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Genus ( / ˈ dʒ iː n ə s / ; pl. : genera / ˈ dʒ ɛ n ər ə / ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses . In binomial nomenclature , the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.

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117-412: Oinopota Kirby & Spence, 1815 Drosophila ( / d r ə ˈ s ɒ f ɪ l ə , d r ɒ -, d r oʊ -/ ) is a genus of fly , belonging to the family Drosophilidae , whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with

234-528: A basidia . The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes , called a gleba , may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns . Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses . Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify

351-680: A white eyed mutant in 1910 to the academic community. He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal. His work on Drosophila earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. This and other Drosophila species are widely used in studies of genetics , embryogenesis , chronobiology , speciation , neurobiology , and other areas. However, some species of Drosophila are difficult to culture in

468-467: A 100 grams (3.5 ounces) amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of B vitamins , such as riboflavin , niacin and pantothenic acid , selenium (37% DV) and copper (25% DV), and a moderate source (10–19% DV) of phosphorus , zinc and potassium (table). They have minimal or no vitamin C and sodium content. The vitamin D content of

585-604: A considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers. China is a major edible mushroom producer. The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0 lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4 billion people. In 2014, Poland was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated 194,000 tonnes (191,000 long tons; 214,000 short tons) annually. Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there

702-549: A fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era , combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens . Chemical tests are also used for some genera. In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in

819-407: A genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

936-571: A high pectin concentration, which is an indicator of how much alcohol will be produced during fermentation. Citrus, morinda , apples, pears, plums, and apricots belong into this category. The larvae of at least one species, D. suzukii , can also feed in fresh fruit and can sometimes be a pest. A few species have switched to being parasites or predators . Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits. Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for

1053-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

1170-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1287-470: A matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs. The Drosophila Species Stock Center located at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York, maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers. Drosophila is considered one of the most valuable genetic model organisms; both adults and embryos are experimental models. Drosophila is a prime candidate for genetic research because

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1404-418: A mushroom depends on postharvest handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The US Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D. When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, even after harvesting, ergosterol in mushrooms is converted to vitamin D 2 , a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for

1521-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1638-552: A role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman or curandera (priest-healer). Psilocybin mushrooms , also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess psychedelic properties . Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or " 'shrooms", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of

1755-414: A small number of deadly species , several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render

1872-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1989-419: A time, so that they can be laid together on one site. Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day. The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo. Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself, but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on

2106-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

2223-600: Is a common model organism in developmental biology . The terms "fruit fly" and " Drosophila " are often used synonymously with D. melanogaster in modern biological literature. The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat. The term " Drosophila ", meaning "dew-loving", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words δρόσος , drósos , " dew ", and φιλία , philía , "lover". Drosophila species are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes. When

2340-488: Is a connection between the number of time females choose to mate and chromosomal variants of the third chromosome. It is believed that the presence of the inverted polymorphism is why re-mating by females occurs. The stability of these polymorphisms may be related to the sex-ratio meiotic drive. However, for Drosophila subobscura , the main mating system is monandry, not normally seen in Drosophila. The following section

2457-433: Is an attractive behaviour. Females respond via their perception of the behavior portrayed by the male. Male and female Drosophila use a variety of sensory cues to initiate and assess courtship readiness of a potential mate. The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone secretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending

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2574-409: Is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila serrata , Drosophila pseudoobscura , Drosophila melanogaster , and Drosophila neotestacea . Polyandry is a prominent mating system among Drosophila . Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for Drosophila . The benefits include both pre and post copulatory mating. Pre-copulatory strategies are

2691-488: Is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila melanogaster , Drosophila simulans , and Drosophila mauritiana . Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous Drosophila females use to increase the fitness of their offspring. The female Drosophila has two sperm storage organs, the spermathecae and seminal receptacle, that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs. However, some species of Drosophila have evolved to only use one or

2808-417: Is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder . Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches . A double-blind study, done by Johns Hopkins Hospital , showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of

2925-434: Is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species available at many grocers include Hericium erinaceus , shiitake , maitake (hen-of-the-woods), Pleurotus , and enoki . In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to

3042-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

3159-403: Is explored as a mechanism of controlling viral diseases ( e.g. Dengue fever) by transferring these Wolbachia to disease-vector mosquitoes. The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila neotestacea protects its host from parasitic wasps and nematodes using toxins that preferentially attack the parasites instead of the host. Since the Drosophila species is one of the most used model organisms, it

3276-466: Is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten. Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent . Although there are only

3393-564: Is likely to be a significant source of diversity . There is evidence that crossover is positively correlated with polymorphism in D. populations. Drosophila species are found all around the world, with more species in the tropical regions. Drosophila made their way to the Hawaiian Islands and radiated into over 800 species. They can be found in deserts , tropical rainforest , cities , swamps , and alpine zones . Some northern species hibernate . The northern species D. montana

3510-448: Is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting , or simply "mushrooming". Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock. Even

3627-564: Is one step in the immune responses to some pathogens. Dudzic et al. 2019 additionally find a large number of shared serine protease messengers between Spätzle/Toll and melanization and a large amount of crosstalk between these pathways.   immigrans-tripunctata  radiation   D. quadrilineata  species group   Samoaia   Zaprionus   D. tumiditarsus  species group   Liodrosophila   Dichaetophora   Hirtodrosophila Genus The composition of

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3744-703: Is seen during courtship and mating . Drosophila species are prey for many generalist predators, such as robber flies . In Hawaii , the introduction of yellowjackets from mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the larger species. The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles , and ants . Fruit flies use several fast-acting neurotransmitters, similar to those found in humans, which allow neurons to communicate and coordinate behavior. Acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine, serotonin, and histamine are all neurotransmitters that can be found in humans, but Drosophila also have another neurotransmitter, octopamine,

3861-598: Is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative - hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses. Some mushrooms are used in folk medicine . In a few countries, extracts , such as polysaccharide-K , schizophyllan , polysaccharide peptide , or lentinan , are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies , but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed. Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as

3978-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

4095-431: Is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print , is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red. While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into

4212-401: Is subject to a high degree of selection, especially unusually widespread negative selection compared to other taxa . A majority of the genome is under selection of some sort, and a supermajority of this is occurring in non-coding DNA . Effective population size has been credibly suggested to positively correlate with the effect size of both negative and positive selection . Recombination

4329-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

4446-408: Is the best cold-adapted, and is primarily found at high altitudes. Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit , bark , slime fluxes , flowers , and mushrooms . Drosophila species that are fruit-breeding are attracted to various products of fermentation, especially ethanol and methanol . Fruits exploited by Drosophila species include those with

4563-708: The Cantharellales , false chanterelles such as Gomphus are in the Gomphales , milk-cap mushrooms ( Lactarius , Lactifluus ) and russulas ( Russula ), as well as Lentinellus , are in the Russulales , while the tough, leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales , but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales , and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella , along with similar genera, are in

4680-496: The D. melanogaster Spiroplasma poulsonii (named MSRO). The male-killing factor of the D. melanogaster MSRO strain was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of the cause of male-killing. This represents the first bacterial factor that affects eukaryotic cells in a sex-specific fashion, and is the first mechanism identified for male-killing phenotypes. Alternatively, they may protect theirs hosts from infection. Drosophila Wolbachia can reduce viral loads upon infection, and

4797-596: The Drosophila DNA damage response, including deficiencies in expression of genes involved in DNA damage repair , accelerates intestinal stem cell ( enterocyte ) aging. Sharpless and Depinho reviewed evidence that stem cells undergo intrinsic aging and speculated that stem cells grow old, in part, as a result of DNA damage. The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster . Courtship behavior of male Drosophila

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4914-552: The Hymenochaetales . Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom , shiitake , enoki , oyster mushrooms , fly agarics and other Amanitas , magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe , paddy straw mushrooms , shaggy manes , etc. An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom , which is a fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius mushroom that has been deformed by

5031-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

5148-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

5265-514: The Tephritidae , a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as "true fruit flies"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit , with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly . One species of Drosophila in particular, Drosophila melanogaster , has been heavily used in research in genetics and

5382-480: The United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km ). Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates. Raw brown mushrooms are 92% water, 4% carbohydrates , 2% protein and less than 1% fat . In

5499-492: The fru mutation leads back to the typical courtship behavior. A novel class of pheromones was found to be conserved across the subgenus Drosophila in 11 desert dwelling species. These pheromones are triacylglycerides that are secreted exclusively by males from their ejaculatory bulb and transferred to females during mating. The function of the pheromones is to make the females unattractive to subsequent suitors and thus inhibit courtship by other males. The following section

5616-673: The functional food grocery market. In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight , and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food. Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking , in many cuisines (notably Chinese , Korean , European , and Japanese ). Humans have valued them as food since antiquity. Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms . The most common of these, Agaricus bisporus ,

5733-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

5850-587: The parasitic fungus Hypomyces lactifluorum . This gives the affected mushroom an unusual shape and red color that resembles that of a boiled lobster . Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes ), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi , and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for polypores , puffballs , jelly fungi , coral fungi , bracket fungi , stinkhorns , and cup fungi . Thus,

5967-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

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6084-533: The primordia . Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis ), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from

6201-592: The French word mousseron in reference to moss ( mousse ). Delineation between edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The word toadstool appeared first in 14th century England as a reference for a "stool" for toads , possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus. Identifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores , are produced on

6318-462: The US Food and Drug Administration , regard such use as a dietary supplement , which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a prescription drug . Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before

6435-464: The absorption of fluids. The cultivated mushroom , as well as the common field mushroom , initially form a minute fruiting body , referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in

6552-546: The analog of norepinephrine. Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter utilized in the drosophila central nervous system. In Drosophila, the effects of many neurotransmitters can vary depending on the receptors and signaling pathways involved, allowing them to act as excitatory or inhibitory signals under different contexts. This versatility enables complex neural processing and behavioral flexibility. Glutamate can serve as an excitatory neurotransmitter, specifically at

6669-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

6786-487: The behaviours associated with mate choice and the genetic contributions, such as production of gametes, that are exhibited by both male and female Drosophila regarding mate choice. Post copulatory strategies include sperm competition, mating frequency, and sex-ratio meiotic drive. These lists are not inclusive. Polyandry among the Drosophila pseudoobscura in North America vary in their number of mating partners. There

6903-516: The cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil , covers the bladelike gills that bear spores . As the cap expands the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus , around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita , collar-like as in many species of Lepiota , or merely

7020-497: The components of the SNARE complex are known to be somewhat substitutable: Although the loss of SNAP-25 - a component of neuronal SNAREs - is lethal, SNAP-24 can fully replace it. For another example, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin . The Spätzle protein is a ligand of Toll . In addition to melanin 's more commonly known roles in the endoskeleton and in neurochemistry , melanization

7137-505: The cultivated A. bisporus contains small amounts of hydrazines , the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen ). However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking. A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous ; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice

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7254-475: The decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature , breeding substrate, and crowding. Fruit flies lay eggs in response to environmental cycles. Eggs laid at a time (e.g., night) during which likelihood of survival is greater than in eggs laid at other times (e.g., day) yield more larvae than eggs that were laid at those times. Ceteris paribus ,

7371-478: The edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae . For example, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered . Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armillaria ostoyae ) in Malheur National Forest in

7488-415: The eyes (essentially a film of lenses) are removed, the brain is revealed. Drosophila brain structure and function develop and age significantly from larval to adult stage. Developing brain structures make these flies a prime candidate for neuro-genetic research. Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings. The plumose (feathery) arista , bristling of

7605-424: The faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius . Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus. The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus . In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in

7722-417: The females, or form leks , conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites. Several Drosophila species, including Drosophila melanogaster , D. immigrans , and D. simulans , are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species. These and other species ( D. subobscura , and from a related genus Zaprionus indianus ) have been accidentally introduced around

7839-526: The field using a local field guide . Identification to species , however, requires more effort. A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints. Typical mushrooms are

7956-526: The findings can be applied to deduce genetic trends in humans. Research conducted on Drosophila help determine the ground rules for transmission of genes in many organisms. Drosophila is a useful in vivo tool to analyze Alzheimer's disease. Rhomboid proteases were first detected in Drosophila but then found to be highly conserved across eukaryotes , mitochondria , and bacteria . Melanin's ability to protect DNA against ionizing radiation has been most extensively demonstrated in Drosophila , including in

8073-459: The fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota . The gills produce microscopic spores which help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface. Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as " bolete ", " puffball ", " stinkhorn ", and " morel ", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called " agarics " in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their order Agaricales . By extension,

8190-415: The flies were more cold resistant and also had the highest concentration of Wolbachia. The microbiome in the gut can also be transplanted among organisms. It was found that Drosophila melanogaster became more cold-tolerant when the gut microbiota from Drosophila melanogaster that were reared at low temperatures. This depicted that the gut microbiome is correlated to physiological processes. Moreover,

8307-519: The following three stages: insemination, sperm storage, and fertilizable sperm. Among the preceding species there are variations at each stage that play a role in the natural selection process. This sperm competition has been found to be a driving force in the establishment of reproductive isolation during speciation. Parthenogenesis does not occur in D. melanogaster , but in the gyn-f9 mutant, gynogenesis occurs at low frequency. The natural populations of D. mangebeirai are entirely female, making it

8424-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

8541-607: The formative study by Hopwood et al. 1985. Like other animals, Drosophila is associated with various bacteria in its gut. The fly gut microbiota or microbiome seems to have a central influence on Drosophila fitness and life history characteristics. The microbiota in the gut of Drosophila represents an active current research field. Drosophila species also harbour vertically transmitted endosymbionts, such as Wolbachia and Spiroplasma . These endosymbionts can act as reproductive manipulators, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by Wolbachia or male-killing induced by

8658-432: The fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales , whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris . However in modern molecularly defined classifications , not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes . For example, chanterelles are in

8775-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

8892-412: The genus Amanita , most recognizably A. muscaria , but also A. pantherina , among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol . The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins , and as such are not hepatoxic , though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid . The Amanita intoxication

9009-404: The gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body

9126-457: The habit of laying eggs at this 'advantageous' time would yield more surviving offspring, and more grandchildren, than the habit of laying eggs during other times. This differential reproductive success would cause D. melanogaster to adapt to environmental cycles, because this behavior has a major reproductive advantage. Their median lifespan is 35–45 days. DNA damage accumulates in Drosophila intestinal stem cells with age. Deficiencies in

9243-479: The head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose the family. Most are small, about 2–4 millimetres (0.079–0.157 in) long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly . Environmental challenge by natural toxins helped to prepare Drosophila e to detox DDT , by shaping the glutathione S -transferase mechanism that metabolizes both. The Drosophila genome

9360-544: The hypha emerges when the spore germinates. Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by

9477-407: The identification of a mushroom. The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identification. A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore , from which

9594-489: The inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called asci , which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The Discomycetes , which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi or within

9711-457: The invention of synthetic dyes , mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes. Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi ). Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water). There

9828-404: The laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild. For some, it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others, it is (so far) impossible. In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal Drosophila lab medium, but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply

9945-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

10062-426: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Mushroom A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore -bearing fruiting body of a fungus , typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for

10179-432: The longest. D. melanogaster sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 mm long, although this is still about 35 times longer than a human sperm. Several species in the D. melanogaster species group are known to mate by traumatic insemination . Drosophila species vary widely in their reproductive capacity. Those such as D. melanogaster that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10–20 eggs at

10296-500: The male and female. Recent experiments explore the role of fruitless ( fru ) and doublesex ( dsx ), a group of sex-behaviour linked genes. The fruitless ( fru ) gene in Drosophila helps regulate the network for male courtship behavior; when a mutation to this gene occurs altered same sex sexual behavior in males is observed. Male Drosophila with the fru mutation direct their courtship towards other males as opposed to typical courtship, which would be directed towards females. Loss of

10413-426: The mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil , that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva , at the base of the stalk , or as warts or volval patches on

10530-495: The microbiome plays a role in aggression, immunity, egg-laying preferences, locomotion and metabolism . As for aggression, it plays a role to a certain degree during courtship. It was observed that germ-free flies were not as competitive compared to the wild-type males. Microbiome of the Drosophila species is also known to promote aggression by octopamine OA signalling. The microbiome has been shown to impact these fruit flies' social interactions, specifically aggressive behaviour that

10647-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

10764-429: The mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics ), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals , including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continued to be studied. Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played

10881-417: The name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus ; hence, the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi ( Basidiomycota , Agaricomycetes ) that have a stem ( stipe ), a cap ( pileus ), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella ) on the underside of the cap. "Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems; therefore the term is used to describe

10998-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

11115-437: The neuromuscular junction in fruit flies. This differs from vertebrates, where acetylcholine is used at these junctions. In Drosophila, histamine primarily functions as a neurotransmitter in the visual system. It is released by photoreceptor cells to transmit visual information from the eye to the brain, making it essential for vision. As with many Eukaryotes, this genus is known to express SNAREs , and as with several others

11232-410: The only obligate parthenogenetic species of Drosophila. Parthenogenesis is facultative in parthenogenetica and mercatorum . D. melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. In 1906, Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on D. melanogaster and reported his first finding of

11349-418: The other. Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice . Female Drosophila through cryptic choice, one of several post-copulatory mechanisms, which allows for the detection and expelling of sperm that reduces inbreeding possibilities. Manier et al. 2013 has categorized the post copulatory sexual selection of Drosophila melanogaster , Drosophila simulans , and Drosophila mauritiana into

11466-428: The pits of morels . The Pyrenomycetes , tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter , and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia , within which the asci develop. In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata , which extend from club-shaped cells called

11583-516: The polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms including truffles , jellies , earthstars , and bird's nests usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts. The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus , Amanita , Lepiota and Pluteus , among others, have free gills that do not extend to

11700-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

11817-683: The relationship between human and fruit fly genes is very close. Human and fruit fly genes are so similar, that disease-producing genes in humans can be linked to those in flies. The fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000 genes among their 23 chromosomes. Thus the density of genes per chromosome in Drosophila is higher than the human genome. Low and manageable number of chromosomes make Drosophila species easier to study. These flies also carry genetic information and pass down traits throughout generations, much like their human counterparts. The traits can then be studied through different Drosophila lineages and

11934-417: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

12051-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

12168-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

12285-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

12402-400: The stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself. The songs of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans have been studied extensively. These luring songs are sinusoidal in nature and varies within and between species. The courtship behavior of Drosophila melanogaster has also been assessed for sex-related genes, which have been implicated in courtship behavior in both

12519-492: The subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety . However the anxiety went away after a short period of time. Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes. A few species in

12636-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

12753-518: The term "mushroom" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the thallus (called mycelium ) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself. The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns were used. The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from

12870-400: The term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described. A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium , which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate . It is formed within the mycelium ,

12987-426: The top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus . There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join

13104-410: The top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions. A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines

13221-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

13338-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

13455-488: The world by human activities such as fruit transports. Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any studied organism on Earth, including one species, Drosophila bifurca , that has sperm cells that are 58 mm (2.3 in) long. The cells mostly consist of a long, thread-like tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils. The other members of the genus Drosophila also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with that of D. bifurca being

13572-460: The world, or on the black market in those countries which have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported to facilitate profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences . Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences. Psilocybin , a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis ,

13689-479: Was vastly used in genetics. However, the effect abiotic factors , such as temperature, has on the microbiome on Drosophila species has recently been of great interest. Certain variations in temperature have an impact on the microbiome. It was observed that higher temperatures (31 °C) lead to an increase of Acetobacter populations in the gut microbiome of Drosophila melanogaster as compared to lower temperatures (13 °C). In low temperatures (13 °C),

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