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102-764: Once established in Portugal, the Duke was granted a pension and residence by the Fundação da Casa de Bragança , the organization has owned and managed all the private assets of the House of Braganza, since the death of King Manuel II, in 1932. Duarte Nuno spent the rest of his life attempting, without success, the restoration of all Brigantine assets to his family and recreating the image of the Miguelist Braganzas in Portuguese society, all under

204-556: A mass party said to represent the citizens . While other forms of European dictatorship were dissolved after World War II , communism was strengthened and became the basis of several dictatorships in Eastern Europe . Communist states became the primary model for autocratic government in the late-20th century, and many non-communist autocratic regimes replicated the communist style of government. The decline in autocracy across Western Europe affected autocratic government elsewhere in

306-589: A Bohemian noblewoman. Her father had to renounce to his dynastic rights in order to marry her mother who, in spite of her noble background, did not belong to any reigning dynasty. Maria Francisca died in Lisbon and was buried at the Chagas de Cristo (Jesus's Five Sacred Wounds) Convent, in Vila Viçosa , the pantheon of the duchesses of Braganza . She was married to Duarte Nuno (1907–1976), Duke of Braganza and claimant to

408-506: A Justice of the Peace, even if they also wanted to have a (legally unrecognized) religious wedding before of after that. However, in 1937, Brazil had adopted legislation that permitted the recognition of civil effects to religious weddings, but in order for the wedding to be thus recognized, a set of pre-marriage bureaucratic procedures had to be followed. The couple, however, failed to follow those procedures. The groom and his family had assumed that

510-497: A centralized authority. Historical chiefs often held only tenuous power over the chiefdom, but they trended towards autocracy as heterarchical governance was replaced with hierarchical governance. Early states were formed by warlords ruling over conquered territory. The first states were the city-states of Mesopotamia , which first developed around the 35th century BCE. These early states were ruled by kings who were both political and religious leaders. These were followed by

612-460: A common method of co-optation and coercion, as they provide a mechanism to control members of the government, initiate new members, and discourage a military coup. Autocratic governments controlled through a political party last longer on average than other autocratic governments. Control over the public is maintained through indoctrination and propaganda . Autocratic governments enjoy similar levels of public support to democratic governments, and

714-439: A country's politics, including its government's structure and bureaucracy, long after it democratizes. Comparisons between regions have found disparities in citizen attitudes, policy preferences, and political engagement depending on whether it had been subject to autocracy, even in different regions within the same country. Citizens of postcommunist nations are more likely to distrust government and free markets, directly hindering

816-548: A degree in agricultural sciences from the University of Toulouse . Although forbidden entry to Portugal by the law of exile against the descendants of Miguel I , he visited the country in secret in 1929. On 15 October 1942, in the cathedral of Petrópolis in Brazil , Duarte Nuno married Princess Maria Francisca of Orléans-Braganza (8 September 1914 – 15 January 1968), daughter of Pedro de Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará . The marriage

918-551: A form of autocracy during the interwar period . It seized power in many of these republics, particularly during the Great Depression . This saw the establishment of fascist , communist , and military dictatorships throughout Europe. The communist state first developed as a new form of autocracy following the Russian Revolution . This type of autocratic government enforced totalitarian control over its citizens through

1020-563: A form of monarchism that rejected feudalism, and Caesarism , imperial rule reminiscent of Julius Caesar. These were primarily used to define the First and Second French Empires . European monarchies moved away from autocracy in the 19th century as legislatures increased in power. In 19th century Latin America, regional rulers known as caudillos seized power in several nations as early examples of dictators. The 19th and 20th centuries brought about

1122-489: A government's actions and its citizens' rights to sort democracies and autocracies. These attributes might include enfranchisement , freedom of expression , freedom of information , separation of powers , or free and fair elections, among others. Both the choice in attributes and the method of measuring them are subjective, and they are defined individually be each index. Despite this, different democracy indices generally produce similar results. Most discrepancies come from

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1224-488: A leader amongst themselves, such as in an electoral monarchy . The creation of a constitution is another common measure used by autocrats to stay in power; as they are able to draft the constitution unilaterally, it can be tailored to suit their rule. Autocratic government has been central to political theory since the development of Ancient Greek political philosophy . Despite its historical prominence, autocracy has not been widely recognized as its own political theory in

1326-409: A limited ability to check the power of the autocrat, though these are not usually formed through free and fair elections . These legislatures may also be prone to corruption and can be influenced by the autocrat in exchange for preferential treatment. Other institutions, such as an independent judiciary or an active civil society , may also limit the autocrat's power. Some autocracies emphasize

1428-594: A more democratic government, if the national government has limited control over a specific area or its political conflicts. Autocracies impose few to no limits on the power of the autocrat, and any formal institutions that exist create only limited accountability. To maintain power, an autocrat must have the support of elites that hold influence in the country and assist the autocrat in carrying out their will. The amount of direct control that an autocrat wields in practice may vary. As an autocratic government solidifies its rule, it develops stronger institutions to carry out

1530-405: A negative connotation. Many attempts have been made to define the political structure of autocracy. It traditionally entails a single unrestrained ruler, known as an autocrat, though unrestrained non-democratic rule by a group may also be defined as autocratic. Autocracy is distinguished from other forms of government by the power of the autocrat to unilaterally repress the civil liberties of

1632-532: A new civil marriage was out of the question, both because it would imply that the Brazilian bride was living with her husband but was not yet fully married to him (the couple started living together after the second ceremony, that is, after the Catholic wedding), and also because the pre-marriage habilitation process for Brazilian civil ceremony (that would have been the third marriage ceremony) would take several weeks. So,

1734-663: A new judicial sentence); but the 1838 Constitution , in force at the time of the banishment, established D. Miguel I's deprivation of citizenship , and consequently the loss of his hereditary rights to the throne of Portugal, as well as reinforced this ' ad hoc ' law of exile , making it almost irrevocable. But when the Constitutional Charter of 1826 was re-instated in 1842, it cancelled the 1838 Constitution and its charter's clause depriving Miguel I and his heirs of succession rights as dynasts . Moreover, their banishment had not, however, been stipulated in that charter, but in

1836-470: A ruling family rather than a single autocrat. This has been the case of most monarchies. Such arrangements allow for royal intermarriage , which can join autocracies together through dynastic unions . Personalist dictatorships may also give significance to the ruling family through a cult of personality , such as the Kim family of North Korea . The earliest autocracies, such as chiefdoms , formed where there

1938-552: A second agreement called the Pact of Paris was signed by the representatives of Duarte Nuno and Manuel in which Manuel agreed that the Cortes should select his heir if he died without descendants, while Duarte Nuno agreed to ask and recommend that his followers accept Manuel as king-in-exile. Strictly speaking the Pact of Dover and the Pact of Paris were private agreements, legally unenforceable. Nor did King Manuel agree to any provision in

2040-588: A state ideology, this may be used to justify the autocrat's rule. This is most common in communist or ethnonationalist governments. Autocracies with unfair elections will cite election results to prove that the autocrat has a mandate to rule. Some autocracies will use practical considerations to legitimise their rule, arguing that they are necessary to provide basic needs to the population. Autocracy encompasses most non-democratic forms of government, including dictatorships , monarchies , and dominant-party regimes . Monarchies were common in medieval Europe, but in

2142-417: A state ideology. These include most traditional monarchies, military dictatorships, theocracies , and dominant party states. An absolute autocracy may be referred to as despotism , in which the autocrat rules purely through personal control without any meaningful institutions. These were most common in pre-industrial societies, when large bureaucracies had not yet become standard in government. Sultanism

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2244-430: A state's status as autocratic is not a significant indicator in whether it is supported by its citizens. Autocrats often appeal to the people by supporting a specific political, ethnic, or religious movement. The different forms of autocratic government create significant variance in their foreign policy. Overall, autocratic governments are more likely to go to war than democratic governments, as citizens are not part of

2346-620: A telegram that was read on the occasion. After the religious ceremony, three identical registries of marriage were made, one for the canonical archives of the local parish, one for the archives of the Brazilian Imperial House , and one for the archives of the Portuguese Royal House . Since the civil ceremony did not take place before the Brazilian authorities but in the Portuguese Embassy, a question then arose regarding

2448-819: Is a type of personalist dictatorship in which a ruling family directly integrates itself into the state through a cult of personality , where it maintains control purely through rewards for allies and force against enemies. In these regimes, there is no guiding ideology or legal system, and the state serves only to bring about the leader's own personal enrichment. Other descriptors, such as tyranny and absolutism, may also be associated with variations of autocracy. Though autocracies often restrict civil and political rights , some may allow limited exercise of some rights. These autocracies grant moderate representation to political opponents and allow exercise of some civil rights, though less than those associated with democracy. These are contrasted with closed autocracies, which do not permit

2550-449: Is controlled through indoctrination and propaganda , and an autocracy may attempt to legitimize itself in the eyes of the public through appeals to political ideology , religion, birthright , or foreign hostility. Some autocracies establish legislatures, unfair elections , or show trials to further exercise control while presenting the appearance of democracy. The only limits to autocratic rule are practical considerations in preserving

2652-484: Is greater for appointed successors over hereditary successors, as hereditary successors are often younger and less influential. Other autocracies have no appointed successor, and a power struggle will take place upon the death or removal of the autocrat. These methods of succession are a common distinction between monarchical rule and dictatorial rule; monarchies use an established system of succession such as hereditary succession, while dictatorships do not. Autocratic rule

2754-401: Is greater inequality and less social cohesion . Autocracies formed under these conditions are often more volatile for the same reasons. Autocracies face challenges to their authority from several fronts, including the citizenry, political opposition, and internal disloyalty from elites. As autocrats must share their power with the state's elites to see their will carried out, these elites are

2856-632: Is held by a single individual, or they may define autocracy in a way that includes a group of rulers who wield absolute power. The autocrat has total control over the exercise of civil liberties within the autocracy, choosing under what circumstances they may be exercised, if at all. Governments may also blend elements of autocracy and democracy, forming an anocracy . The concept of autocracy has been recognized in political philosophy since ancient times. Autocrats maintain power through political repression of any opposition and co-optation of other influential or powerful members of society. The general public

2958-488: Is lost "by those who are banished by sentence". The fact that Duarte Nuno and his father had not been born in Portugal and that their family had been banished from Portugal left it unclear whether their branch's Portuguese citizenship had been preserved uninterruptedly. However, Dom Duarte's line was banished by law (of the Portuguese Cortes ) rather than by judicial sentence (that, in addition, might have been changed by

3060-409: Is most unstable during succession from one autocrat to another. Orders of succession allow for more peaceful transition of power, but it prevents meaningful vetting of successors for competence or fortitude. When rule passes between autocrats, the incoming autocrat often inherits an established bureaucracy. This bureaucracy facilitates the transfer of power, as the new ruler gains immediate control over

3162-450: Is necessary to avoid competition among the members of the dominant coalition, who then will credibly commit to cooperate and will form the state. There is great variance in the types of states that become autocratic. Neither a state's size, its military strength, its economic success, nor its cultural attributes significantly affect whether it is likely to be autocratic. Autocracy is more likely to form in heterogeneous populations, as there

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3264-423: Is no longer in their interest to support the autocrat. Overthrow of an autocratic government purely through popular revolt is virtually nonexistent throughout history, but popular support for democracy is a significant indicator of challenges to autocratic rule. Modernization and increased wealth are often associated with stronger support for democracy, though failing to provide these things also reduces support for

3366-556: The 1951 Portuguese presidential election and maintain the post of republican Head of State as it had appeared in the Constitution of 1933. In 1974, Duarte Nuno handed over his residence, the Palácio de São Marcos , to the University of Coimbra . From then until his death two years later, he lived in southern Portugal with his unmarried sister, Princess Filippa of Braganza. American author Walter J. P. Curley interviewed Duarte Nuno near

3468-558: The Etruscan civilization were often ruled by tyrants, though myth and historical revisionism later re-imagined these tyrants as kings with hereditary succession. The Roman Republic introduced the concept of the Roman dictator who would be temporarily invested with unchecked power to restore stability during periods of crisis. This temporary dictatorship was eventually subverted by Julius Caesar when he became dictator for life in 44 BCE, ending

3570-631: The Roman emperor . This was adopted in Old Russian as samod′rž′c′ and then modern Russian as samoderžec . In the 18th century, the title for the Russian emperor was translated to authocrateur and then autocrateur in French, while it was translated to Autocrator and then Autokrator in German. These terms were eventually used to refer to autocratic rulers in general. The term has since developed

3672-650: The War of Two Brothers was waged between King-Emperor Pedro IV & I , founder of the Liberal Braganzas, and King Miguel I , founder of the Miguelist Braganzas. The couple had three sons, the eldest of whom is Duarte Pio de Bragança , the current pretender to the defunct Portuguese throne. Duarte Nuno Fernando Maria Miguel Gabriel Rafael Francisco Xavier Raimundo António was born at Seebenstein Castle in Austria-Hungary ,

3774-643: The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most dictatorships have been characterized as authoritarian rather than totalitarian. Autocracy comes from the Ancient Greek auto (Greek: αὐτός ; "self") and kratos (Greek: κράτος ; "power, might"). This became the Hellenistic/Byzantine Greek word autocrator (Greek: αὐτοκράτωρ ) and the Latin imperator , both of which were titles for

3876-435: The regime . Autocrats must retain control over the nation's elites and institutions for their will to be exercised, but they must also prevent any other individual or group from gaining significant power or influence. Internal challenges are the most significant threats faced by autocrats, as they may lead to a coup d'état . Autocracy was among the earliest forms of government. It began as despotism , which existed throughout

3978-407: The selectorate to which autocrats are accountable. Totalitarian autocracies have historically engaged in militarism and expansionism after consolidating power, particularly fascist governments. This allows the autocracy to spread its state ideology, and the existence of foreign adversaries allows the autocrat to rally internal support. Autocratic regimes in the 21st century have departed from

4080-742: The (Austrian) Order of the Golden Fleece . Duarte Nuno is buried in the Augustinian monastery in Vila Viçosa , the traditional burial place of the Dukes of Braganza. Princess Maria Francisca of Orl%C3%A9ans-Braganza Dona Maria Francisca (8 September 1914 – 15 January 1968) was the daughter of Pedro de Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará , head of the Petrópolis line of the House of Orléans-Braganza . She married Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza , pretender to

4182-508: The 13th century as monarchs sought larger advising bodies that were representative of the kingdom. European nations moved away from feudalism and towards centralized monarchy as the primary form of government in the 14th century. Absolutism became more common in European monarchies at the onset of the 16th century as the continent struggled with weak leadership and religious conflict. Legislatures during this period were often tailored to enforce

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4284-402: The 1826 Charter stipulated that "no foreigner may succeed to the crown of the kingdom of Portugal". There was also some doubt about Duarte Nuno's nationality: Duarte Nuno's grandfather, D. Miguel I, had been sent into exile by the law of 19 December 1834, and neither Duarte Nuno nor his father were born in Portugal. Furthermore, the article 8 of the 1826 Charter stated that Portuguese citizenship

4386-758: The Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha line to advance her cause. Duarte Nuno's first tutors were two Portuguese ladies, Maria Luisa Castelo and Maria das Dores de Sousa Prego. Later he was taught by the Benedictine monk Frei Estevao from the monastery of Cucujães. Duarte Nuno attended school at the Abbey of Ettal in Bavaria and the Abbey of Clairvaux in France and then completed his secondary education in Regensburg . He received

4488-873: The Loulé lost their rights to the throne since the secret marriage of the Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria with the Marquis of Loulé had not been authorised by either the competent authority, the Cortes , nor by the Regency Committee, although it had been authorised by the Infanta-Regent . Nevertheless, the Portuguese constitution demanded more, a marriage "at King's appraisal", whereas the Infanta-Regent said expressly that she only authorised her sister's marriage "because her mother assumed all

4590-487: The Portuguese throne in favour of Duarte Nuno. Henceforth the Miguelists recognised Duarte Nuno as King Duarte II of Portugal , even though Portugal had become a republic in 1910 when Maria II's great-grandson, King Manuel II (who was still living in 1920), was sent into exile. Duarte Nuno used Duke of Braganza as a title of pretense . Since Duarte Nuno was only twelve years old when he succeeded as Miguelist claimant to

4692-400: The Portuguese throne, both living in exile. Their representatives allegedly signed the Pact of Dover by which Miguel Januário recognised Manuel as king, while Manuel recognised the succession rights of Duarte Nuno should Manuel and his uncle Afonso die without children. The pact was unpopular with the supporters of both sides, some claiming that it was never actually signed. On 17 April 1922

4794-475: The Portuguese throne, his aunt, the Duchess of Guimarães, acted as regent for him until he attained his majority . In 1921, she issued a manifesto outlining the family's goals for the restoration of the monarchy. After the death of his uncle Afonso in 1920, ex-King Manuel II had no close relatives who could claim the throne according to the Constitutional Charter of 1826 (the constitution in force from 1842 until

4896-516: The Portuguese throne, with whom she had three sons, the eldest of whom, Duarte Pio , is the current pretender. Maria Francisca Amélia Luísa Vitória Teresa Isabel Miguela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga was born at Château d'Eu in Eu , France , the daughter of Pedro de Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará (1875–1940), the eldest son of Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil and grandson of Emperor Pedro II , and Countess Elisabeth Dobrzensky of Dobrzenicz (1875–1951),

4998-460: The Portuguese throne. João António de Azevedo Coutinho, the head of Causa Monárquica and Manuel II's lieutenant while he was in exile, published a declaration in support of Duarte Nuno. Later Duarte Nuno was received in audience in Paris by Manuel's mother, Queen Amélia . While Duarte Nuno was accepted by most monarchists, there were some constitutionalists who continued to contest his claim. Duarte Nuno

5100-737: The Republic. By this same document the Brazilian President directed that, extraordinarily, the religious wedding already celebrated on 15 October should be recognized as having civil effects, and that the said decree of the Presidency of the Republic would have full force as a Brazilian civil marriage certificate, with effect retroactive to 15 October. The decree was countersigned by the Brazilian Minister of Education and Culture, Gustavo Capanema, then Acting as interim Minister of Foreign Affairs, and

5202-663: The Roman Republic and ushering the creation of the autocratic Roman Empire . Several early military dictatorships formed in East Asia during the post-classical era . These include the rule of the Goguryeo kingdom by Yeon Gaesomun in 642, the Goryeo military regime beginning in 1170, and the shogunate in Japan between the 12th and 19th centuries. Parliamentary monarchies became common in

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5304-520: The Royal House of Portugal and the Imperial House of Brazil (both Sovereign Houses regarded the Catholic marriage as the relevant one, in accordance with the laws that had prevailed in the former Kingdom of Portugal and in the former Empire of Brazil ), but it could not be recognized in the then current Brazilian Civil Law, unless extraordinary measures were adopted to remedy the situation. Celebrating

5406-529: The ancient world in the form of chiefdoms , city-states , and empires . Monarchy was the predominant form of autocracy for most of history. Dictatorship became more common in the 19th century, beginning with the caudillos in Latin America and the empires of Napoleon and Napoleon III in Europe. Totalitarian dictatorships developed in the 20th century with the advent of fascist and communist states. Since

5508-452: The autocrat's will. These institutions are necessary for maintaining control and extracting value from the state , but they can also serve as checks on the autocrat. Autocrats must also balance the affiliation that regional elites have over their jurisdiction; too little can prevent effective rule, while too much may cause the elite to favor the region's interests over the autocrat's. Some autocracies incorporate an elected legislature that has

5610-402: The autocratic regime. Popular revolt is most likely to occur during periods of reform. Government reform can provide an impetus for stronger opposition, especially when it does not meet expectations, and it can weaken the centralization of power through poor implementation. When revolt appears likely, an autocrat may grant civil rights, redistribute wealth, or abdicate from power entirely to avoid

5712-601: The civil effect question would have been resolved by the civil wedding at the Portuguese Embassy. Another factor, though less decisive, was that some in the bride's family refused to recognize the Brazilian Republic, the Separation of Church and State, and the Laws of Republican Brazil that imposed conditions for the civil recognition of a Catholic wedding and thus behaved as if the Catholic wedding had full effect in and of itself, as

5814-440: The decline of traditional monarchies in favor of modern states , many of which developed as autocracies. The upheaval caused by World War I resulted in a broad shift of governance across Europe, and many nations moved away from traditional monarchies. Most European monarchs were stripped of their powers to become constitutional monarchs , or they were displaced entirely in favor of republics . Totalitarianism first developed as

5916-487: The early state not as a single ruler, but as an organization formed by many actors. They describe the process of autocratic state formation as a bargaining process among individuals with access to violence. For them, these individuals form a dominant coalition that grants each other privileges such as the access to resources. As violence reduces the economic rents , members of the dominant coalition have incentives to cooperate and to avoid fighting. A limited access to privileges

6018-634: The end of his life, and his book Monarchs in Waiting describes Duarte Nuno as suffering from "nervous depression" since the death of his wife in 1968. Duarte Nuno was Grand Master of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa and Sovereign of the Order of Saint Isabel . He was a Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and a Knight of

6120-618: The end of the fourth millennium BCE. China has been subject to autocratic rule almost without interruption since its ancient feudal society was replaced by the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, and even its feudal government had stronger elements of autocracy than other instances of feudalism. The early Chinese philosophy of Confucianism emphasized the importance of benevolent autocratic rule to maintain order, and this philosophy heavily influenced future Chinese thought. City-states in Ancient Greece and

6222-417: The exercise of these rights. Several forms of semi-autocratic government have been defined in which governments blend elements of democracy and autocracy. These include limited autocracy, semi-autocracy, liberal autocracy , semi-liberal autocracy, anocracy , and electoral autocracy . These governments may begin as democratic governments and then become autocratic as the elected leader seizes control over

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6324-563: The first empire, the Akkadian Empire , when they were conquered by Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BCE. The blending of autocratic rule with religious significance continued under the Akkadian Empire, as the king Naram-Sin of Akkad was the first of several kings to be recognized as a god over the following centuries. Ancient Egypt also existed as an autocratic government for most of its early history, first developing states at

6426-604: The goal of the restoration of the Portuguese monarchy, under the Braganzas. In 1942, the Duarte Nuno married Princess Maria Francisca of Orléans-Braganza , daughter of Pedro de Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará . Their marriage reconciled two branches of the House of Braganza, the Portuguese and Brazilian Brigantine houses, and reunited politically the Miguelist and Liberal Braganzas' supporters, which had been estranged since 1828, when

6528-519: The greatest threat to the autocrat. Most autocratic governments are overthrown by a coup , and historically most have been succeeded by another autocratic government, though a trend toward democracy developed in 20th century Europe. These new governments are commonly a different type of autocracy or a weaker variant of the same type. While popular support for revolution is often necessary to overthrow an autocratic government, most revolts are accompanied by internal support from elites who believe that it

6630-737: The historical precedent of direct rule in favor of institutions that resemble those of democratic governments. This may include controlled liberties for citizens such as the formation of opposition parties to participate in unfair elections . Elections provide several benefits to autocratic regimes, allowing for a venue to restrain or appease the opposition and creating a method to transfer power without violent conflict. Many autocrats also institute show trials to carry out political repression rather than carrying out direct purges. This may be done to more publicly discourage future dissidents. Prior to this trend, autocratic elections rarely invited public participation. They were instead used by elites to choose

6732-465: The husband of another aunt, the Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime (both of whom were represented by proxies). Duarte Nuno's second brother, Prince Francis Joseph of Braganza , died in 1919, and on 21 July 1920 his eldest brother, Prince Miguel, Duke of Viseu , renounced his succession rights. Ten days later on 31 July 1920 Duarte Nuno's father, Miguel Januário, abdicated his claim to

6834-417: The king's will but not challenge it. This was sometimes justified through the divine right of kings, particularly in the kingdoms of England and France. The French Revolution marked a significant shift in the perception of dictatorship as a form of tyrannical rule, as revolutionaries justified their actions as a means of combatting tyranny. In Europe, the original forms of dictatorship were Bonapartism ,

6936-521: The latter pact which contravened Portugal's last monarchist constitution. But the agreements were important steps in reconciling the Miguelist and the Braganza-Saxe-Coburg branches of Portugal's royal family, and helped move the supporters of each toward a united monarchist movement. In 1927, Duarte Nuno's father died. On 2 July 1932 Manuel II died. Henceforth, the majority of monarchists, both Miguelist and constitutional, supported Duarte Nuno as claimant to

7038-561: The laws of exile of 19 December 1834 and 15 October 1910. Duarte Nuno, however, did not return to Portugal until 1952 on account of a car accident in Thionville in which he was seriously injured. He was presented with a residence in Portugal by the Fundação Casa de Bragança . Portuguese dictator António de Oliveira Salazar thought about restoring the monarchy in 1951, after the death of President Óscar Carmona , but he chose instead to hold

7140-671: The long-term economic prosperity of these nations. Xenophobia is generally more common in post-autocratic nations, and voters in these nations are more likely to vote for far-right or far-left political parties. Many democracy indices have been developed to measure how democratic or authoritarian countries are, such as the Polity data series , the Freedom in the World report, and the Varieties of Democracy indices. These indices measure various attributes of

7242-413: The manner of recognizing the marriage in the Law of Brazil. In the wake of the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil, Separation of Church and State had been instituted, and Catholic weddings no longer had automatic civil effect. Actually, between 1890 and 1937, religious weddings could have no civil effect at all, and all couples marrying in Brazil were obliged to undergo a civil ceremony of marriage before

7344-508: The measurement of anocratic governments that blend democratic and autocratic traits. The concepts of tyranny and despotism as distinct modes of government were abandoned in the 19th century in favor of more specific typologies. Modern typology of autocratic regimes originates from the work of Juan Linz in the mid-20th century, when his division of democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism became accepted. The first general theory of autocracy that defined it independently of other systems

7446-423: The modern era dictatorship is the most common form of government globally. Autocratic governments are classified as totalitarian when they engage in direct control of citizens' lives, or as authoritarian when they do not. Totalitarian governments do not allow political or cultural pluralism . Instead, citizens are expected to devote themselves to a single ideological vision and demonstrate their support of

7548-546: The most common claim of legitimacy is birthright in an autocracy that uses hereditary succession. Theocratic governments appeal to religion to justify their rule, arguing that religious leaders must also be political leaders. Other autocrats may use similar claims of divine authority to justify their rule, often in absolute monarchy . This includes the Mandate of Heaven in ancient China and the divine right of kings in 17th century England and France. When an autocratic government has

7650-695: The nation without having to conquer its people or win their popular support. Autocrats may claim that they have legitimacy under a legal framework, or they may exert influence purely through force. Opinion on whether an autocratic government is legitimate can vary, even among its own population. An autocracy's approach to legitimacy can be affected by recognition from other nations. Widely accepted autocratic governments are more able to convince their own populations of their legitimacy. Less widely accepted autocracies may rally internal support by attributing their lack of recognition to malevolent foreign efforts, such as American imperialism or Zionism . Historically,

7752-587: The nation's institutions and electoral process. Conversely, autocratic governments may transition to democracy through a period of semi-autocratic rule. Autocracy has been the primary form of government for most of human history. One of the earliest forms of government was the chiefdom that developed in tribal societies , which date back to the Neolithic . Chiefdoms are regional collections of villages ruled over by tribal chief . They are an emergent form of governance, originating from societies that previously lacked

7854-473: The only solution was to obtain from the Brazilian authorities a special act of recognition of one of the two weddings already celebrated, and that was what was done in the days that followed. After influential entrepreneur Assis Chateaubriand Bandeira de Mello brought the problem to the attention of high-ranking Brazilian authorities, the Brazilian Government agreed to take exceptional measures to remedy

7956-598: The overthrow of the monarchy in 1910). The conflict between the Miguelist line and the Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha's was not just about which person should be sovereign; it was also about how much power the sovereign should have. The Miguelists upheld Portugal's tradition of autocratic absolutism , while the Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha's adhered to constitutional monarchy . In 1912, Duarte Nuno's father, Miguel Januário, met with Manuel II to try to come to some agreement so that there would not be two claimants to

8058-515: The parties was a Brazilian national. As for the Catholic wedding, since the religious ceremony had not been preceded by the recently created bureaucratic pre-marriage procedure for a religious wedding to have civil effect in Brazil, the Brazilian authorities initially would not recognize it. So the marriage was already recognized under the Laws of the Portuguese Republic , and was even recognized by

8160-458: The people and to choose what liberties they may exercise. It is distinct from democracy and feudalism , and modern autocracy is often defined as any non-democratic government. As with all forms of government, autocracy has no clearly defined boundaries, and it may intersect with other forms of government. Though autocracy usually encompasses an entire country, it can sometimes take place at subnational or local levels, even in countries with

8262-446: The regime and prevent the loss of power. This repression may take place implicitly by coercing and intimidating potential opposition, or it may involve direct violence. Autocratic governments also engage in co-optation, in which influential figures are provided benefits by the regime in exchange for their support. Coercing these elites is usually more efficient for the autocrat than intimidating them through violence. Political parties are

8364-447: The responsibility". Moreover, both Kings Miguel and her father, previously, expressly forbade the marriage. A woman calling herself Maria Pia de Saxe-Coburgo e Bragança claimed to be the bastard daughter of King Carlos I . She also claimed to have been recognised by the King as possessing succession rights. Her supporters played upon the traditional rivalry between the Miguelist line and

8466-537: The same nationality, and were getting married before a representative of their country. But the bride was a Brazilian citizen, and the groom was a German-born naturalized Portuguese citizen. Thus the Embassy wedding did not meet the criteria for recognition, as Brazilian authorities insisted that a marriage of two people of different nationalities in Brazil needed to be conducted under the Brazilian Laws, especially if one of

8568-492: The separate law of exile that was not repealed until 1950. A minority of monarchists considered a candidate other than Duarte Nuno. Manuel's genealogical heir at his death in 1932 was ex- Crown Prince George of Saxony (a great-grandson of Maria II), but he was not Portuguese; he was also a Catholic priest. George's siblings have descendants living, but none is known to have had Portuguese citizenship. The genealogical heir of Maria II's younger brother Emperor Pedro II of Brazil

8670-407: The situation of the royal couple. Accordingly, the question of the recognition of the marriage in the law of Brazil was settled on 20 October 1942, when the dictatorial Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas issued a special "alvará" (a kind of decree), naming ex post facto one of the guests of the religious wedding as his representative empowered to witness that wedding on behalf of the Presidency of

8772-481: The society that they exploit through taxation and other seizure of resources, as opposed to the bandits in stateless societies that have no incentive to improve society. This creates a Pareto efficiency in which both the autocrat and the subjects benefit over the alternative. Douglass North , John Joseph Wallis, and Barry R. Weingast describe autocracies as natural states that arise from this need to monopolize violence. In contrast to Olson, these scholars understand

8874-472: The son of Miguel Januário, Duke of Braganza and of his second wife, Princess Maria Theresa of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg . Duarte Nuno had two older half-brothers, one older half-sister and eight sisters. His paternal grandparents were Miguel I of Portugal and Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg . His maternal grandparents were Charles, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg , and Princess Sophie of Liechtenstein . Duarte Nuno's father

8976-441: The state ideology through political engagement. Totalitarian governments are revolutionary , seeking radically to reform society, and they often engage in terror against groups that do not comply with the state's vision. Totalitarianism is associated with communist states and Nazi Germany . Authoritarian governments maintain control of a nation purely through repression and controlled opposition rather than mandated adherence to

9078-405: The threat of violence. Some autocracies use hereditary succession in which a set of rules determines who will be the next autocrat. Otherwise, a successor may be handpicked, either by the autocrat or by another governmental body. Pre-determined successors are incentivized to overthrow and replace the autocrat, creating a dilemma for autocrats wishing to choose a successor. The threat of overthrow

9180-626: The throne of Portugal , civilly in the Portuguese Embassy in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil, on 13 October 1942 and religiously in Petrópolis , Brazil, on 15 October. The religious ceremony took place in the Cathedral of Petrópolis and was presided by Cardinal Sebastião Leme da Silveira Cintra , Metropolitan Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro. The Rite of Marriage was followed by a Nuptial Mass, and the newlyweds received an Apostolic Blessing from Pope Pius XII , according to

9282-432: The time, and they frequently destroyed the records that did exist. Study of citizen support for autocratic government relative to democratic government has also been infrequent, and most studies conducted in this area have been limited to East Asia . Collection of information on autocratic regimes has improved in the 21st century, allowing for more detailed analysis. Autocratic government has been found to have effects on

9384-629: The way that democracy has. Autocratic government is generally considered to be less desirable than democratic government. Reasons for this include its proclivity for corruption and violence as well as its lack of efficiency and its weakness in promoting liberty and transparency. Historically, data on the operation of autocratic government has been limited, preventing detailed study. Study of postcolonial autocracy in Africa has been particularly limited, as these governments were less likely to keep detailed records of their activities relative to other governments at

9486-405: The world through colonization. Societies without a state were readily colonized by European nations and subsequently adopted democracy and parliamentary government after it became common in Europe. Regions with historically strong autocratic states were able to resist European colonization or otherwise went unchanged, allowing autocracy to be preserved. The strength of autocracy in global politics

9588-460: Was created by Gordon Tullock in 1974 through applied public choice theory . At the end of the Cold War, Francis Fukuyama 's theory of the end of history became popular among political scientists. This theory proposed that autocratic government was approaching a permanent decline to be replaced by liberal democracy . This theory was largely abandoned after the increase in autocratic government over

9690-495: Was his great-grandson Prince Pedro Gastão of Orléans-Braganza ; he too was not Portuguese, but the fact that he was Brazilian and therefore imbued with Portuguese culture made him a somewhat attractive candidate. The closest heir who was undoubtedly Portuguese was Constança Berquó de Mendonça, 4th Duchess of Loulé (a great-great-granddaughter of King John VI ), but her branch of the family put forth no claim at that time, nor did King Manuel II ever consider it. Many scholars claim

9792-480: Was particularly popular since Maria Francisca was the great-granddaughter of Pedro II of Brazil , the younger brother of Queen Maria II. The marriage thus united the two rival lines of the Portuguese royal family. Maria Francisca and her family were also viewed as representatives of a liberal monarchy as opposed to the traditional conservatism of Duarte Nuno's family. On 27 May 1950 the National Assembly repealed

9894-454: Was previously no centralized government. The initial development of an autocracy is attributed to its efficiency over anarchy , as it provides security and negates internal divisions. Mancur Olson introduced the term "stationary bandits" to describe the method of control associated with autocracy, as opposed to the "roaming bandits" that dominate anarchic society. Under this definition, autocrats as stationary bandits see long-term investment in

9996-584: Was published in the Official Journal of the Brazilian Government on 22 October 1942. The couple departed from Brazil on 28 October 1942. Autocracy List of forms of government Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power is held by the ruler, known as an autocrat . It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship , while it is contrasted with democracy and feudalism . Various definitions of autocracy exist. They may restrict autocracy to cases where power

10098-422: Was significantly reduced at the end of the Cold War with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but it saw a resurgence over the following decades through regional powers such as China, Iran, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. The fall of totalitarian regimes led to authoritarianism becoming the predominant form of autocracy in the 21st century. Political repression is the primary method by which autocrats preserve

10200-476: Was the Miguelist claimant to the throne of Portugal who opposed his cousins, the reigning line of the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha descended from Queen Maria II . Duarte Nuno's family had been disinherited and banished by Maria II for rebellion. The day after his birth, Duarte Nuno was baptised at Seebenstein. His godparents were his aunt the Infanta Aldegundes, Duchess of Guimarães and

10302-523: Was the case during the previous imperial era. So, no real study had been made prior to the wedding about what would be required for it to be recognized in Brazil. Therefore, a problem arose, because the Brazilian authorities initially refused to recognize both the Portuguese Embassy wedding and the Catholic wedding. The reason for Brazil not recognizing the Embassy wedding was that Brazil usually only recognized marriages contracted before diplomatic or consular officials of foreign Nations when both parties where of

10404-543: Was undisputed as the legal heir of his grandfather, Miguel I, but there were doubts about whether he was the legal heir of the last reigning king of Portugal, Manuel II. Articles 87 and 88 of the Constitutional Charter of 1826, in force when the monarchy was overthrown, stated that the throne passed first to the descendants of Queen Maria II (from whom Duarte Nuno was not descended), and only when they were extinct to collateral heirs. Maria II had living descendants in 1932, but none of these had Portuguese nationality. Article 89 of

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