145-677: The dowry system in India refers to the durable goods, cash, and real or movable property that the bride's family gives to the groom, his parents and his relatives as a condition of the marriage . Dowry is called "दहेज" in Hindi and as جہیز in Urdu . The dowry system can put great financial burden on the bride's family. In some cases, the dowry system leads to crimes against women, ranging from emotional abuse and injury to even deaths. The payment of dowry has long been prohibited under specific Indian laws including
290-412: A hydrostatic balance to determine the density and purity of metals and precious stones. He classified gems by what he considered their primary physical properties, such as specific gravity and hardness , rather than the common practice of the time of classifying them by colour. Biruni's main essay on political history, Kitāb al-musāmara fī aḵbār Ḵᵛārazm (" Book of nightly conversation concerning
435-701: A learned borrowing from Latin mātrimōnium , which is derived from māter ' mother ' with the suffix -mōnium for an action, state, or condition. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures. Even within Western culture , "definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between" (as Evan Gerstmann has put it). In The History of Human Marriage (1891), Edvard Westermarck defined marriage as "a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond
580-621: A 1955 article in Man , Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures. He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures. Those rights, according to Leach, included: In a 1997 article in Current Anthropology , Duran Bell describes marriage as "a relationship between one or more men (male or female) in severalty to one or more women that provides those men with
725-444: A 1980 study conducted by Rao, 75% of students responded that dowry was not important to marriage, but 40% of their parents likely expected dowry. While India has been making progress for women's rights , women continue to be in a subordinate status in their family. Women's education, income, and health are some significant factors that play into the dowry system, and for how much control a woman has over her marriage . Dowry in India
870-491: A bride they care nothing whether she has a dowry and a handsome fortune, but look only to her beauty and other advantages of the outward person. Arrian , The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great , 3rd Century BC Arrian's second book similarly notes, They (Indians) marry without either giving or taking dowries, but the women as soon as they are marriageable are brought forward by their fathers in public, to be selected by
1015-471: A bride's suicide or killing committed by her husband and his family after the marriage because of their dissatisfaction with the dowry. It is typically the culmination of a series of prior domestic abuses by the husband's family. Most dowry deaths occur when the young woman, unable to bear the harassment and torture, commits suicide by hanging herself or consuming poison. Dowry deaths also include bride burning where brides are doused in kerosene and set ablaze by
1160-449: A correlation between " Bride price " and polygamy. A survey of other cross-cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy, although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare (in non-state societies) and pathogen stress (in state societies) had some impact. Marriages are classified according to the number of legal spouses an individual has. The suffix "-gamy" refers specifically to
1305-467: A cubit is not clear; with an 18-inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22-inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles. One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of atmospheric refraction and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of
1450-435: A demand-right of sexual access within a domestic group and identifies women who bear the obligation of yielding to the demands of those specific men." In referring to "men in severalty", Bell is referring to corporate kin groups such as lineages which, in having paid bride price, retain a right in a woman's offspring even if her husband (a lineage member) deceases ( Levirate marriage ). In referring to "men (male or female)", Bell
1595-650: A form of premortem inheritance for the bride. In the south, marriage is more often conducted within the bride's family, for example with close relatives or cross-cousins , and in a closer physical distance to her family. In addition, brides may have the ability to inherit land, which makes her more valuable in the marriage, decreasing the chance of dowry over the bride price system. In addition to marriage customs that may influence dowry, social customs or rituals , and parents' expectations of dowry are important factors to consider. A 1995 study showed that while attitudes of people are changing about dowry, dowry prevails. In
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#17328526077681740-609: A form of dowry crime. The cruelty could be in the form of verbal attacks or may be accompanied by beating or harassment in order to force the woman or her family to yield to dowry demands. In many instances, the cruelty may even force the woman to commit suicide and it has been specifically criminalized by the anti-dowry laws in India . Domestic violence includes a broad spectrum of abusive and threatening behavior which includes physical, emotional, economic and sexual violence as well as intimidation, isolation and coercion. There are laws like
1885-435: A form of human rights abuse, with concerns arising over domestic abuse, forced marriage, and neglect. The vast majority of the world's countries, including virtually all of the world's developed nations, do not permit polygamy. There have been calls for the abolition of polygamy in developing countries. Polygyny usually grants wives equal status, although the husband may have personal preferences. One type of de facto polygyny
2030-592: A form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in the Caribbean , Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners. In all, these account for 16 to 24% of the "monogamous" category. Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative, the "ex-". The "ex-wife", for example, may remain an active part of her "ex-husband's" or "ex-wife's" life, as they may be tied together by transfers of resources (alimony, child support), or shared child custody. Bob Simpson notes that in
2175-511: A fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep until she is ready to marry, and then give the rest to her to take with her into her married life. One notable historical incident involving dowry is the transfer of Bombay (now Mumbai) to the British Crown. This event was part of the marriage treaty between Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal . The marriage treaty, signed on June 23, 1661, included
2320-597: A given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, presenting his findings with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons. Akhbar S. Ahmed concluded that Al-Biruni can be considered as the first anthropologist, others, however, have argued that he can hardly be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense. Biruni's fame as an Indologist rests primarily on two texts. Biruni wrote an encyclopedic work on India called Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind min maqūlah maqbūlah fī al-ʿaql aw mardhūlah (variously translated as Verifying All That
2465-403: A legitimacy-based definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. Edmund Leach criticized Gough's definition for being too restrictive in terms of recognized legitimate offspring and suggested that marriage be viewed in terms of the different types of rights it serves to establish. In
2610-571: A male to whom they are married or divorced. Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny , and there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry , and there is no marriage bond between the husbands. If a marriage includes multiple husbands or wives, it can be called group marriage . A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny
2755-600: A much older man. Several kinds of same-sex marriages have been documented in Indigenous and lineage-based cultures. In the Americas, We'wha ( Zuni ), was a lhamana (male individuals who, at least some of the time, dress and live in the roles usually filled by women in that culture); a respected artist, We'wha served as an emissary of the Zuni to Washington, where he met President Grover Cleveland . We'wha had at least one husband who
2900-413: A person with higher or lower status than them. Others want to marry people who have similar status. In many societies, women marry men who are of higher social status. There are marriages where each party has sought a partner of similar status. There are other marriages in which the man is older than the woman. Some persons also wish to engage in transactional relationship for money rather than love (thus
3045-400: A phenomenon of Indo-Canadian men taking advantage of the dowry system. These men would travel to India ostensibly seeking a new bride, but then abandon the woman and return to Canada without her as soon as they had secured possession of her dowry. Cruelty in the form of torture or harassment of a woman with the objective of forcing her to meet a demand for property or valuable security is
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#17328526077683190-405: A practice called sororal polygyny ; the pre-existing relationship between the co-wives is thought to decrease potential tensions within the marriage. Fox argues that "the major difference between polygyny and monogamy could be stated thus: while plural mating occurs in both systems, under polygyny several unions may be recognized as being legal marriages while under monogamy only one of the unions
3335-467: A refutation of astrology, in contradistinction to the legitimate science of astronomy, for which he expresses wholehearted support. Some suggest that his reasons for refuting astrology relate to the methods used by astrologers being based upon pseudoscience rather than empiricism and also to a conflict between the views of the astrologers and those of the orthodox theologians of Sunni Islam . He wrote an extensive commentary on Indian astronomy in
3480-416: A rich cultural context. He expressed his objectives with simple eloquence: He also translated the yoga sutras of Indian sage Patanjali with the title Tarjamat ketāb Bātanjalī fi’l-ḵalāṣ men al-ertebāk : I shall not produce the arguments of our antagonists in order to refute such of them, as I believe to be in the wrong. My book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts. I shall place before
3625-511: A royal lineage by attaching these wives' children to it. The relationships are considered polygynous, not polyandrous, because the female husband is in fact assuming masculine gendered political roles. Religious groups have differing views on the legitimacy of polygyny . It is allowed in Islam and Confucianism . Judaism and Christianity have mentioned practices involving polygyny in the past, however, outright religious acceptance of such practices
3770-555: A scientific but also a religious dimension: in Islam worship and prayer require a knowledge of the precise directions of sacred locations, which can be determined accurately only through the use of astronomical data. In carrying out his research, al-Biruni used a variety of different techniques dependent upon the particular field of study involved. His major work on astrology is primarily an astronomical and mathematical text; he states: "I have begun with Geometry and proceeded to Arithmetic and
3915-466: A sperm donation. Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to Shi'ite communities. The matrilineal Mosuo of China practice what they call "walking marriage". In some jurisdictions cohabitation , in certain circumstances, may constitute a common-law marriage , an unregistered partnership , or otherwise provide the unmarried partners with various rights and responsibilities; and in some countries,
4060-492: A strong correlation between intensive plough agriculture, dowry and monogamy. This pattern was found in a broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland. The majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture, in contrast, show a correlation between " bride price " and polygamy. A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of
4205-449: A strong indicator for female autonomy and is continuously used by economic history research. Marriage can be recognized by a state , an organization , a religious authority, a tribal group , a local community , or peers. It is often viewed as a contract . A religious marriage ceremony is performed by a religious institution to recognize and create the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in that religion. Religious marriage
4350-484: A type of marriage of convenience). Such people are sometimes referred to as gold diggers . Separate property systems can however be used to prevent property of being passed on to partners after divorce or death. Ab%C5%AB Ray%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni / æ l b ɪ ˈ r uː n i / ( Persian : ابوریحان بیرونی ; Arabic : أبو الريحان البيروني ; 973 – after 1050), known as al-Biruni ,
4495-409: A vast array of topics of Indian culture, including descriptions of their traditions and customs. Although he tried to stay away from political and military history, Biruni did indeed record important dates and noted actual sites of where significant battles occurred. Additionally, he chronicled stories of Indian rulers and told of how they ruled over their people with their beneficial actions and acted in
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4640-420: A woman helpless and desperate, which can cumulate in emotional trauma and abuse. Dowry related abuse causes emotional trauma , depression and suicide. The offence of abetment to suicide is significant because in many cases, the accused persons often bring up a defense that the victim committed suicide at her own volition, even though this may not be true in reality. Dowry deaths and dowry murder relate to
4785-526: A woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners." In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances (the ghost marriage ), Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to "a woman and one or more other persons." In an analysis of marriage among the Nayar , a polyandrous society in India, Gough found that
4930-446: Is concubinage , where only one woman gets a wife's rights and status, while other women remain legal house mistresses. Although a society may be classified as polygynous, not all marriages in it necessarily are; monogamous marriages may in fact predominate. It is to this flexibility that Anthropologist Robin Fox attributes its success as a social support system: "This has often meant – given
5075-455: Is "a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons, which provides a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship, is accorded full birth-status rights common to normal members of his society or social stratum." Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the legitimacy-based definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that
5220-702: Is a consideration from the side of the bride's parents or relatives to the groom or his parents and/or guardian for the agreement to wed the bride-to-be. Article 3 of the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 specifies that the penalty for giving or taking dowry does not apply to presents that are given at the time of a marriage to the bride or groom when no demand for them has been made. Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, they have been largely criticised as being ineffective. The practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India, which has further added to
5365-505: Is a culturally and often legally recognised union between people called spouses . It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children (if any), and between them and their in-laws . It is nearly a cultural universal , but the definition of marriage varies between cultures and religions , and over time. Typically, it is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual , are acknowledged or sanctioned. In some cultures, marriage
5510-410: Is also liable to other penalties, which also vary between jurisdictions. Governments that support monogamy may allow easy divorce. In a number of Western countries, divorce rates approach 50%. Those who remarry do so usually no more than three times. Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy", i.e. having multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time. This can be interpreted as
5655-717: Is different from the practice of polygamy, since it requires wealth to establish multiple households for multiple wives. The actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage. Tracking the occurrence of polygamy is further complicated in jurisdictions where it has been banned, but continues to be practiced ( de facto polygamy ). Zeitzen also notes that Western perceptions of African society and marriage patterns are biased by "contradictory concerns of nostalgia for traditional African culture versus critique of polygamy as oppressive to women or detrimental to development." Polygamy has been condemned as being
5800-604: Is found in other parts of the world as well (including some Mormon sects and Muslim families in the United States). In some societies such as the Lovedu of South Africa, or the Nuer of the Sudan, aristocratic women may become female 'husbands.' In the Lovedu case, this female husband may take a number of polygamous wives. This is not a lesbian relationship, but a means of legitimately expanding
5945-600: Is known variously as sacramental marriage in Christianity (especially Catholicism ), nikah in Islam , nissuin in Judaism , and various other names in other faith traditions, each with their own constraints as to what constitutes, and who can enter into, a valid religious marriage. The word marriage appeared around 1300 and is borrowed from Old French mariage (12th century), itself descended from Vulgar Latin maritāticum (11th century), ultimately tracing to
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6090-618: Is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high male mortality or male absenteeism. It is associated with partible paternity , the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. The explanation for polyandry in the Himalayan Mountains is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife ( fraternal polyandry ) allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In Europe, this
6235-434: Is not limited to any specific religion. It is widespread among Hindus and people of other religions. For example, Indian Muslims call dowry as jahez which has two categories: The first comprises some essential articles for the outfit of the bride as well as for conjugal life. The other is made up of valuable goods, clothes, jewelry, an amount of money for the groom's family, which is settled on after bargaining. The jahez
6380-507: Is observed for both boys and girls, the overwhelming majority of child spouses are girls. In many cases, only one marriage-partner is a child, usually the female, due to the importance placed upon female virginity . Causes of child marriage include poverty , bride price , dowry , laws that allow child marriages, religious and social pressures , regional customs, fear of remaining unmarried, and perceived inability of women to work for money. Today, child marriages are widespread in parts of
6525-552: Is one, eternal, and omnipotent and eschewing all forms of idol worship. He recognizes that uneducated Hindus worshiped a multiplicity of idols yet points out that even some Muslims (such as the Jabriyah ) have adopted anthropomorphic concepts of God. Al-Biruni wrote about the peoples, customs and religions of the Indian subcontinent. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with
6670-450: Is part of the autonomous republic of Karakalpakstan in northwest Uzbekistan . His name was most commonly latinized as Alberonius . Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied Islamic jurisprudence , theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy , medicine and philosophy and dabbled not only in the field of physics, but also in those of most of
6815-595: Is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing sexual activity . A marriage ceremony is called a wedding , while a private marriage is sometimes called an elopement . Around the world, there has been a general trend towards ensuring equal rights for women and ending discrimination and harassment against couples who are interethnic , interracial , interfaith , interdenominational , interclass , intercommunity , transnational , and same-sex as well as immigrant couples, couples with an immigrant spouse, and other minority couples. Debates persist regarding
6960-474: Is referring to women within the lineage who may stand in as the "social fathers" of the wife's children born of other lovers. (See Nuer " ghost marriage ".) Monogamy is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse during their lifetime or at any one time (serial monogamy). Anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found
7105-435: Is separate from cash payment as Mahr or dower that Sharia religious law requires be gifted to the bride. Dowry had been a prevalent practice in India's modern era and in this context, it can be in the form of a payment of cash or gifts from the bride's family to the bridegroom's family upon marriage. There are variations on dowry prevalence based on geography and class . States in the north are more likely to participate in
7250-497: Is so recognized. Often, however, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the two." As polygamy in Africa is increasingly subject to legal limitations, a variant form of de facto (as opposed to legal or de jure ) polygyny is being practiced in urban centers. Although it does not involve multiple (now illegal) formal marriages, the domestic and personal arrangements follow old polygynous patterns. The de facto form of polygyny
7395-466: Is what has come to be recognized as the menace of dowry in today's times. Dowry does not refer to the voluntary presents which are made to the bride and the groom; rather it is what is extracted from the bride or her parents. A newly married woman can be a target for dowry related violence because she is tied economically and socially to her new husband. In some cases, dowry is used as a threat or hostage type situation, in order to extract more property from
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#17328526077687540-650: Is wide cross-cultural variation in the social rules governing the selection of a partner for marriage. There is variation in the degree to which partner selection is an individual decision by the partners or a collective decision by the partners' kin groups, and there is variation in the rules regulating which partners are valid choices. The United Nations World Fertility Report of 2003 reports that 89% of all people get married before age forty-nine. The percent of women and men who marry before age forty-nine drops to nearly 50% in some nations and reaches near 100% in other nations. In other cultures with less strict rules governing
7685-468: The Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind mostly translation of Aryabhatta's work, in which he claims to have resolved the matter of Earth's rotation in a work on astronomy that is no longer extant, his Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (" Key to Astronomy "): [T]he rotation of the earth does in no way impair the value of astronomy, as all appearances of an astronomic character can quite as well be explained according to this theory as to
7830-751: The Afrighids , who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of Ma'munids in 995. He left his homeland for Bukhara , then under the Samanid ruler Mansur II the son of Nuh II . There he corresponded with Avicenna , and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars. In 998, he went to the court of the Ziyarid amir of Tabaristan , Qabus ( r. 977–981, 997–1012 ). There he wrote his first important work, al-Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qorun al-Khaliyya ("The remaining traces of past centuries", translated as "Chronology of ancient nations" or "Vestiges of
7975-704: The British Raj , were revisited. The lunar crater Al-Biruni and the asteroid 9936 Al-Biruni are named in his honour. Biruni Island in Antarctica is named after al-Biruni. In Iran, surveying engineers are celebrated on al-Biruni's birthday. In June 2009, Iran donated a pavilion to the United Nations Office in Vienna —placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center . Named
8120-573: The Hindu Succession Act (India grants its Muslim population the Sharia derived personal status laws). Despite the new inheritance law, dowry has continued as a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her marriage by a social process, rather than after parents death by a slow court supervised process under Hindu Succession Act (1956). Dowry gave, at least in theory, women economic and financial security in their marriage in
8265-516: The Latin maritātus 'married', past participle of maritāre 'to marry'. The adjective marītus, -a, -um 'matrimonial, nuptial' could also be used, through nominalization , in the masculine form as a noun for 'husband' and in the feminine form for 'wife'. The related word matrimony is borrowed from the Old French word matremoine , which appears around 1300 CE and is in turn ultimately
8410-581: The Mu'tazila , particularly criticising al-Jahiz and Zurqan. He also repudiated Avicenna for his views on the eternality of the universe. Of the 146 books written by al-Bīrūnī, 95 are devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, when the Abbasid Caliphs promoted astronomical research, because such research possessed not only
8555-571: The Oneida Perfectionists in up-state New York. Of the 250 societies reported by the American anthropologist George Murdock in 1949, only the Kaingang of Brazil had any group marriages at all. A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under the age of 18. It is related to child betrothal and teenage pregnancy . Child marriage was common throughout history, even up until
8700-506: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 that help to reduce domestic violence and to protect women's rights . Continuing abuse by the husband and his family with threats of harm could lead to a woman committing suicide . In such situations, the dowry crime even extends to abetment of suicide, which includes all acts and attempts to intentionally advise, encourage, or assist in committing suicide. The impact of dowry can leave
8845-526: The Scholars Pavilion , it features the statues of four prominent Iranian scholars: Avicenna , Abu Rayhan Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes) and Omar Khayyam . A film about the life of Al-Biruni, Abu Raykhan Beruni , was released in the Soviet Union in 1974. Irrfan Khan portrayed Al-Biruni in the 1988 Doordarshan historical drama Bharat Ek Khoj . He has been portrayed by Cüneyt Uzunlar in
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#17328526077688990-631: The (proposed) wife may give it back to him of her own will (if she does not want to marry). ~ Al-Biruni , Chapter on Matrimony in India , about 1035 AD Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th century India, had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father's death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father's debt, then allocate
9135-494: The 1900s in the United States, where in 1880 CE, in the state of Delaware , the age of consent for marriage was 7 years old. Still, in 2017, over half of the 50 United States have no explicit minimum age to marry and several states set the age as low as 14. Today it is condemned by international human rights organizations. Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom, sometimes as soon as
9280-511: The British case, serial monogamy creates an "extended family" – a number of households tied together in this way, including mobile children (possible exes may include an ex-wife, an ex-brother-in-law, etc., but not an "ex-child"). These "unclear families" do not fit the mould of the monogamous nuclear family . As a series of connected households, they come to resemble the polygynous model of separate households maintained by mothers with children, tied by
9425-613: The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 approved by the Parliament of India and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498A of the Indian Penal Code . The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 defines dowry: "Dowry means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given either directly or indirectly - (a) by one party in marriage to the other party in marriage; or (b) by the parents of either party to a marriage or by any other person to either party to marriage or to any other persons; at or before or after
9570-565: The Greek, the Arab/Muslim, and the Persian. Biruni also employed astronomy in the determination of his theories, which were complex mathematical equations and scientific calculation that allows one to convert dates and years between the different calendars. The book does not limit itself to tedious records of battle because Biruni found the social culture to be more important. The work includes research on
9715-609: The Indians Recount, the Reasonable and the Unreasonable , or The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable , in which he explored nearly every aspect of Indian life. During his journey through India, military and political history were not Biruni's main focus: he decided rather to document the civilian and scholarly aspects of Hindu life, examining culture, science, and religion. He explored religion within
9860-486: The Mormons, a home and family for every woman." Nonetheless, polygyny is a gender issue which offers men asymmetrical benefits. In some cases, there is a large age discrepancy (as much as a generation) between a man and his youngest wife, compounding the power differential between the two. Tensions not only exist between genders, but also within genders; senior and junior men compete for wives, and senior and junior wives in
10005-773: The Past") on historical and scientific chronology, probably around 1000, though he later made some amendments to the book. He also visited the court of the Bavandid ruler Al-Marzuban . Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Ma'munids, he made peace with the latter who then ruled Khwarezm . Their court at Gorganj (also in Khwarezm) was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists. In 1017, Mahmud of Ghazni captured Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni,
10150-518: The Science of Numbers, then to the structure of the Universe and finally to Judicial Astrology [ sic ], for no one who is worthy of the style and title of Astrologer [ sic ] who is not thoroughly conversant with these for sciences." In these earlier chapters he lays the foundations for the final chapter, on astrological prognostication , which he criticises. In a later work, he wrote
10295-523: The affairs of Ḵᵛārazm ") is now known only from quotations in Bayhaqī's Tārīkh-e Masʿūdī. In addition to this various discussions of historical events and methodology are found in connection with the lists of kings in his al-Āthār al-bāqiya and in the Qānūn as well as elsewhere in the Āthār, in India, and scattered throughout his other works. Al-Biruni's Chronology of Ancient Nations attempted to accurately establish
10440-478: The ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers. The findings of MacDonell and Keith are similar to Witzel, and differ from Tambiah; they cite ancient Indian literature suggesting bridewealth was paid even in brahma and daeva marriages. Dowry
10585-405: The argument of Aristotle, that there is a change in the creator. He further argued that stating there is a change in the creator would mean there is a change in the effect (meaning the universe has change) and that the universe coming into being after not being is such a change (and so arguing there is no change – no beginning – means Aristotle believes the creator is negated). Al-Biruni was proud of
10730-428: The beginning of a new legal framework of dowry harassment laws effectively prohibiting the demanding, giving and taking of dowry. Although providing dowry is illegal, it is still common in many parts of India for a husband to seek a dowry from the wife's family and in some cases, this results in a form of extortion and violence against the wife. To further strengthen the anti-dowry law and to stop offences of cruelty by
10875-894: The bride's family. This can be seen in new brides, who are most vulnerable in the situation. Dowry crimes can occur with the threat or occurrence of violence, so that the bride's family is left with no choice but to give more dowry to protect their daughter. The northern and eastern states of India show higher rates of dowry-related violence. Dowry is considered a major contributor towards observed violence against women in India . Some of these offences include physical violence, emotional abuses, and even murder of brides and young girls prior to marriage. The predominant types of dowry crimes relate to cruelty (which includes torture and harassment), domestic violence (including physical, emotional and sexual assault ), abetment to suicide and dowry death (including, issues of bride burning and murder ). A 2005 Canadian documentary film, Runaway Grooms , exposed
11020-463: The bride's name. This dowry was seen as stridhan ( Sanskrit : woman's property). Also, an important distinction is the fact that while the upper castes practised dowry, the lower castes practised bride price to compensate her family for the loss of income. In the modern era, the concept of dowry has evolved and Indian families no longer practise bride price. This is because with the passage of time, bride price gradually disappeared and dowry became
11165-490: The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a few years. He was 44 when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni. Biruni became acquainted with all things related to India. During this time he wrote his study of India, finishing it around 1030. Along with his writing, Al-Biruni also made sure to extend his study to science while on
11310-609: The center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a Newsday correspondent, "Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society." A "walking marriage" refers to a type of temporary marriage formed by the Mosuo of China, in which male partners live elsewhere and make nightly visits. A similar arrangement in Saudi Arabia , called misyar marriage , also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly. There
11455-563: The concerns of enforcement. Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code required the groom and his family to be automatically arrested if a wife complains of dowry harassment . The law was widely abused, and in 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that arrests cannot be made without a magistrate's approval. The history of dowry in South Asia is not clear. Some scholars believe dowry was practised in antiquity, but some do not. Michael Witzel claims
11600-521: The customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India. Al-Biruni's name is derived from the Persian word bērūn or bīrūn ("outskirts"), as he was born in an outlying district of Kath , the capital of the Afrighid kingdom of Khwarazm . The city, now called Beruniy,
11745-462: The difference in daylight hours by latitude, seasons and Earth's relative positions with Moon and stars. At the same time, Biruni was also critical of Indian scribes, who he believed carelessly corrupted Indian documents while making copies of older documents. He also criticized the Hindus on what he saw them do and not do, for example finding them deficient in curiosity about history and religion. One of
11890-450: The dowry system among all classes, and dowry is more likely to be in the form of material and movable goods. In the south, the bride price system is more prevalent, and is more often in the form of land, or other inheritance goods. This system is tied to the social structure of marriage , which keeps marriage inside or close to family relations. Dowry also varies by economic strata in India. Upper-class families are more likely to engage in
12035-448: The dowry system than the lower class. This could be in part due to women's economic exclusion from the labor market in upper classes. When dowry evolved in the Vedic period , it was essentially followed by the upper castes to benefit the bride, who was unable to inherit property under Hindu law . To counter this, the bride's family provided the groom with dowry which would be registered in
12180-661: The earliest documented same-sex wedding in Latin Christendom occurred in Rome, Italy , at the San Giovanni a Porta Latina basilica in 1581. Several cultures have practised temporary and conditional marriages. Examples include the Celtic practice of handfasting and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community. Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in
12325-459: The expeditions. He sought to find a method to measure the height of the sun, and created a makeshift quadrant for that purpose. Al-Biruni was able to make much progress in his study over the frequent travels that he went on throughout the lands of India. Belonging to the Sunni Ash'ari school, al-Biruni nevertheless also associated with Maturidi theologians. He was however, very critical of
12470-406: The fact that he followed the textual evidence of the religion without being influenced by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle. Al-Biruni contributed to the introduction of the scientific method to medieval mechanics . He developed experimental methods to determine density, using a particular type of hydrostatic balance . Al-Biruni's method of using the hydrostatic balance was precise, and he
12615-403: The family. This is normal expenditure which is done willingly and varies from one family to another depending on the wealth, status, etc. Many times, as part of this mutual 'give-and-take', an attempt is made by the groom's family to dictate the quantum of each gift along with specific demands for dowry. In such circumstances, there is an element of exerting coercion on the bride's family and this
12760-415: The form of movable goods. This helped prevent family wealth break-up and provided security to the bride at the same time. This system can also be used as a premortem inheritance, as once a woman is presented with movable gifts, she may be cut off from the family estate . For many, dowry has become a greater financial burden on the bride's family, and can leave families destitute based on the demands from
12905-540: The girl is born. However, in the late 1800s in England and the United States, feminist activists began calling for raised age of consent laws, which was eventually handled in the 1920s, having been raised to 16–18. Child marriages can also occur in the context of bride kidnapping . In the year 1552 CE, John Somerford and Jane Somerford Brereton were both married at the ages of 3 and 2, respectively. Twelve years later, in 1564, John filed for divorce. While child marriage
13050-417: The groom. The demand for dowry from groom's family and relatives has increased over time. The structure and kinship of marriage in parts of India contributes to dowry. In the north, marriage usually follows a patrilocal (lives with husband's family) system, where the bride is a non-related member of the family. This system encourages dowry perhaps due to the exclusion of the bride's family after marriage as
13195-407: The groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind. One of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great 's conquest ( ca . 300 BC) as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian's first book mentions a lack of dowry, They (these ancient Indian people) make their marriages in accordance with this principle, for in selecting
13340-430: The group lacked a husband role in the conventional sense. The husband role, unitary in the west, was instead divided between a non-resident "social father" of the woman's children, and her lovers, who were the actual procreators. None of these men had legal rights to the woman's child. This forced Gough to disregard sexual access as a key element of marriage and to define it in terms of legitimacy of offspring alone: marriage
13485-418: The group marriage, and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the marriage. No country legally condones group marriages, neither under the law nor as a common law marriage, but historically it has been practiced by some cultures of Polynesia, Asia, Papua New Guinea and the Americas – as well as in some intentional communities and alternative subcultures such as
13630-572: The groups from which a partner can be chosen the selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going through a selection process of courtship or the marriage may be arranged by the couple's parents or an outside party, a matchmaker . Some people want to marry a person that is older or younger than they. This may impact marital stability and partners with more than a 10-year gap in age tend to experience social disapproval In addition, older women (older than 35) have increased health risks when getting pregnant. Some people want to marry
13775-423: The husband had freedom to engage in outside sexual liaisons. The Codex Theodosianus ( C. Th. 9.7.3) issued in 438 CE imposed severe penalties or death on same-sex relationships, but the exact intent of the law and its relation to social practice is unclear, as only a few examples of same-sex relationships in that culture exist. Same-sex unions were celebrated in some regions of China, such as Fujian . Possibly
13920-698: The husband or his family. Sometimes, due to their abetment to commit suicide, the bride may end up setting herself on fire. Dowry is considered a major contributor towards observed violence against women in India. Some of these offences include physical violence, emotional abuses, and even murder of brides and young girls prior to marriage.[23][25][37] The predominant types of dowry crimes relate to cruelty (which includes torture and harassment), domestic violence (including physical, emotional and sexual assault), abetment to suicide and dowry death (including, issues of bride burning and murder).. Bride burnings are often disguised as accidents or suicide attempts. Bride burnings are
14065-715: The husband or his relatives against the wife, new provisions were added to the Indian criminal law – section 498A to Indian Penal Code and section 198A to the Criminal Procedure Code in 1983. In 2005, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act was passed, which added an additional layer of protection from dowry harassment. Although the changes in Indian criminal law reflect a serious effort by legislators to put an end to dowry-related crimes, and although they have been in effect for many years now, they have been largely criticised as being ineffective. Marriage Marriage , also called matrimony or wedlock ,
14210-419: The imbalance in the sex ratios, the higher male infant mortality, the shorter life span of males, the loss of males in wartime, etc. – that often women were left without financial support from husbands. To correct this condition, females had to be killed at birth, remain single, become prostitutes, or be siphoned off into celibate religious orders. Polygynous systems have the advantage that they can promise, as did
14355-929: The interests of the nation. His details are brief and mostly just list rulers without referring to their real names, and he did not go on about deeds that each one carried out during their reign, which keeps in line with Biruni's mission to try to stay away from political histories. Biruni also described the geography of India in his work. He documented different bodies of water and other natural phenomena. These descriptions are useful to today's modern historians because they are able to use Biruni's scholarship to locate certain destinations in modern-day India. Historians are able to make some matches while also concluding that certain areas seem to have disappeared and been replaced with different cities. Different forts and landmarks were able to be located, legitimizing Biruni's contributions with their usefulness to even modern history and archeology. The dispassionate account of Hinduism given by Biruni
14500-454: The laws recognize cohabitation in lieu of institutional marriage for taxation and social security benefits. This is the case, for example, in Australia. Cohabitation may be an option pursued as a form of resistance to traditional institutionalized marriage. However, in this context, some nations reserve the right to define the relationship as marital, or otherwise to regulate the relation, even if
14645-424: The legal status of married women, leniency towards violence within marriage, customs such as dowry and bride price , marriageable age , and criminalization of premarital and extramarital sex . Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal , social , libidinal , emotional , financial , spiritual , cultural , economic , political , religious , sexual , and romantic purposes. In some areas of
14790-423: The length of various historical eras. Biruni is widely considered to be one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion. He is known as a pioneer in the field of comparative religion in his study of, among other creeds, Zoroastrianism , Judaism, Hinduism , Christianity, Buddhism and Islam . He assumed the superiority of Islam: "We have here given an account of these things in order that
14935-474: The marriage as consideration for the marriage of the said parties, but does not include dower or mahr in the case of persons to whom the Muslim Personal Law applies." A court judgement clarifies the legal definition of dowry as "Dowry" in the sense of the expression contemplated by Dowry Prohibition Act is a demand for property of valuable security having an inextricable nexus with the marriage, i.e., it
15080-466: The mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring." In The Future of Marriage in Western Civilization (1936), he rejected his earlier definition, instead provisionally defining marriage as "a relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognized by custom or law". The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries (1951) defined marriage as "a union between a man and
15225-442: The midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples." Biruni's writing was very poetic, which may diminish some of the historical value of the work for modern times. The lack of description of battle and politics makes those parts of the picture completely lost. However, many have used Biruni's work to check facts of history in other works that may have been ambiguous or had their validity questioned. Most of
15370-442: The most common forms of dowry deaths for a wide range of reasons like kerosene being inexpensive, there being insufficient evidence after the murder and low chances of survival rate. Apart from bride burning, there are some instances of poisoning , strangulation , acid attacks , etc., as a means of which brides are murdered by the groom's family. India, with its large population, reports the highest number of dowry related deaths in
15515-443: The number of spouses, as in bi-gamy (two spouses, generally illegal in most nations), and poly-gamy (more than one spouse). Societies show variable acceptance of polygamy as a cultural ideal and practice. According to the Ethnographic Atlas , of 1,231 societies noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry. However, as Miriam Zeitzen writes, social tolerance for polygamy
15660-461: The other sciences. The Iranian Khwarezmian language , which was Biruni's mother tongue, survived for several centuries after Islam until the Turkification of the region – at least some of the culture of ancient Khwarezm endured – for it is hard to imagine that the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, should have appeared in a cultural vacuum. He was sympathetic to
15805-412: The other. There are, however, other reasons which make it impossible. This question is most difficult to solve. The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving of the earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy) , in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in
15950-423: The philosopher Ibn Sina in a multiple letter correspondence. Al-Biruni stated: "Other people, besides, hold this foolish persuasion, that time has no terminus quo at all." He further stated that Aristotle , whose arguments Avicenna uses, contradicted himself when he stated that the universe and matter has a start whilst holding on to the idea that matter is pre-eternal. In his letters to Avicenna, he stated
16095-579: The practice of Nikah mut'ah , a fixed-term marriage contract. The Islamic prophet Muhammad sanctioned a temporary marriage – sigheh in Iran and muta'a in Iraq – which can provide a legitimizing cover for sex workers. The same forms of temporary marriage have been used in Egypt, Lebanon and Iran to make the donation of a human ova legal for in vitro fertilisation ; a woman cannot, however, use this kind of marriage to obtain
16240-419: The prevalent form of transfer. In the modern era, the practice of dowry requires the bride's family to transfer goods to the groom's family in consideration for the marriage. Since marriages in India are a time for big celebrations in each family, they tend to be very lavish. Accordingly, Indian weddings usually involve considerable expenditure and accompanying wedding presents from relatives in both sides of
16385-474: The radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual mean radius of 3847.80 miles. His estimate was given as 12,803,337 cubits , so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of
16530-524: The reader may learn by the comparative treatment of the subject how much superior the institutions of Islam are, and how more plainly this contrast brings out all customs and usages, differing from those of Islam, in their essential foulness." However he was happy on occasion to express admiration for other cultures, and quoted directly from the sacred texts of other religions when reaching his conclusions. He strove to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept
16675-948: The reader the theories of the Hindus exactly as they are, and I shall mention in connection with them similar theories of the Greeks in order to show the relationship existing between them. An example of Biruni's analysis is his summary of why many Hindus hate Muslims. Biruni notes in the beginning of his book how the Muslims had a hard time learning about Hindu knowledge and culture. He explains that Hinduism and Islam are totally different from each other. Moreover, Hindus in 11th century India had suffered waves of destructive attacks on many of its cities, and Islamic armies had taken numerous Hindu slaves to Persia, which – claimed Biruni – contributed to Hindus becoming suspicious of all foreigners, not just Muslims. Hindus considered Muslims violent and impure, and did not want to share anything with them. Over time, Biruni won
16820-532: The relation has not been registered with the state or a religious institution. Conversely, institutionalized marriages may not involve cohabitation. In some cases, couples living together do not wish to be recognized as married. This may occur because pension or alimony rights are adversely affected; because of taxation considerations; because of immigration issues, or for other reasons. Such marriages have also been increasingly common in Beijing . Guo Jianmei, director of
16965-400: The same household may experience radically different life conditions, and internal hierarchy. Several studies have suggested that the wive's relationship with other women, including co-wives and husband's female kin, are more critical relationships than that with her husband for her productive, reproductive and personal achievement. In some societies, the co-wives are relatives, usually sisters,
17110-445: The sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge. Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, Al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy. A gifted linguist, he
17255-473: The scientific language of his age, but al-Tafhim is one of the most important of the early works of science in Persian , and is a rich source for Persian prose and lexicography . The book covers the Quadrivium in a detailed and skilled fashion. Following Al-Biruni's death, his work was neither built upon or referenced by scholars. Centuries later, his writings about India, which had become of interest to
17400-495: The seven islands of Bombay as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles II. The official transfer of Bombay to the British occurred in 1665. The British East India Company took full control in 1668 after leasing it from the Crown for a nominal rent of £10 per year. Various reasons have been suggested as cause of dowry practice in India. These include economic factors and social factors. There are many economic factors that contribute towards
17545-402: The society, the belief in "high gods" to support human morality, and monogamy. In the countries which do not permit polygamy, a person who marries in one of those countries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits the crime of bigamy . In all cases, the second marriage is considered legally null and void. Besides the second and subsequent marriages being void, the bigamist
17690-557: The specific aspects of Hindu life that Biruni studied was the Hindu calendar . His scholarship on the topic exhibited great determination and focus, not to mention the excellence in his approach of the in-depth research he performed. He developed a method for converting the dates of the Hindu calendar to the dates of the three different calendars that were common in the Islamic countries of his time period,
17835-574: The system of dowry. Some of these include inheritance systems and the bride's economic status. Some suggestions point to economics and weak legal institutions on inheritance place women in disadvantage, with inheritances being left only to sons. This leaves women dependent upon their husbands and in-laws, who keep the dowry when she marries. Prior to 1956, including during the British Raj , daughters had no rights of inheritance to their family's wealth. In 1956, India gave equal legal status to daughters and sons among Hindu , Sikh and Jain families, under
17980-509: The topic of density, including the different types of densities and how they are measured. His work on the subject was very influential and was later used by scientists like Galileo and Newton in their own research. Bīrūnī devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at Nandana in Pind Dadan Khan (present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate
18125-536: The true value. In his Codex Masudicus (1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between Asia and Europe, or what is today known as the Americas. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the Earth's circumference and Afro-Eurasia 's size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to Eurasia must surely have given rise to lands in
18270-590: The vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited. Biruni wrote a pharmacopoeia , the Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb (" Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine "). It lists synonyms for drug names in Syriac, Persian, Greek, Baluchi, Afghan, Kurdi, and some Indian languages. He used
18415-507: The victor in wrestling or boxing or running or someone who excels in any other manly exercise. ~ Arrian, Indika in Megasthenes and Arrian, 3rd Century BC The two sources suggest dowry was absent, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian. About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, another scholar visited India, Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī , also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni
18560-473: The welcome of Hindu scholars. Al-Biruni collected books and studied with these Hindu scholars to become fluent in Sanskrit, discover and translate into Arabic the mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy and other fields of arts as practiced in 11th-century India. He was inspired by the arguments offered by Indian scholars who believed earth must be globular in shape, which they felt was the only way to fully explain
18705-576: The words, at all events in the matter. In his major astronomical work, the Mas'ud Canon , Biruni observed that, contrary to Ptolemy , the Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. He wrote a treatise on the astrolabe , describing how to use it to tell the time and as a quadrant for surveying. One particular diagram of an eight-geared device could be considered an ancestor of later Muslim astrolabes and clocks. More recently, Biruni's eclipse data
18850-629: The works of Al-Biruni are in Arabic although he seemingly wrote the Kitab al-Tafhim in both Persian and Arabic, showing his mastery over both languages. Bīrūnī's catalogue of his own literary production up to his 65th lunar/63rd solar year (the end of 427/1036) lists 103 titles divided into 12 categories: astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematics, astrological aspects and transits, astronomical instruments, chronology, comets, an untitled category, astrology, anecdotes, religion, and books he no longer possesses. Biruni wrote most of his works in Arabic ,
18995-496: The world according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau . In 2012, 8,233 dowry death cases were reported across India, while in 2013, 8,083 dowry deaths were reported. This means a dowry-related crime causes the death of a woman every 90 minutes, or 1.4 deaths per year per 100,000 women in India . The first all-India legislative enactment relating to dowry to be put on the statute book was The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and this legislation came into force from 1 July 1961. It marked
19140-421: The world, arranged marriage , forced marriage , polygyny marriage , polyandry marriage , group marriage , coverture marriage , child marriage , cousin marriage , sibling marriage , teenage marriage , avunculate marriage , incestuous marriage , and bestiality marriage are practiced and legally permissible, while others areas outlaw them to protect human rights . Female age at marriage has proven to be
19285-463: The world; being most common in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa , with more than half of the girls in some countries in those regions being married before 18. The incidence of child marriage has been falling in most parts of the world. In developed countries, child marriage is outlawed or restricted. Girls who marry before 18 are at greater risk of becoming victims of domestic violence , than those who marry later, especially when they are married to
19430-489: Was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age . He has been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion ", "Father of modern geodesy ", Founder of Indology and the first anthropologist . Al-Biruni was well versed in physics , mathematics, astronomy , and natural sciences , and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist , and linguist . He studied almost all
19575-457: Was a Muslim Persian scholar who lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE. He translated many Indian texts into Arabic , as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed, The implements of the wedding rejoicings are brought forward. No gift (dower or dowry) is settled between them. The man gives only a present to the wife, as he thinks fit, and a marriage gift in advance, which he has no right to claim back, but
19720-430: Was able to measure the density of many different substances, including precious metals, gems, and even air. He also used this method to determine the radius of the earth, which he did by measuring the angle of elevation of the horizon from the top of a mountain and comparing it to the angle of elevation of the horizon from a nearby plain. In addition to developing the hydrostatic balance, Al-Biruni also wrote extensively on
19865-688: Was conversant in Khwarezmian , Persian , Arabic, and Sanskrit , and also knew Greek , Hebrew , and Syriac . He spent much of his life in Ghazni , then capital of the Ghaznavids , in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017, he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind (" The History of India "), after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India. He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on
20010-420: Was generally recognized as such. While it is a relatively new practice to grant same-sex couples the same form of legal marital recognition as commonly granted to mixed-sex couples, there is some history of recorded same-sex unions around the world. Ancient Greek same-sex relationships were like modern companionate marriages, unlike their different-sex marriages in which the spouses had few emotional ties, and
20155-479: Was not addressed until its rejection in later passages. They do explicitly prohibit polygyny today. Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny, though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas (1980) which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains. More recent studies have found 53 societies outside the 28 found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry. It
20300-654: Was not infrequent when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Puranas . Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura -type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for
20445-406: Was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance (the dis-inheriting of most siblings, some of whom went on to become celibate monks and priests). Group marriage (also known as multi-lateral marriage ) is a form of polyamory in which more than two persons form a family unit, with all the members of the group marriage being considered to be married to all the other members of
20590-496: Was remarkable for its time. He stated that he was fully objective in his writings, remaining unbiased like a proper historian should. Biruni documented everything about India just as it happened. But, he did note how some of the accounts of information that he was given by natives of the land may not have been reliable in terms of complete accuracy, however, he did try to be as honest as possible in his writing. Eduard Sachau compares it to "a magic island of quiet, impartial research in
20735-440: Was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all human constructs. "Rather, what Al-Biruni seems to be arguing is that there is a common human element in every culture that makes all cultures distant relatives, however foreign they might seem to one another." Al-Biruni divides Hindus into an educated and an uneducated class. He describes the educated as monotheistic, believing that God
20880-477: Was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas. As noted above, Anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found that the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture show
21025-522: Was used by Dunthorne in 1749 to help determine the acceleration of the Moon , and his data on equinox times and eclipses was used as part of a study of Earth's past rotation. Like later adherents of the Ash'ari school, such as al-Ghazali , al-Biruni is famous for vehemently defending the majority Sunni position that the universe had a beginning, being a strong supporter of creatio ex nihilo , specifically refuting
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