cultured status position", while Puritanism's goal was to create individuals who were "tools of God". According to Weber, the Puritans sought rational control of the world and rejected its irrationality while Confucians sought rational acceptance of that state of affairs. Therefore, he stated that it was the difference in social attitudes and mentality, shaped by the respective dominant religions, that contributed to
24090-759: Was a member of the Burschenschaft Allemannia Heidelberg [ de ] , a Studentenverbindung ("student association"), and heavily drank beer and engaged in academic fencing during his first few years in university. As a result of the latter, he obtained several duelling scars on the left side of his face. His mother was displeased by his behaviour and slapped him after he came home when his third semester ended in 1883. However, Weber matured, increasingly supported his mother in family arguments, and grew estranged from his father. From 1887 until her declining mental health caused him to break off their relationship five years later, Weber had
24255-467: Was also visited, as some of Weber's relatives in the Fallenstein family had settled there. Weber used the trip to learn more about America's social, economic, and theological conditions and how they related to his thesis. Afterwards, he felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching and remained a private scholar, helped by an inheritance in 1907. Shortly after returning, Weber's attention shifted to
24420-572: Was an attempt to prove this theory. In Ancient Judaism , Weber attempted to explain the factors that resulted in the early differences between Eastern and Western religiosity . He contrasted the innerworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity with the mystical contemplation that developed in India. Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. This fundamental characteristic of Christianity originally stemmed from ancient Jewish prophecy . Weber classified
24585-463: Was appointed professor of economics at the University of Freiburg . During his tenure there, in 1895, he gave a provocative lecture titled "The Nation State and Economic Policy". In it, he criticised Polish immigration and argued that the Junkers were encouraging Slavic immigration to serve their economic interests over those of the German nation. It influenced the politician Friedrich Naumann to create
24750-505: Was becoming increasingly rational. In his view, that resulted from new developments in musical instrument construction and simultaneous socio-economic shifts of the different instruments' players. The process of disenchantment caused the world to become more explained and less mystical, moving from polytheistic religions to monotheistic ones and finally to the Godless science of modernity . Older explanations of why events occurred relied on
24915-690: Was born on 21 April 1864 in Erfurt , Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia, but his family moved to Berlin in 1869. He was the oldest of Max Weber Sr. and Helene Fallenstein's eight children. Over the course of his life, Weber Sr. held posts as a lawyer, civil servant, and parliamentarian for the National Liberal Party in the Prussian Landtag and German Reichstag . His involvement in public life immersed his home in both politics and academia, as his salon welcomed scholars and public figures such as
25080-417: Was caused by his support for value-freedom in the social sciences, as that was a controversial position in the association. Weber – alongside Simmel, Sombart, and Tönnies – placed an abbreviated form of it into the association's statutes, prompting criticism from its other members. In the same year, Weber and his wife befriended a former student of his, Else von Richthofen , and
25245-514: Was coined in 1908 by the Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter as a way of referring to Weber's views on how to explain social phenomena. While his research interests placed a strong emphasis on interpreting economic history , Weber's support of methodological individualism represented a break with the historical school and an agreement with the Austrian school's founder, Carl Menger, in
25410-705: Was cremated in the Munich Ostfriedhof after a secular ceremony, and the urn that contained his ashes was later buried in the Heidelberg Bergfriedhof [ de ] in 1921. The funeral service was attended by his students, including Eduard Baumgarten [ de ] and Karl Loewenstein , and fellow scholars, such as Lujo Brentano. At the time of his death, Weber had not finished writing Economy and Society , his magnum opus on sociological theory. His widow, Marianne, helped prepare it for its publication in 1922. She later published
25575-406: Was found in the desire to work hard in a way that pleased the worker and signified their worth and originally had a basis in theology. In particular, the Protestant work ethic motivated the believers to work hard, be successful in business, and reinvest their profits in further development rather than frivolous pleasures. Weber thought that self-restraint, hard work, and a belief that wealth could be
25740-500: Was in understanding the processes of rationalisation , secularisation , and disenchantment . He formulated a thesis arguing that such processes were associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber also argued that the Protestant work ethic influenced the creation of capitalism in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . It was followed by The Economic Ethics of the World Religions , where he examined
25905-705: Was killed near Brest-Litovsk in 1915 while fighting in the war. Weber had previously viewed him negatively but his death made him feel more connected to him. He and his wife also participated in the 1917 Lauenstein Conferences that were held at Lauenstein Castle [ de ] in Bavaria . These conferences were planned by the publisher Eugen Diederichs and brought together intellectuals, including Theodor Heuss , Ernst Toller , and Werner Sombart. Weber's presence elevated his profile in Germany and served to dispel some of
26070-400: Was left incomplete as a result of his sudden death in 1920, which prevented him from following Ancient Judaism with studies of early Christianity and Islam. The three main themes within the books were: religious ideas' effect on economic activities, the relationship between social stratification and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilisation . His goal
26235-401: Was on individuals and culture. Whereas Durkheim focused on society, Weber concentrated on the individual and their actions. Meanwhile, compared to Marx's support for the primacy of the material world over the world of ideas, Weber valued ideas as motivating individuals' actions. He had a different perspective from the two of them regarding structure and action and macrostructure in that he
26400-563: Was one of the central figures in the development of sociology and the social sciences more generally. His ideas continue to influence social theory and research . Born in Erfurt in 1864, Weber studied law and history in Berlin , Göttingen , and Heidelberg . After earning his doctorate in law in 1889 and habilitation in 1891, he taught in Berlin, Freiburg , and Heidelberg. He married his cousin Marianne Schnitger two years later. In 1897, he had
26565-503: Was open to the idea that social phenomena could have several different causes and placed importance on social actors ' interpretations of their actions. The result of what has been said so far is that an "objective" treatment of cultural occurrences, in the sense that the ideal aim of scientific work would be to reduce the empirical [reality] to "laws", is absurd. Not because – as it has often been claimed – the course of cultural processes or, say, processes in
26730-461: Was primarily young Germans with different political perspectives, including communists . While neither of them were able to convince the other of their points, Weber was more cautious and careful in his arguments against Spengler than the other debaters were. Afterwards, the students did not feel that the question of how to resolve Germany's post-war issues had been answered. Lili Schäfer, one of Weber's sisters, committed suicide on 7 April 1920 after
26895-419: Was synonymous with "doctoral qualification". The term became synonymous with "post-doctoral qualification" in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". Afterwards, it became normal in the German university system to write two doctoral theses: the inaugural thesis ( Inauguraldissertation ), completing
27060-431: Was the only great power that actually desired the war. He also regarded Germany as not having been culpable for its invasion of Belgium , viewing Belgian neutrality as having obscured an alliance with France . Overall, Weber's political efforts were largely unsuccessful, with the exception of his support for a democratically elected and strong presidency. On 28 January 1919, after his electoral defeat, Weber delivered
27225-514: Was to find reasons for the different developmental paths of the cultures of the Western world and the Eastern world , without making value-judgements, unlike the contemporaneous social Darwinists . Weber simply wanted to explain the distinctive elements of Western civilisation. Weber also proposed a socio-evolutionary model of religious change where societies moved from magic to ethical monotheism , with
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