A curb stomp , also called curbing, curb checking, curb painting, or making someone bite the curb , is a form of grievous assault or attempted murder in which a victim's jaw is forcefully placed on a curb and then stomped from behind, causing severe injuries or death .
120-439: In the film American History X (1998), white power skinhead Derek Vinyard murders Lawrence, a black burglar who had tried to steal his truck, by curb-stomping him. The method of killing for both Marinus Schöberl and Randall Townsend appear to have been inspired by this scene. In The Sopranos episode " The Second Coming " (2007), New Jersey mafia boss Tony Soprano curb-stomps New York mobster Salvatore "Coco" Cogliano on
240-483: A Berlin –Moscow alliance against the supposedly "decadent" Atlanticist forces; a dream which had been thematic since the days of Remer. Zündel visited Russia and met with ex-KGB general Aleksandr Stergilov and other Russian National Unity members. Despite these initial aspirations, international neo-Nazism and its close affiliates in ultra-nationalism would be split over the Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995, as part of
360-469: A Strasserite "nationalist and socialist" policy, which dissolved in 1962 due to lack of support. Other Third Reich associated groups were the HIAG and Stille Hilfe dedicated to advancing the interests of Waffen-SS veterans and rehabilitating them into the new democratic society. However, they did not claim to be attempting to restore Nazism, instead functioning as lobbying organizations for their members before
480-455: A blood and soil variation of environmentalism, which has themes in common with deep ecology , the organic movement and animal protectionism . This tendency, sometimes called " ecofascism ", was represented in the original German Nazism by Richard Walther Darré who was the Reichsminister of Food from 1933 until 1942. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany , the political ideology of
600-414: A voiceover , Danny reads the final lines of his paper for Dr. Sweeney, quoting the final stanza of Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address . Screenwriter David McKenna wrote the screenplay for American History X and sold the rights to New Line Cinema when he was 26. The inspiration for the story came from the punk-rock scene of McKenna's childhood, where he often witnessed violent behavior. "I saw
720-597: A " Fourth Reich ". Holocaust denial is common in neo-Nazi circles. Neo-Nazis regularly display Nazi symbols and express admiration for Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders. In some European and Latin American countries, laws prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, antisemitic, or homophobic views. Nazi-related symbols are banned in many European countries (especially Germany ) in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism. The term neo-Nazism describes any post- World War II militant, social or political movements seeking to revive
840-508: A black drug dealer while extinguishing a fire at their home. Immediately afterwards, Derek erupts in a televised, racially motivated tirade. High-profile neo-Nazi Cameron Alexander becomes his mentor and they form a violent white supremacist gang called the Disciples of Christ (D.O.C.) in Venice Beach . A skilled basketball player, Derek defeats several Crips members, winning control of
960-732: A brief intelligence "brown scare". Later leaders of American white nationalism came to politics through the ANP, including a teenage David Duke and William Luther Pierce of the National Alliance , although they soon distanced themselves from explicit self-identification with neo-Nazism. In 1961, the World Union of National Socialists was founded by Rockwell and Colin Jordan of the British National Socialist Movement , adopting
1080-596: A clearly sympathetic view of Hitler and the publisher Ernst Zündel was deeply tied to international neo-Nazism), however, the main interest of Holocaust denial to neo-Nazis was their hope that it would help them rehabilitate their political ideology in the eyes of the general public. Did Six Million Really Die? (1974) by Richard Verrall and The Hoax of the Twentieth Century (1976) by Arthur Butz are popular examples of Holocaust denial material. Key developments in international neo-Nazism during this time include
1200-585: A consequence, some members of the nascent movement of German neo-Nazism joined the Deutsche Reichspartei of which Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the most prominent figure. Younger members founded the Wiking-Jugend modelled after the Hitler Youth . The Deutsche Reichspartei stood for elections from 1953 until 1961 fetching around 1% of the vote each time. Rudel befriended French-born Savitri Devi , who
1320-564: A flashback. Derek walks Danny to school, stopping at a diner . Sweeney and a police officer inform him that Seth and Cameron were attacked the night before and are in an intensive care unit . He denies knowing anything but reluctantly agrees to inspect the people he denounced. Danny is shot dead in a bathroom by a Black student he had confronted the day before. Derek runs to the school, pushing past crowds, police, and tape to find Danny's bloodied corpse. He cradles Danny's body in hysterics, blaming himself for influencing his views and actions. In
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#17331045461521440-566: A homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode". The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie . The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa ( Bosnian Movement of National Pride ) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Its model
1560-528: A late World War II general known for his antisemitic and pro-Nazi stance. From 2003 to 2019, the annual event was hosted by Bulgarian National Union. Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše , a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement. The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs , Jews and Roma . At the end of World War II , many Ustaše members fled to
1680-420: A lot of bigotry growing up, and it made me think about writing something about the world of hate-mongers. The point I tried to make in the script is that a person is not born a racist. It is learned through [the] environment and the people that surround you. The question that intrigued me is: why do people hate and how does one go about changing that? My premise was that hate starts in the family". In order to make
1800-438: A mixture of handsome photo-realism and visceral punch". Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, but was critical of the underdeveloped areas, stating "the movie never convincingly charts Derek's path to race hatred". Ebert concluded "This is a good and powerful film. If I am dissatisfied, it is because it contains the promise of being more than it is". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly called
1920-514: A neo-Spenglerian author, had written Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics (1949) dedicated to "the hero of the twentieth century" (namely, Adolf Hitler) and founded the European Liberation Front . He was interested more in the destiny of Europe; to this end, he advocated a National Bolshevik -esque red-brown alliance against American culture and influenced 1960s figures such as SS-veteran Jean-François Thiriart . Yockey
2040-613: A new paganism . In the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) a former member of SA , Wilhelm Adam , founded the National Democratic Party of Germany . It reached out to those attracted by the Nazi Party before 1945 and provide them with a political outlet, so that they would not be tempted to support the far-right again or turn to the anti-communist Western Allies. Joseph Stalin wanted to use them to create
2160-650: A new pro-Soviet and anti-Western strain in German politics. According to top Soviet diplomat Vladimir Semyonov, Stalin even suggested that they could be allowed to continue publishing their own newspaper, Völkischer Beobachter . While in Austria, former SS member Wilhelm Lang founded an esoteric group known as the Vienna Lodge ; he popularised Nazism and occultism such as the Black Sun and ideas of Third Reich survival colonies below
2280-664: A paramilitary wing; Combat 18 , which intersected with football hooligan firms such as the Chelsea Headhunters . The neo-Nazi skinhead movement spread to the United States, with groups such as the Hammerskins . It was popularised from 1986 onwards by Tom Metzger of the White Aryan Resistance . Since then it has spread across the world. Films such as Romper Stomper (1992) and American History X (1998) would fix
2400-428: A pivotal role in conceiving. The final version was longer than Kaye intended, which resulted in him publicly disowning the film, thus negatively affecting his directing career. Distributed by New Line Cinema, the film was released in the United States on October 30, 1998 in limited theaters and received a wide theatrical release on November 20, 1998, grossing $ 23.9 million against a $ 20 million budget. American History X
2520-589: A policy of fitting into society rather than standing out". Writing for Esquire magazine in 2018, Justin Kirkland stated that he believed that "Perhaps the reason that American History X still feels so relevant two decades after its release is because we haven't done enough for it not to be ... I'm afraid we're going to be writing about American History X forever. I'm afraid of what will happen if we don't". Notes Further reading Neo-Nazism Final solution Parties Neo-Nazism comprises
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#17331045461522640-665: A popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan " Za dom spremni " ("For the homeland – ready!"). This event prompted the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president. Cases of displaying Ustashe memorabilia have been recorded at the Bleiburg commemoration held annually in Austria. The government of
2760-486: A public perception that neo-Nazism and skinheads were synonymous. New developments also emerged on the esoteric level, as former Chilean diplomat Miguel Serrano built on the works of Carl Jung , Otto Rahn , Wilhelm Landig , Julius Evola and Savitri Devi to bind together and develop already existing theories. Serrano had been a member of the National Socialist Movement of Chile in the 1930s and from
2880-691: A red flag incorporating the Swastika under the banner of Russia for Russians . These forces came together in a last gasp effort to save the Supreme Soviet of Russia against Boris Yeltsin during the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis . As well as events in Russia, in newly independent ex-Soviet states, annual commemorations for SS volunteers now took place; particularly in Latvia , Estonia and Ukraine . The Russian developments excited German neo-Nazism who dreamed of
3000-530: A request that the Directors Guild of America (DGA) refused. Kaye subsequently filed a $ 200 million lawsuit against DGA and New Line Cinema, although the case was dismissed in 2000. Kaye disowned the film, describing the released version, which was 24 minutes longer than his own cut, as a "total abuse of creativity" and "crammed with shots of everyone crying in each other's arms". Kaye's behavior caused Hollywood to view him as unemployable, and he did not watch
3120-401: A result, African-American principal and outreach worker Dr. Bob Sweeney forces him to study history directly under him through current events , "American History X," or be expelled. Danny must write a paper on his older brother Derek, Sweeney's former student and neo-Nazi leader, whose prison release is that day. Years earlier, Danny and Derek's firefighter father was shot and killed by
3240-416: A run time of 95 minutes, which was delivered on time and within budget. Although it generated a positive response from test screenings , New Line Cinema insisted on further edits to the film. Kaye was mortified, saying "I'm fully aware that I'm a first-time director, but I need the same autonomy and respect that Stanley Kubrick gets". Soon afterwards, Norton was involved with editing alongside Kaye, which
3360-831: A theatrical trailer. American History X premiered in Los Angeles on October 28, 1998, and on the same week in New York. It received a wider release in the United States on October 30. The film grossed $ 156,076 in 17 theaters during its opening weekend. The film went on to gross $ 6,719,864 from 513 theaters in the United States, for a worldwide total of $ 23,875,127. On Rotten Tomatoes , American History X has an approval rating of 84% based on 89 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, " American History X doesn't contend with its subject matter as fully as it could, but Edward Norton's performance gives this hard-hitting drama crucial weight." On Metacritic ,
3480-452: A tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident. When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu , the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over
3600-473: A wave of anti-immigration populism and concerns over British national decline. Televised exposes on This Week in 1974 and World in Action in 1978, showed their neo-Nazi pedigree and damaged their electoral chances. In 1967, Rockwell was killed by a disgruntled former member. Matthias Koehl took control of the ANP, and strongly influenced by Savitri Devi, gradually transformed it into an esoteric group known as
3720-648: Is Bosnian nationalism because it secures national prosperity and social justice..." The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13th SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia. The primary neo-Nazi political party to receive attention in post-WWII Bulgaria is the Bulgarian National Union – New Democracy . On 13 February of every year since 2003, Bulgarian neo-Nazis and like-minded far-right nationalists gather at Sofia to honor Hristo Lukov ,
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3840-535: Is a National Socialist movement in Armenia . It was founded in 2021 and supports Aryanism , Antisemitism, and White supremacy. A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network ( Blood and Honour ). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under
3960-516: Is considered a particular form of far-right politics and right-wing extremism. Neo-Nazi writers have posited a spiritual, esoteric doctrine of race , which moves beyond the primarily Darwinian -inspired materialist scientific racism popular mainly in the Anglosphere during the 20th century. Figures influential in the development of neo-Nazi racism, such as Miguel Serrano and Julius Evola (writers who are described by critics of Nazism such as
4080-486: Is entertaining as well", adding it was "also effective at demonstrating how hate is taught from one generation to another". He said Norton was an "immediate front-runner" for an Academy Award . Todd McCarthy , writing for Variety , gave the film a positive review stating "This jolting, superbly acted film will draw serious-minded upscale viewers interested in cutting-edge fare". He particularly praised Norton's performance, saying "His Derek mesmerizes even as he repels, and
4200-641: Is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division , which was composed of Bosniak volunteers. It proclaimed its main enemies to be "Jews, Roma , Serbian Chetniks , the Croatian separatists , Josip Broz Tito , Communists , homosexuals and blacks ". Its ideology is a mixture of Bosnian nationalism , National Socialism and white nationalism . It says "Ideologies that are not welcome in Bosnia are: Zionism, Islamism, communism, capitalism. The only ideology good for us
4320-623: The Cotswold Declaration . French socialite Françoise Dior was involved romantically with Jordan and his deputy John Tyndall and a friend of Savitri Devi, who also attended the meeting. The National Socialist Movement wore quasi-SA uniforms, was involved in streets conflicts with the Jewish 62 Group . In the 1970s, Tyndall's earlier involvement with neo-Nazism would come back to haunt the National Front , which he led, as they attempted to ride
4440-703: The Czech Republic strictly punishes neo-Nazism ( Czech : Neonacismus ). According to a report by the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic , neo-Nazis committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. The Czech Republic has various neo-Nazi groups. One of them is the group Wotan Jugend, based in Germany. The National Socialist Movement of Denmark was formed in 1991, and was formally a neo nazi party, that would actively promote
4560-562: The Greek Volunteer Guard ). Indeed, the revival of National Bolshevism was able to steal some of the thunder from overt Russian neo-Nazism, as ultra-nationalism was wedded with veneration of Joseph Stalin in place of Adolf Hitler, while still also flirting with Nazi aesthetics. Outside Germany, in other countries which were involved with the Axis powers and had their own native ultra-nationalist movements, which sometimes collaborated with
4680-535: The National Renaissance Party , including James H. Madole , H. Keith Thompson and Eustace Mullins ( protégé of Ezra Pound ) and the Liberty Lobby of Willis Carto . Rockwell, an American conservative, was first politicised in the anti-communism and anti- racial integration movements before becoming anti-Jewish. In response to his opponents calling him a "Nazi", he theatrically appropriated
4800-579: The National Socialist Movement of Denmark of Povl Riis-Knudsen and various German and Austrian figures who felt that the "National Democratic" parties were too bourgeois and insufficiently Nazi in orientation. This included Michael Kühnen , Christian Worch , Bela Ewald Althans and Gottfried Küssel of the 1977-founded ANS/NS which called for the establishment of a Germanic Fourth Reich . Some ANS/NS members were imprisoned for planning paramilitary attacks on NATO bases in Germany and planning to liberate Rudolf Hess from Spandau Prison . The organisation
4920-715: The New Order . In Franco's Spain , certain SS refugees most notably Otto Skorzeny , Léon Degrelle and the son of Klaus Barbie became associated with CEDADE ( Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa ), an organisation which disseminated Third Reich apologetics out of Barcelona . They intersected with neo-Nazi advocates from Mark Fredriksen in France to Salvador Borrego in Mexico. In the post-fascist Italian Social Movement splinter groups such as Ordine Nuovo and Avanguardia Nazionale , involved in
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5040-632: The Southern Poverty Law Center as influential within what it presents as parts of "the bizarre fringes of National Socialism, past and present"), claim that the Hyperborean ancestors of the Aryans were in the distant past, far higher beings than their current state, having suffered from "involution" due to mixing with the "Telluric" peoples; supposed creations of the Demiurge . Within this theory, if
5160-577: The World Jewish Congress on the international stage. Waldheim's record was defended by Bruno Kreisky , an Austrian Jew who served as Chancellor of Austria. The legacy of the affair lingers on, as Victor Ostrovsky has claimed the Mossad doctored the file of Waldheim to implicate him in war crimes. Some critics have sought to draw a connection between Nazism and modern right-wing populism in Europe, but
5280-804: The breakup of Yugoslavia . The split would largely be along ethnic and sectarian lines. The Germans and the French would largely back the Western Catholic Croats (Lauck's NSDAP/AO explicitly called for volunteers , which Kühnen's Free German Workers' Party answered and the French formed the "Groupe Jacques Doriot "), while the Russians and the Greeks would back the Orthodox Serbs (including Russians from Barkashov's Russian National Unity, Eduard Limonov 's National Bolshevik Front and Golden Dawn members joined
5400-501: The collapse of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s, neo-Nazism began to spread its ideas in the East, as hostility to the triumphant liberal order was high and revanchism a widespread feeling. In Russia, during the chaos of the early 1990s, an amorphous mixture of KGB hardliners, Orthodox neo-Tsarist nostalgics (i.e., Pamyat ) and explicit neo-Nazis found themselves strewn together in
5520-592: The communal shower . Derek is visited in the hospital wing by Sweeney, with whom he pleads for help to get out of prison. Sweeney rebukes him for wanting to avoid dealing with the consequences of his actions, revealing his own racist past and warning that Danny has joined the D.O.C. to follow in Derek's footsteps. After recovering and leaving the hospital wing, Derek publicly snubs the Aryan Brotherhood and Lamont warns that he will be murdered by African-American inmates as
5640-405: The white power skinhead and neo-Nazi movements. The older brother (Norton) serves three years in prison for voluntary manslaughter , is rehabilitated during this time, and then tries to prevent his brother (Furlong) from being indoctrinated further. The supporting cast includes Fairuza Balk , Stacy Keach , Elliott Gould , Avery Brooks , Ethan Suplee and Beverly D'Angelo . McKenna wrote
5760-463: The " Years of Lead " considered Nazism a reference. Franco Freda created a " Nazi-Maoism " synthesis. In Germany itself, the various Third Reich nostalgic movements coalesced around the National Democratic Party of Germany in 1964 and in Austria the National Democratic Party in 1967 as the primary sympathisers of the NSDAP past, although more publicly cautious than earlier groups. Holocaust denial ,
5880-578: The "Aryans" are to return to the Golden Age of the distant past, they need to awaken the memory of the blood. An extraterrestrial origin of the Hyperboreans is often claimed. These theories draw influence from Gnosticism and Tantrism , building on the work of the Ahnenerbe . Within this racist theory, Jews are held up as the antithesis of nobility, purity and beauty. Neo-Nazism generally aligns itself with
6000-415: The "weight or presence", but he eventually conceded. According to executive producer Steve Tisch , Norton's passion for the project was "contagious", and he even agreed to a pay cut of more than $ 500,000 from his usual $ 1 million fee, to be cast in the lead. McCaffrey also cast Edward Furlong for the role of Danny Vinyard. To prepare for the role, Norton increased his calorie intake and spent hours in
6120-564: The 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial , Frankfurt Auschwitz trials , Treblinka trials , Chełmno trials , and the Sobibór trial . However, the government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Neo-Nazism found expression outside of Germany, including in countries who fought against the Third Reich during
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#17331045461526240-772: The Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities. In 2003, Croatian penal code was amended with provisions prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial but the amendments were annulled in 2004 since they were not enacted in accordance with a constitutionally prescribed procedure. Nevertheless, since 2006 Croatian penal code explicitly prohibits any type of hate crime based on race , color , gender , sexual orientation , religion or national origin. There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as
6360-483: The Brotherhood no longer protects him. No attack ever comes, though, and, upon his release, Derek thanks Lamont for intervening on his behalf. Returning home, Derek finds Danny sporting a D.O.C. tattoo and becoming a skinhead . When Derek tries to persuade him to leave the gang, Danny feels betrayed. Derek's best friend Seth, also a D.O.C. member, frequently disrespects Derek's mother and sister while grooming Danny for
6480-507: The December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael , the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing to launch terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium . According to the journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances,
6600-548: The FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics. Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in
6720-550: The Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future , was killed in a traffic accident in October 2008. Barbara Rosenkranz , the Freedom Party's candidate in Austria's 2010 presidential election , was controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements. Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz , a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, who is known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities. The Armenian-Aryan Racialist Political Movement
6840-400: The Jews were created by the Demiurge and were concerned only with coarse materialism . Serrano claimed that a new Golden Age can be attained if the Hyperboreans repurify their blood (supposedly the light of the Black Sun) and restore their " blood-memory ." As with Savitri Devi before him, Serrano's works became a key point of reference in neo-Nazism. With the fall of the Berlin Wall and
6960-411: The National Front's Rock Against Communism project which was meant to counter the SWP 's Rock Against Racism . The most significant music group involved in this project was Skrewdriver , led by Ian Stuart Donaldson . Together with ex-BM member Nicky Crane , Donaldson founded the international Blood & Honour network in 1987. By 1992 this network, with input from Harold Covington , had developed
7080-419: The SRP favoured the Soviet Union over the United States. In Austria , national independence had been restored, and the Verbotsgesetz 1947 explicitly criminalised the NSDAP and any attempt at restoration. West Germany adopted a similar law to target parties it defined as anti-constitutional; Article 21 Paragraph 2 in the Basic Law , banning the SRP in 1952 for being opposed to liberal democracy . As
7200-432: The Second World War, and sometimes adopted pan-European or "universal" characteristics, beyond the parameters of German nationalism . The two main tendencies, with differing styles and even worldviews, were the followers of the American Francis Parker Yockey , who was fundamentally anti-American and advocated for a pan-European nationalism , and those of George Lincoln Rockwell , an American conservative . Yockey,
7320-589: The Third Reich but were not technically German-style National Socialists, revivalist and nostalgic movements have emerged in the post-war period which, as neo-Nazism has done in Germany, seek to rehabilitate their various loosely associated ideologies. These movements include neo-fascists and post-fascists in Italy; Vichyites, Pétainists and "national Europeans" in France; Ustaše sympathisers in Croatia ; neo- Chetniks in Serbia; Iron Guard revivalists in Romania ; Hungarists and Horthyists in Hungary and others. The most significant case on an international level
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#17331045461527440-466: The West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated due to Cold War hostilities). In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed Croatian Nobles Square , provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude towards the Holocaust . In 2000, the Zagreb City Council again renamed the square into Square of the Victims of Fascism . Many streets in Croatia were renamed after
7560-446: The actor fully exposes the human being behind the tough poses and attitudinizing". Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote "Though its story elements are all too easily reduced to a simple outline, American History X has enough fiery acting and provocative bombast to make its impact felt. For one thing, its willingness to take on ugly political realities gives it a substantial raison d'être . For another, it has been directed with
7680-434: The aesthetic elements of the NSDAP, to "own" the intended insult. In 1959, Rockwell founded the American Nazi Party and instructed his members to dress in imitation SA -style brown shirts, while flying the flag of the Third Reich. In contrast to Yockey, he was pro-American and cooperated with FBI requests, despite the party being targeted by COINTELPRO due to the mistaken belief that they were agents of Nasser's Egypt during
7800-403: The basketball court, attempt to steal his truck. When Danny alerts him, he kills two of them, one with a bullet and the other, by curb stomping him in front of Danny. He is arrested and sentenced to three years in the California Institution for Men for voluntary manslaughter . In prison, Derek joins the Aryan Brotherhood and befriends black inmate Lamont, who was assigned as his workmate in
7920-431: The behavior of Norton and the studio. At one point, Kaye brought a priest , a rabbi and a Buddhist monk to a meeting with producers while videotaping the entire encounter. When the company offered him an additional eight weeks to re-cut the film, Kaye said he had a "radical" new vision in mind, which he did not know when he would finish. He collaborated with Nobel Prize -winning poet Derek Walcott on new narration for
8040-423: The cast and crew. He welcomed visitors on set, including singer Courtney Love , Norton's girlfriend at the time, and British historian John Richardson . Kaye would arrive for work in a Lincoln Town Car with a chauffeur , and a license plate that read "JEWISH". He carried four cell phones and a fax machine , and during the Passover holidays, Kaye had boxes of matzo delivered to the set. He also discovered at
8160-507: The characters as realistic as possible, McKenna interviewed and observed the behavior of skinheads during the writing process. He said "I had seen documentaries that just didn't ring true to me, and I wanted to write an accurate portrayal of how good kids from good families can get so terribly lost". Producer John Morrissey, who read the script three years prior, was impressed by the script's intense characters and dialogue. Michael De Luca , then-production president of New Line Cinema, said "I
8280-586: The claim that six million Jews were not deliberately and systematically exterminated as an official policy of the Third Reich and Adolf Hitler, became a more prominent feature of neo-Nazism in the 1970s. Before this time, Holocaust denial had long existed as a sentiment among neo-Nazis, but it had not yet been systematically articulated as a theory with a bibliographical canon. Few of the major theorists of Holocaust denial (who call themselves " revisionists ") can be uncontroversially classified as outright neo-Nazis (though some works such as those of David Irving forward
8400-433: The dialogue is surprisingly stilted. Far worse, the ending is a misfire". However, he complimented Norton's performance. Stephen Hunter , writing for The Washington Post , was highly critical of the film and gave it a negative review, calling it "an old melodramatic formula hidden under pretentious TV-commercial-slick photography". Michael O'Sullivan wrote "There are moments when Anne Dudley's string-laden score overpowers
8520-407: The early days of neo-Nazism, he had been in contact with key figures across Europe and beyond. Despite this, he was able to work as an ambassador to numerous countries until the rise of Salvador Allende . In 1984 he published his book Adolf Hitler: The Ultimate Avatar . Serrano claimed that the Aryans were extragalactic beings who founded Hyperborea and lived the heroic life of Bodhisattvas , while
8640-486: The edge of a bar for making lewd comments to his daughter . WWE professional wrestler Seth Rollins used a curb stomp as his finishing move. Rollins said that he stopped using the move as "from a PR standpoint ... it was too perceptually violent ... I never hurt anyone with it. It was just something we didn't want kids trying on each other". On the January 15, 2018, edition of Monday Night Raw , Rollins brought
8760-648: The extremists of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse . A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border, Kleine-Brogel, Peer , Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem ) as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders . They found weapons, munitions, explosives and
8880-498: The film "feels more essential now that it ever has". Clayton Schuster of Vice drew comparisons between the film and both the racial rhetoric of Donald Trump and real life atrocities; the murders of nine African-Americans in a Charleston church in 2015, a far-right march in Charlottesville, Virginia in 2017, and a year later, a mass shooting in a Pittsburgh synagogue . He argues that these violent acts are no different to
9000-510: The film "riveting", and praised the narrative structure despite "thinness of the script". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle expressed disappointment with the picture. LaSalle felt that while it succeeded in portraying Derek's descent into neo-Nazism, it failed to portray his renouncement of his past beliefs, "We had to watch him think his way in. We should see him think his way out". LaSalle also noted that "In some places
9120-486: The film 311th in a list of the 500 greatest movies of all time. In 2008, Norton's performance was ranked by Total Film as the 72nd greatest film performance of all time. Although director Kaye did not watch the film until 2007, he has acknowledged that it has become "quite a little classic in its own befuddled way". In 2012, he said that he was "very proud of what we all achieved". For its 20th anniversary, Christopher Hooton writing for The Independent opined that
9240-474: The film dramatically demonstrates both the subtle and overt roots of racism while also showing the possibility for redemption". Joaquin Phoenix was offered the role of Derek Vinyard, but he was not interested. After holding casting calls, Kaye was unable to find a suitable actor for the lead role, but casting director Valerie McCaffrey suggested Edward Norton. Kaye initially objected, feeling that Norton lacked
9360-475: The film has a weighted score of 62 out of 100 based on 32 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A" on scale of A to F. Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune , gave American History X four out of four stars, describing it as "a shockingly powerful screed against racism that also manages to be so well performed and directed that it
9480-480: The film until June 2007. He later admitted that "My ego got in the way. That was entirely my fault. [...] Whenever I can, I take the opportunity to apologize". He did not direct another film until 2006's Lake of Fire . The film was released by New Line Home Video on DVD on April 6, 1999, on laserdisc on April 13, and on VHS on August 24 of the same year. The film was later released on Blu-ray on April 7, 2009, including seven minutes of deleted scenes and
9600-405: The film, and wanted the music to be "big and elegiac". She employed a full orchestra and a boys' choir, and decided against using hip-hop sounds. She said, "The neo-Nazi faction is personified in the music by a boys choir – what could be a more Aryan sound? ... A calming string orchestra instead provides a much more expressive and timeless palette". Kaye's original cut of the finished film had
9720-435: The film. American History X was due to premiere at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival , but Kaye requested that organizer Piers Handling withdraw the film. On July 28, 1998, after the eight week deadline, Kaye had nothing new to show and the studio announced that it would release Norton's cut. Kaye attempted to remove his name from the film credits, applying for various pseudonyms , including " Humpty Dumpty ",
9840-559: The film] were varied. Some people thought that this was only an extreme case, that this kind of group was very marginal and that there could be no equivalent in France", she said. In response to the French screening, Sébastien Homer of L'Humanité wrote, " Police violence , the Rodney King affair, unsanitary prisons, ill-treatment, rejection of asylum seekers , the United States has still not assimilated what human rights, freedom, equality meant". In September 1999, Empire magazine ranked
9960-574: The government and the two main political parties (the conservative CDU/CSU and the Nazis' one-time archenemies, the Social Democratic Party ) Many bureaucrats who served under the Third Reich continued to serve in German administration after the war. According to the Simon Wiesenthal Center , many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer . Not until
10080-465: The group; Cameron controls Seth and Danny closely. At a D.O.C. compound party, Derek confronts Cameron for using, then abandoning him for three years. He declares his departure from the group and refusal to allow them to use Danny similarly. When mocked, Derek brutally beats Cameron. Seth and the others, including Derek's ex-girlfriend Stacey, attack Derek. Seth pulls a gun, but Derek easily disarms him and holds everyone at gunpoint before fleeing, tossing
10200-413: The gun into a nearby bin. Danny finds Derek and angrily confronts him over his actions. So, Derek tells him about his experience in prison, which seems to prompt a change in him. They return home and remove racist posters from their shared bedroom. The next morning, Danny completes his paper, reflecting on why he adopted neo-Nazi values from Derek, who most likely adopted them from their father, as shown in
10320-413: The gym to gain 25 pounds (11 kg) of muscle. I was attracted to the complexity of the role. This character travels so far within the course of the film. By the end, he's completely humanized and the audience might even be sympathetic, or at least, empathetic towards him. Derek is very much a guy whose anger and rage have superseded his intelligence. They have paralyzed his boundless potential. I liked
10440-450: The hate represented in the movie, adding, "White supremacy has existed for centuries. It's lurked on the fringes of American power since the birth of this nation". He added "there is at least one notable difference ... The movie portrays skinheads as visually different ... They're suited up in boots with red laces, heads gleaming from a fresh shave, and tatted with Nazi insignia and racist slogans. White supremacists today have largely adopted
10560-499: The ideology of Nazism in whole or in part. The term 'neo-Nazism' can also refer to the ideology of these movements, which may borrow elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism , anti-communism , racism, ableism , xenophobia , homophobia , antisemitism , up to initiating the Fourth Reich . Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler . Neo-Nazism
10680-517: The length of certain scenes such as a family argument, Norton's anti-immigration speech, and a flashback where Norton's father is criticizing a teacher. Subsequently, the studio compromised and gave Kaye an extra eight weeks to edit and submit a new cut of the film. During this period, Kaye took a number of combative actions. He spent $ 100,000 on cryptic advertisements in the Hollywood press that quoted John Lennon and Abraham Lincoln , and condemned
10800-432: The local ball courts. Later, he organizes an attack on an Asian-owned supermarket employing black people and illegal immigrants. Derek's mother Doris invites Murray, her then boyfriend, to dinner where an argument about Rodney King and the 1992 Los Angeles riots ensues. Derek assaults his sister Davina and openly berates Murray, causing Doris to banish Derek. That night, several Crips members, whom Derek had defeated on
10920-665: The move back, now referred to simply as a "stomp". In series one, episode eight of the TV show 'Your Honor', a witness claims Carlo Batter bit the curb and gave him a reality check. In the movie Brawl in Cell Block 99 , an assault resembling a curb stomp takes place. American History X American History X is a 1998 American crime drama film directed by Tony Kaye (in his feature directorial debut ) and written by David McKenna . The film stars Edward Norton and Edward Furlong as two brothers from Los Angeles who are involved in
11040-525: The nazi ideology in Denmark. The party did not gain any political influence, and were regarded as a failed political project by neo nazi expert Frede Farmand. Long time party leader Johnni Hansen was replaced by Esben Rohde Kristensen in 2010, which resulted in a large amount of party members leaving the party. While the party never has been formally dissolved, there has been very little activity from its core member since 2010. Former neo nazi Daniel Carlsen formed
11160-459: The new reality and had no interest in constructing a "neo-Nazism". However, during the 1949 West German elections a number of Nazi advocates such as Fritz Rössler had infiltrated the national conservative Deutsche Rechtspartei , which had five members elected. Rössler and others left to found the more radical Socialist Reich Party (SRP) under Otto Ernst Remer . At the onset of the Cold War ,
11280-520: The polar ice caps. With the onset of the Cold War , the allied forces had lost interest in prosecuting anyone as part of the denazification. In the mid-1950s this new political environment allowed Otto Strasser , an NS activist on the left of the NSDAP, who had founded the Black Front to return from exile. In 1956, Strasser founded the German Social Union as a Black Front successor, promoting
11400-624: The post- World War II militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate Nazi ideology . Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and racial supremacy (often white supremacy ), to attack racial and ethnic minorities (often antisemitism and Islamophobia ), and in some cases to create a fascist state . Neo-Nazism is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries and international networks. It borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including antisemitism, ultranationalism , racism , xenophobia , ableism , homophobia , anti-communism , and creating
11520-670: The previous two years. In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols . The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities. The neo-Nazi terrorist organization Feuerkrieg Division
11640-487: The prison laundry. Disillusioned by prison gang politics, Derek learns the Aryan Brotherhood is buying drugs from the Mexican Mafia and then selling to other White inmates. Derek realizes they are a criminal gang using Neo-Nazism and white supremacy as a façade and he loses his belief even further when nobody from the D.O.C. visits him. He ultimately abandons the Aryan Brotherhood, who then beat and gang rape him in
11760-513: The prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak , which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent. A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić " was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of
11880-613: The radicalisation of the Vlaamse Militanten Orde under former Hitler Youth member Bert Eriksson . They began hosting an annual conference; the "Iron Pilgrimage"; at Diksmuide , which drew kindred ideologues from across Europe and beyond. As well as this, the NSDAP/AO under Gary Lauck arose in the United States in 1972 and challenged the international influence of the Rockwellite WUNS. Lauck's organisation drew support from
12000-641: The ruling party, Nazism, was in complete disarray. The final leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) was Martin Bormann . He died on 2 May 1945 during the Battle of Berlin , but the Soviet Union did not reveal his death to the rest of the world, and his ultimate fate remained a mystery for many years. Conspiracy theories emerged about Hitler himself , that he had secretly survived
12120-483: The same camp. They were united by opposition to the influence of the United States, against the liberalising legacy of Mikhail Gorbachev 's perestroika and on the Jewish question , Soviet Zionology merged with a more explicit anti-Jewish sentiment. The most significant organisation representing this was Russian National Unity under the leadership of Alexander Barkashov , where black-uniform clad Russians marched with
12240-468: The script based on his own childhood and experiences of growing up in San Diego. He sold the script to New Line Cinema , which was impressed by the writing. American History X was Kaye's first directorial role in a feature film. Budgeted at $ 20 million, filming took place in 1997. Before the film's release, Kaye and the film studio were in disagreements about the final cut of the film, which Norton had played
12360-448: The small national party Party of the Danes in 2011, which officially rejected nazism, but were none the less categorized as such by professor in politics Peter Nedergaard. It was dissolved in 2017 after its founder Daniel Stockholm announced retirement from politics. In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg , Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from
12480-402: The stark simplicity of the film's message and other times when the moral of brotherly love is hammered a bit heavily", but conceded "the blunt and brutal American History X is ultimately only as imperfect as we ourselves are". Edward Norton was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Derek Vinyard, but lost to Roberto Benigni for Life Is Beautiful . Norton's loss
12600-468: The time a newsletter published by a British political group, the National Front , which said he was a prominent Jew who supposedly controlled Britain's media. Both Furlong and Ethan Suplee found taking on their roles that had hateful views to be uncomfortable. Furlong said "It's pretty intense, having to say this incredibly hateful stuff". The actors had "white power " tattoos painted on their arms, which Suplee forgot to remove one day after filming, and
12720-410: The traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and it does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger , which involves nationalism , xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism. Haider, who in 2005 left
12840-464: The transformation that he goes through as his intelligence reasserts itself over his anger. Principal photography took place in Los Angeles and Venice Beach, lasting for several months and finishing in May 1997. Kaye served as cinematographer and camera operator , and would often silently walk around the set, scouting for camera angles or visuals. During filming, Kaye established a casual environment for
12960-478: The two are not widely regarded as interchangeable by most academics. In Austria, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism , calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election ,
13080-458: The use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("[Hang] Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti. During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other at the time suspected war criminals (all acquitted in 2012) have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić. On 17 May 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson ,
13200-489: The war and fled to South America or elsewhere. The Allied Control Council officially dissolved the NSDAP on 10 October 1945, marking the end of "Old" Nazism. A process of denazification began, and the Nuremberg trials took place, where many major leaders and ideologues were condemned to death by October 1946, others committed suicide. In both the East and West, surviving ex-party members and military veterans assimilated to
13320-443: Was a difficult experience for the pair. At one point, Kaye punched a wall which resulted in stitches to his hand. In June 1998, the film studio test-screened a second cut of the film which included changes made by Norton. The studio tried to persuade Kaye to release Norton's cut, but he objected. Although the differences between the two cuts are disputed, Kaye objected to an additional 18 minutes of footage, and they disagreed with
13440-598: Was a proponent of Esoteric Nazism . In the 1950s she wrote a number of books, such as Pilgrimage (1958), which concerns prominent Third Reich sites, and The Lightning and the Sun (1958), in which she claims that Adolf Hitler was an avatar of the God Vishnu . She was not alone in this reorientation of Nazism towards its Thulean -roots; the Artgemeinschaft , founded by former SS member Wilhelm Kusserow, attempted to promote
13560-455: Was also fond of Arab nationalism , in particular Gamal Abdel Nasser , and saw Fidel Castro 's Cuban Revolution as a positive, visiting officials there. Yockey's views impressed Otto Ernst Remer and the radical traditionalist philosopher Julius Evola . He was constantly hounded by the FBI and was eventually arrested in 1960, before committing suicide. Domestically, Yockey's biggest sympathisers were
13680-487: Was confronted by a man in a convenience store. Norton recalls "Doing that film created the strangest distortion of perception on me ... the degree to which that film and the magic of camera and art and black and white photography ... made a lot of people think that I was a larger and tougher person than I am". The flashback scenes were edited to be in black-and-white, whereas the present-day scenes were edited to be in color. Kaye hired British composer Anne Dudley to score
13800-554: Was critically praised, with Norton and Furlong's performances and the film's message drawing acclaim. Norton received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . The film has also been used for educational purposes in the United States and in other countries. A follow-up, African History Y , with Kaye returning as director and starring Djimon Hounsou , was in active development as of 2020. Danny Vinyard antagonizes his Jewish history teacher Murray by writing an essay on Mein Kampf . As
13920-400: Was included on Empire 's list of "22 Incredibly Shocking Oscars Injustices". In 1999, Amnesty International USA used American History X for an educational campaign, screening the film in colleges and in nationwide events for raising awareness on human rights. Zara Toussaint, of Amnesty International in France, organized screenings in her country followed by debates. "The reactions [to
14040-406: Was intrigued by its intensity, conviction and brutal honesty. There was a brilliant character study woven into the screenplay, and I knew we had something special if we did it correctly". In 1996, the producers first approached Dennis Hopper to direct the film. Hopper turned down the offer, Larry Clark was approached to direct the film, but turned it down due to a scheduling conflict, Tony Kaye
14160-509: Was officially banned in 1983 by the Minister of the Interior. During the late 1970s, a British subculture came to be associated with neo-Nazism; the skinheads . Portraying an ultra-masculine, crude and aggressive image, with working-class references, some of the skinheads joined the British Movement under Michael McLaughlin (successor of Colin Jordan ), while others became associated with
14280-819: Was the election of Kurt Waldheim to the Presidency of Austria in 1986. It came to light that Waldheim had been a member of the National Socialist German Students' League , the SA and served as an intelligence officer during the Second World War. Following this he served as an Austrian diplomat and was the Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 until 1981. After revelations of Waldheim's past were made by an Austrian journalist, Waldheim clashed with
14400-432: Was then approached to direct. Kaye, who had been De Luca's preferred choice from the beginning, accepted and made his directorial debut in a feature film on American History X . He took the contract to a synagogue , "I signed it in front of the rabbi. I thought it would make it good", Kaye said. After the film was released, De Luca stated "It's everything I had hoped for. The performances are explosive and frightening, and
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