101-653: Cray Inc. , a subsidiary of Hewlett Packard Enterprise , is an American supercomputer manufacturer headquartered in Seattle, Washington . It also manufactures systems for data storage and analytics. Several Cray supercomputer systems are listed in the TOP500 , which ranks the most powerful supercomputers in the world. In 1972, the company was founded by computer designer Seymour Cray as Cray Research, Inc., and it continues to manufacture parts in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin , where Cray
202-567: A Formula Translating System , and printed the name with small caps , Fortran . Other sources suggest the name stands for Formula Translator , or Formula Translation . Early IBM computers did not support lowercase letters, and the names of versions of the language through FORTRAN 77 were usually spelled in all- uppercase . FORTRAN 77 was the last version in which the Fortran character set included only uppercase letters. The official language standards for Fortran have referred to
303-663: A Lustre file system . In 2011, Cray launched the OpenACC parallel programming standard organization. In 2019, Cray announced that it was deprecating OpenACC , and will support OpenMP . However, in 2022, the Cray Fortran compiler still supported OpenACC, in part due to its usage in the ICON climate simulation code. In April 2012, Cray announced the sale of its interconnect hardware development program and related intellectual property to Intel for $ 140 million. On November 9, 2012, Cray announced
404-490: A high-level programming language replacement. John Backus said during a 1979 interview with Think , the IBM employee magazine, "Much of my work has come from being lazy. I didn't like writing programs, and so, when I was working on the IBM 701 , writing programs for computing missile trajectories, I started work on a programming system to make it easier to write programs." The language
505-438: A hybrid cloud service called GreenLake Hybrid Cloud, built on top of HPE's OneSphere cloud management SaaS console, offered under its brand HPE GreenLake. GreenLake is designed to provide cloud management, cost control, and compliance control capabilities, and will run on AWS and Microsoft Azure . GreenLake includes cloud data services for containers, machine learning, storage, compute, data protection and networking through
606-453: A "spin-merge" with Micro Focus , who would acquire HPE's "non-core" software (which included the HP Autonomy unit), and HPE shareholders would own 50.1 percent of the merged company, which would retain its current name. The merger concluded on September 1, 2017. In November 2016, PC World wrote that "HPE, and before it, Hewlett-Packard, failed to develop middleware tools to really make
707-496: A card reader to be compiled. Punched card codes included no lower-case letters or many special characters, and special versions of the IBM 026 keypunch were offered that would correctly print the re-purposed special characters used in FORTRAN. Reflecting punched card input practice, Fortran programs were originally written in a fixed-column format, with the first 72 columns read into twelve 36-bit words. A letter "C" in column 1 caused
808-507: A character data type (Fortran 77), structured programming , array programming , modular programming , generic programming (Fortran 90), parallel computing ( Fortran 95 ), object-oriented programming (Fortran 2003), and concurrent programming (Fortran 2008). Since April 2024, Fortran has ranked among the top ten languages in the TIOBE index , a measure of the popularity of programming languages. The first manual for FORTRAN describes it as
909-661: A commercialized version of Red Storm, similar in many respects to the earlier T3E architecture, but, like the XD1, using AMD Opteron processors. On August 8, 2005, Peter Ungaro was appointed CEO. Ungaro had joined Cray in August 2003 as Vice President of Sales and Marketing and had been made Cray's President in March 2005. Introduced in 2006, the Cray XT4 added support for DDR2 memory, newer dual-core and future quad-core Opteron processors and utilized
1010-577: A computer, an idea developed by J. Halcombe Laning and demonstrated in the Laning and Zierler system of 1952. A draft specification for The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System was completed by November 1954. The first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957. Fortran produced efficient enough code for assembly language programmers to accept
1111-439: A cyber attack." In November 2017, Meg Whitman announced that she would be stepping down as CEO, after six years at the helm of HP and HPE, stating that, on February 1, 2018, Antonio Neri would officially become HPE's president and chief executive officer. The announcement created controversy leading to a 6% drop in stock price, which quickly recovered during the next few days. In June 2018, Hewlett Packard Enterprise launched
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#17328484465741212-452: A de facto standard), and Basic FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN II, but stripped of its machine-dependent features). The FORTRAN defined by the first standard, officially denoted X3.9-1966, became known as FORTRAN 66 (although many continued to term it FORTRAN IV, the language on which the standard was largely based). FORTRAN 66 effectively became the first industry-standard version of FORTRAN. FORTRAN 66 included: The above Fortran II version of
1313-556: A dent in the software market, where other companies like IBM , SAP , and Oracle are excelling," and that "without major software product lines, HPE's integrated offerings won't be as strong as competitors like Dell, which have the software and hardware assets", adding that "If all HPE is doing at this point is focusing largely on hardware, you have to ask what the end game here is." In September 2016, Hewlett Packard Enterprise transferred two patents to Texas-based wholly owned shell company Plectrum LLC. These two patents were originated at
1414-470: A limit of six characters in FORTRAN II. If A, B, and C cannot represent the sides of a triangle in plane geometry, then the program's execution will end with an error code of "STOP 1". Otherwise, an output line will be printed showing the input values for A, B, and C, followed by the computed AREA of the triangle as a floating-point number occupying ten spaces along the line of output and showing 2 digits after
1515-465: A management portal called GreenLake Central. In February 2019, Meg Whitman announced she would not be seeking re-election to the board of directors, ending her professional involvement in HPE. In May 2019, Hewlett Packard Enterprise announced plans to acquire Cray Inc for US$ 35 per share. The announcement came soon after Cray had landed a US$ 600 million US Department of Energy contract to supply
1616-413: A number of significant features to address many of the shortcomings of FORTRAN 66: In this revision of the standard, a number of features were removed or altered in a manner that might invalidate formerly standard-conforming programs. (Removal was the only allowable alternative to X3J3 at that time, since the concept of " deprecation " was not yet available for ANSI standards.) While most of the 24 items in
1717-411: A problem. IBM's FORTRAN II appeared in 1958. The main enhancement was to support procedural programming by allowing user-written subroutines and functions which returned values with parameters passed by reference . The COMMON statement provided a way for subroutines to access common (or global ) variables. Six new statements were introduced: Over the next few years, FORTRAN II added support for
1818-439: A program deck and add sequence numbers. Some early compilers, e.g., the IBM 650's, had additional restrictions due to limitations on their card readers. Keypunches could be programmed to tab to column 7 and skip out after column 72. Later compilers relaxed most fixed-format restrictions, and the requirement was eliminated in the Fortran 90 standard. Within the statement field, whitespace characters (blanks) were ignored outside
1919-615: A second generation SeaStar2 communication coprocessor. It also included an option for FPGA chips to be plugged directly into processor sockets, unlike the Cray XD1, which required a dedicated socket for the FPGA coprocessor. On November 13, 2006, Cray announced a new system, the Cray XMT , based on the MTA series of machines. This system combined multi-threaded processors, as used on the original Tera systems, and
2020-409: A simple means for FORTRAN 77 programmers to issue POSIX system calls. Over 100 calls were defined in the document – allowing access to POSIX-compatible process control, signal handling, file system control, device control, procedure pointing, and stream I/O in a portable manner. The much-delayed successor to FORTRAN 77, informally known as Fortran 90 (and prior to that, Fortran 8X ),
2121-456: A simplified, interpreted version of FORTRAN I (with only 12 statements not 32) for "load and go" operation was available (at least for the early IBM 1620 computer). Modern Fortran, and almost all later versions, are fully compiled, as done for other high-performance languages. The development of Fortran paralleled the early evolution of compiler technology , and many advances in the theory and design of compilers were specifically motivated by
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#17328484465742222-513: A single system. In April 2008, Cray and Intel announced they would collaborate on future supercomputer systems. This partnership produced the Cray CX1 system, launched in September the same year. This was a deskside blade server system, comprising up to 16 dual- or quad-core Intel Xeon processors, with either Microsoft Windows HPC Server 2008 or Red Hat Enterprise Linux installed. By 2009,
2323-487: A stack is maintained by software and the return address is stored on the stack before the call is made and restored after the call returns. Although not specified in FORTRAN 77, many F77 compilers supported recursion as an option, and the Burroughs mainframes , designed with recursion built-in, did so by default. It became a standard in Fortran 90 via the new keyword RECURSIVE. This program, for Heron's formula , reads data on
2424-455: A string of successful products that eventually revitalized Cray in supercomputing. Red Storm had processors clustered in 96 unit cabinets, a theoretical maximum of 300 cabinets in a machine, and a design speed of 41.5 teraflops. Red Storm also included an innovative new design for network interconnects, which was dubbed SeaStar and destined to be the centerpiece of succeeding innovations by Cray. The Cray XT3 massively parallel supercomputer became
2525-432: A tape reel containing three 5-digit integers A, B, and C as input. There are no "type" declarations available: variables whose name starts with I, J, K, L, M, or N are "fixed-point" (i.e. integers), otherwise floating-point. Since integers are to be processed in this example, the names of the variables start with the letter "I". The name of a variable must start with a letter and can continue with both letters and digits, up to
2626-414: A text literal. This allowed omitting spaces between tokens for brevity or including spaces within identifiers for clarity. For example, AVG OF X was a valid identifier, equivalent to AVGOFX , and 101010 DO101I = 1 , 101 was a valid statement, equivalent to 10101 DO 101 I = 1 , 101 because the zero in column 6 is treated as if it were a space (!), while 101010 DO101I = 1.101
2727-491: Is a popular language for high-performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers . Fortran has evolved through numerous versions and dialects. In 1966, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed a standard for Fortran to limit proliferation of compilers using slightly different syntax. Successive versions have added support for
2828-788: Is aligned with the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. Fortran Fortran ( / ˈ f ɔːr t r æ n / ; formerly FORTRAN ) is a third generation , compiled , imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing . Fortran was originally developed by IBM . It first compiled correctly in 1958. Fortran computer programs have been written to support scientific and engineering applications, such as numerical weather prediction , finite element analysis , computational fluid dynamics , plasma physics , geophysics , computational physics , crystallography and computational chemistry . It
2929-419: Is determined by a random number generator suitably weighted according to whatever FREQUENCY statements have been provided. The first FORTRAN compiler reported diagnostic information by halting the program when an error was found and outputting an error code on its console. That code could be looked up by the programmer in an error messages table in the operator's manual, providing them with a brief description of
3030-688: Is in Houston , in a limited purpose annexation area. CEO Antonio Neri announced in 2019 that he expects all products to be sold 'as a service' by 2022 via HPE Greenlake. Note: Aruba Networks was acquired by the Hewlett-Packard Company before demerger and was inducted into Hewlett Packard Enterprise while demerging. HPE reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 30 September 2020 at 343 Kt (-48 /-12.4% y-o-y). The company commits to reduce emissions by 55% by 2025 from 2016 base year, and this science-based target
3131-501: Is to prepare for section 5 a table of predecessors (PRED table) which enumerates the basic blocks and lists for every basic block each of the basic blocks which can be its immediate predecessor in flow, together with the absolute frequency of each such basic block link. This table is obtained by running the program once in Monte-Carlo fashion, in which the outcome of conditional transfers arising out of IF-type statements and computed GO TO's
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3232-487: The DOUBLE PRECISION and COMPLEX data types. Early FORTRAN compilers supported no recursion in subroutines. Early computer architectures supported no concept of a stack, and when they did directly support subroutine calls, the return location was often stored in one fixed location adjacent to the subroutine code (e.g. the IBM 1130 ) or a specific machine register ( IBM 360 et seq ), which only allows recursion if
3333-576: The Cray CX1000 , a rack-mounted system with a choice of compute-based, GPU-based, or SMP-based chassis. The CX1 and CX1000 product lines were sold until late 2011. In 2011, Cray announced the Cray XK6 hybrid supercomputer. The Cray XK6 system, capable of scaling to 500,000 processors and 50 petaflops of peak performance, combines Cray's Gemini interconnect, AMD's multi-core scalar processors, and Nvidia 's Tesla GPGPU processors. In October 2012 Cray announced
3434-563: The Cray S-MP , later replacing it with the Cray CS6400 . In spite of these machines being some of the most powerful available when applied to appropriate workloads, Cray was never very successful in this market, possibly due to it being so foreign to its existing market niche. CCC was building the Cray-3/SSS when it went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy in March 1995. In February 1996, Cray Research
3535-675: The Cray SV1 , was launched. This was a clustered SMP vector processor architecture, developed from J90 technology. On March 2, 2000, Cray was sold to Tera Computer Company , which was renamed Cray Inc. After the Tera merger, the Tera MTA system was relaunched as the Cray MTA-2 . This was not a commercial success and shipped to only two customers. Cray Inc. also unsuccessfully badged the NEC SX-6 supercomputer as
3636-721: The Cray X-MP . After Chen's departure, the Cray Y-MP , Cray C90 and Cray T90 were developed on the original Cray-1 architecture but achieved much greater performance via multiple additional processors, faster clocks, and wider vector pipes. The uncertainty of the Cray-2 project gave rise to a number of Cray-object-code compatible "Crayette" firms: Scientific Computer Systems (SCS), American Supercomputer, Supertek , and perhaps one other firm. These firms did not intend to compete against Cray and therefore attempted less expensive, slower CMOS versions of
3737-701: The Cray XK7 which supports the Nvidia Kepler GPGPU and announced that the ORNL Jaguar system would be upgraded to an XK7 (renamed Titan ) and capable of over 20 petaflops. Titan was the world's fastest supercomputer as measured by the LINPACK benchmark until the introduction of the Tianhe-2 in 2013, which is substantially faster. In 2011 Cray also announced it had been awarded the $ 188 million Blue Waters contract with
3838-551: The ERA 1103 . ERA eventually became part of UNIVAC , and began to be phased out. In 1960, he left the company, a few years after former ERA employees set up Control Data Corporation (CDC). He initially worked out of the CDC headquarters in Minneapolis, but grew upset by constant interruptions by managers. He eventually set up a lab in his hometown of Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin , about 85 miles to
3939-463: The Frontier supercomputer to Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 2021. The acquisition was completed in September 2019 in a transaction valued at approximately US$ 1.4 billion . In December 2020, Hewlett Packard Enterprise disclosed it is relocating its corporate headquarters from San Jose, California to Spring, Texas , a northern suburb of Houston. As of December 2021, HPE headquarters remain at
4040-486: The IBM 7030 ("Stretch") computer, followed by versions for the IBM 7090 , IBM 7094 , and later for the IBM 1401 in 1966. By 1965, FORTRAN IV was supposed to be compliant with the standard being developed by the American Standards Association X3.4.3 FORTRAN Working Group. Between 1966 and 1968, IBM offered several FORTRAN IV compilers for its System/360 , each named by letters that indicated
4141-569: The Rainier Project , used a common interconnect network (SeaStar2), programming environment, cabinet design, and I/O subsystem. These systems included the existing XT4 and the XMT. The second generation, launched as the XT5h , allowed a system to combine compute elements of various types into a common system, sharing infrastructure. The XT5h combined Opteron, vector, multithreaded, and FPGA compute processors in
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4242-689: The United States Department of Energy 's fastest-computer-in-the-world project to build a 50 tera Flops machine for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory . Cray was sued in 2002 by Isothermal Systems Research for patent infringement. The suit claimed that Cray used ISR's patented technology in the development of the Cray X1. The lawsuit was settled in 2003. As of November 2004, the Cray X1 had a maximum measured performance of 5.9 teraflops, being
4343-545: The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign , after IBM had pulled out of the delivery. This system was delivered in 2012 and was the largest system to date, in terms of cabinets and general-purpose x86 processors, that Cray had ever delivered. In November 2011, the Cray Sonexion 1300 Data Storage System was introduced and signaled Cray's entry into the high performance storage business. This product used modular technology and
4444-462: The 1980s high performance market. At first, Cray Research denigrated such approaches by complaining that developing software to effectively use the machines was difficult – a true complaint in the era of the ILLIAC IV , but becoming less so each day. Cray eventually realized that the approach was likely the only way forward and started a five-year project to capture the lead in this area: the plan's result
4545-840: The 29th fastest supercomputer in the world. Since then the X1 has been superseded by the X1E, with faster dual-core processors. On October 4, 2004, the company announced the Cray XD1 range of entry-level supercomputers which use dual-core 64-bit Advanced Micro Devices Opteron central processing units running Linux . This system was previously known as the OctigaBay 12K before Cray's acquisition of that company. The XD1 provided one Xilinx Virtex II Pro field-programmable gate array ( FPGA ) with each node of four Opteron processors. The FPGAs could be configured to embody various digital hardware designs and could augment
4646-674: The 3Com Corporation, which was bought by HP in 2010, along with about 1,400 patents. On April 11, 2017, it was reported that Synack had raised US$ 21 million in a round of funding that included Hewlett Packard Enterprise. In January 2017, the company acquired data management platform SimpliVity, the developer of the OmniCube hyper-converged infrastructure appliance, for US$ 650M. In April 2017, Hewlett Packard Enterprise completed its acquisition of hybrid flash and all flash manufacturer, Nimble Storage Inc , for US$ 1.2 billion or US$ 12.50 per share. In October, Reuters reported that
4747-646: The Cray SX-6 and acquired exclusive rights to sell the SX-6 in the US, Canada, and Mexico. In 2002, Cray Inc. announced its first new model, the Cray X1 combined architecture vector processor / massively parallel supercomputer. Previously known as the SV2 , the X1 is the result of the earlier SN2 concept originated during the SGI years. In May 2004, Cray was announced to be one of the partners in
4848-508: The HPE business remained at HPE including technology services support and consulting as well as software professional services. In August 2016, the company announced plans to acquire Silicon Graphics International (SGI), known for their capabilities in high performance computing. On November 1, 2016, HPE announced it completed the acquisition, for US$ 7.75 per share in cash, a transaction valued at approximately US$ 275 million , net of cash and debt. On September 7, 2016, HPE announced
4949-508: The Heron program needs several modifications to compile as a Fortran 66 program. Modifications include using the more machine independent versions of the READ and WRITE statements, and removal of the unneeded FLOATF type conversion functions. Though not required, the arithmetic IF statements can be re-written to use logical IF statements and expressions in a more structured fashion. After
5050-566: The Hollerith edit descriptors in the FORMAT statements with quoted strings. It also uses structured IF and END IF statements, rather than GOTO / CONTINUE . The development of a revised standard to succeed FORTRAN 77 would be repeatedly delayed as the standardization process struggled to keep up with rapid changes in computing and programming practice. In the meantime, as the "Standard FORTRAN" for nearly fifteen years, FORTRAN 77 would become
5151-626: The S-1 as the Cray XMS , but the machine proved problematic; meanwhile, the not-yet-completed S-2, a Y-MP clone, was later offered as the Cray Y-MP (later becoming the Cray EL90 ) which started to sell in reasonable numbers in 1991–92—to mostly smaller companies, notably in the oil exploration business. This line evolved into the Cray J90 and eventually the Cray SV1 in 1998. In December 1991, Cray purchased some of
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#17328484465745252-671: The SeaStar2 interconnect used by the XT4. By reusing ASICs , boards, cabinets, and system software used by the comparatively higher volume XT4 product, the cost of making the very specialized MTA system could be reduced. A second generation of the XMT is scheduled for release in 2011, with the first system ordered by the Swiss National Supercomputing Center (CSCS). In 2006, Cray announced a vision of products dubbed Adaptive Supercomputing . The first generation of such systems, dubbed
5353-522: The University of Waterloo's WATFOR and WATFIV were created to simplify the complex compile and link processes of earlier compilers. In the FORTRAN IV programming environment of the era, except for that used on Control Data Corporation (CDC) systems, only one instruction was placed per line. The CDC version allowed for multiple instructions per line if separated by a $ (dollar) character. The FORTRAN sheet
5454-770: The X-MP with the release of the COS operating system (SCS) and the CFT Fortran compiler; they also considered the Cray Time Sharing System operating system, developed at United States Department of Energy national laboratories ( LANL / LLNL ), before joining the broader trend toward adoption of Unixes . Today, Cray OS is a specialized version of SUSE Linux Enterprise Server . A series of massively parallel computers from Thinking Machines Corporation , Kendall Square Research , Intel , nCUBE , MasPar and Meiko Scientific took over
5555-511: The acquisition of Appro International, Inc. , a California-based privately held developer of advanced scalable supercomputing solutions. As of 2012 the #3 provider on the Top100 supercomputer list, Appro builds some of the world's most advanced high performance computing (HPC) cluster systems. In 2012, Cray also opened a subsidiary in China. On September 25, 2019, Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) acquired
5656-538: The assets of Floating Point Systems , another minisuper vendor that had moved into the file server market with its SPARC -based Model 500 line. These symmetric multiprocessing machines scaled up to 64 processors and ran a modified version of the Solaris operating system from Sun Microsystems . Cray set up Cray Research Superservers, Inc. (later the Cray Business Systems Division ) to sell this system as
5757-560: The business headquarters in Minneapolis . The company's first product, the Cray-1 supercomputer, was a major success because it was significantly faster than all other computers at the time. The first system was sold within a month for $ 8.8 million. Seymour Cray continued working, this time on the Cray-2 , though it ended up being only marginally faster than the Cray X-MP , developed by another team at
5858-464: The changing political climate (collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the end of the Cold War ) resulted in poor sales prospects. Ultimately, only one Cray-3 was delivered, and a number of follow-on designs were never completed. The company filed for bankruptcy in 1995. CCC's remains then became Cray's final corporation, SRC Computers, Inc . Cray Research continued development along a separate line of computers, originally with lead designer Steve Chen and
5959-409: The company announced it would sell its enterprise services division to one of its competitors, Computer Sciences Corporation in a deal valued at US$ 8.5 billion . The merger of HPE Enterprise Services with CSC, to form a new company DXC Technology , was completed on March 10, 2017. Approximately 100,000 current HPE employees were affected. More than 30,000 services employees from other areas of
6060-465: The company for $ 1.3 billion. In October 2020, HPE was awarded the contract to build the pre-exascale EuroHPC computer LUMI , in Kajaani , Finland . The contract, worth €144.5 million, is for an HPE Cray EX system, with a theoretical maximum performance of 550 petaflops . Once fully operational, LUMI will become one of the fastest supercomputers in the world. On June 28, 2022, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) inaugurated
6161-408: The company had allowed a Russian defense agency to examine a cyber-defense system used by The Pentagon . The report noted: "Six former U.S. intelligence officials, as well as former ArcSight [Hewlett Packard Enterprise] employees and independent security experts, said the source code review could help Moscow discover weaknesses in the software, potentially helping attackers to blind the U.S. military to
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#17328484465746262-499: The company. Cray soon left the CEO position to become an independent contractor. He started a new Very Large Scale Integration technology lab for the Cray-2 in Boulder, Colorado , Cray Laboratories , in 1979, which closed in 1982; undaunted, Cray later headed a similar spin-off in 1989, Cray Computer Corporation (CCC) in Colorado Springs, Colorado , where he worked on the Cray-3 project—the first attempt at major use of gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors in computing. However,
6363-438: The conflict list (see Appendix A2 of X3.9-1978) addressed loopholes or pathological cases permitted by the prior standard but rarely used, a small number of specific capabilities were deliberately removed, such as: A Fortran 77 version of the Heron program requires no modifications to the Fortran 66 version. However this example demonstrates additional cleanup of the I/O statements, including using list-directed I/O, and replacing
6464-456: The decimal point, the .2 in F10.2 of the FORMAT statement with label 601. IBM also developed a FORTRAN III in 1958 that allowed for inline assembly code among other features; however, this version was never released as a product. Like the 704 FORTRAN and FORTRAN II, FORTRAN III included machine-dependent features that made code written in it unportable from machine to machine. Early versions of FORTRAN provided by other vendors suffered from
6565-401: The early history of FORTRAN was the decision by the American Standards Association (now American National Standards Institute (ANSI)) to form a committee sponsored by the Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (BEMA) to develop an American Standard Fortran . The resulting two standards, approved in March 1966, defined two languages, FORTRAN (based on FORTRAN IV, which had served as
6666-451: The east. Cray had a string of successes at CDC, including the CDC 6600 and CDC 7600 . When CDC ran into financial difficulties in the late 1960s, development funds for Cray's follow-on CDC 8600 became scarce. When he was told the project would have to be put "on hold" in 1972, Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research, Inc. Copying the previous arrangement, Cray kept the research and development facilities in Chippewa Falls, and put
6767-432: The entire card to be treated as a comment and ignored by the compiler. Otherwise, the columns of the card were divided into four fields: Columns 73 to 80 could therefore be used for identification information, such as punching a sequence number or text, which could be used to re-order cards if a stack of cards was dropped; though in practice this was reserved for stable, production programs. An IBM 519 could be used to copy
6868-485: The former HP property and headquarters campus of Compaq in northwest Harris County near SH 249 and Louetta. Construction of the new Springwoods Village campus in Spring is expected to complete sometime in early 2022. Concerns about major flooding at the Compaq complex were a contributing factor for HPE CEO Antonio Neri to have the new campus built. The old campus had previously been flooded by Hurricane Harvey in 2017. HPE's $ 14 billion acquisition of Juniper Networks
6969-452: The generated code, the results of which were used to optimize the placement of basic blocks in memory—a very sophisticated optimization for its time. The Monte Carlo technique is documented in Backus et al.'s paper on this original implementation, The FORTRAN Automatic Coding System : The fundamental unit of program is the basic block ; a basic block is a stretch of program which has one entry point and one exit point. The purpose of section 4
7070-466: The historically most important dialect. An important practical extension to FORTRAN 77 was the release of MIL-STD-1753 in 1978. This specification, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense , standardized a number of features implemented by most FORTRAN 77 compilers but not included in the ANSI FORTRAN 77 standard. These features would eventually be incorporated into the Fortran 90 standard. The IEEE 1003.9 POSIX Standard, released in 1991, provided
7171-451: The increasing popularity of FORTRAN spurred competing computer manufacturers to provide FORTRAN compilers for their machines, so that by 1963 over 40 FORTRAN compilers existed. FORTRAN was provided for the IBM 1401 computer by an innovative 63-phase compiler that ran entirely in its core memory of only 8000 (six-bit) characters. The compiler could be run from tape, or from a 2200-card deck; it used no further tape or disk storage. It kept
7272-526: The language as "Fortran" with initial caps since Fortran 90. In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a more practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM 704 mainframe computer . Backus' historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt , Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Harold Stern, Lois Haibt , and David Sayre . Its concepts included easier entry of equations into
7373-503: The largest computer system Cray had delivered was the Cray XT5 system at National Center for Computational Sciences at Oak Ridge National Laboratories . This system, with over 224,000 processing cores, was dubbed Jaguar and was the fastest computer in the world as measured by the LINPACK benchmark at the speed of 1.75 petaflops until being surpassed by the Tianhe-1A in October 2010. It
7474-423: The late 1980s and early 1990s, which out-competed low-end Cray machines in the market. The Convex Computer series, as well as a number of small-scale parallel machines from companies like Pyramid Technology and Alliant Computer Systems were particularly popular. One such vendor was Supertek , whose S-1 machine was an air-cooled CMOS implementation of the X-MP processor. Cray purchased Supertek in 1990 and sold
7575-656: The minimum amount of memory the compiler needed to run. The letters (F, G, H) matched the codes used with System/360 model numbers to indicate memory size, each letter increment being a factor of two larger: Digital Equipment Corporation maintained DECSYSTEM-10 Fortran IV (F40) for PDP-10 from 1967 to 1975. Compilers were also available for the UNIVAC 1100 series and the Control Data 6000 series and 7000 series systems. At about this time FORTRAN IV had started to become an important educational tool and implementations such as
7676-543: The nation’s newest weather and climate supercomputers, two HPE Cray supercomputers installed and operated by General Dynamics (GDIT). Each supercomputer operates at 12.1 petaflops . On November 18, 2024, the US National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) unveiled an HPE Cray supercomputer for use in nuclear weapons analysis and inertial confinement fusion design. The supercomputer is housed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and
7777-465: The need to generate efficient code for Fortran programs. The initial release of FORTRAN for the IBM 704 contained 32 statements , including: The arithmetic IF statement was reminiscent of (but not readily implementable by) a three-way comparison instruction (CAS—Compare Accumulator with Storage) available on the 704. The statement provided the only way to compare numbers—by testing their difference, with an attendant risk of overflow. This deficiency
7878-426: The number of units sold was small compared to ordinary mainframes . This perception extended to countries as well: to boost the perception of exclusivity, Cray Research's marketing department had promotional neckties made with a mosaic of tiny national flags illustrating the "club of Cray-operating countries". New vendors introduced small supercomputers, known as minisupercomputers (as opposed to superminis) during
7979-420: The problem. Later, an error-handling subroutine to handle user errors such as division by zero, developed by NASA, was incorporated, informing users of which line of code contained the error. Before the development of disk files, text editors and terminals, programs were most often entered on a keypunch keyboard onto 80-column punched cards , one line to a card. The resulting deck of cards would be fed into
8080-514: The processing or input/output capabilities of the Opteron processors. Furthermore, each FPGA contains a pair of PowerPC 405 processors which can add to the already considerable power of a single node. The Cray XD1, although moderately successful, was eventually discontinued. In 2004, Cray completed the Red Storm system for Sandia National Laboratories . Red Storm was to become the jumping-off point for
8181-519: The program in memory and loaded overlays that gradually transformed it, in place, into executable form, as described by Haines. This article was reprinted, edited, in both editions of Anatomy of a Compiler and in the IBM manual "Fortran Specifications and Operating Procedures, IBM 1401". The executable form was not entirely machine language ; rather, floating-point arithmetic, sub-scripting, input/output, and function references were interpreted, preceding UCSD Pascal P-code by two decades. GOTRAN ,
8282-601: The release of the FORTRAN 66 standard, compiler vendors introduced several extensions to Standard Fortran , prompting ANSI committee X3J3 in 1969 to begin work on revising the 1966 standard, under sponsorship of CBEMA , the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (formerly BEMA). Final drafts of this revised standard circulated in 1977, leading to formal approval of the new FORTRAN standard in April 1978. The new standard, called FORTRAN 77 and officially denoted X3.9-1978, added
8383-428: The same disadvantage. IBM began development of FORTRAN IV in 1961 as a result of customer demands. FORTRAN IV removed the machine-dependent features of FORTRAN II (such as READ INPUT TAPE ), while adding new features such as a LOGICAL data type , logical Boolean expressions , and the logical IF statement as an alternative to the arithmetic IF statement. FORTRAN IV was eventually released in 1962, first for
8484-631: The splitting of the Hewlett-Packard company. It is a business-focused organization which works in servers, storage, networking, containerization software and consulting and support. The split was structured so that the former Hewlett-Packard Company would change its name to HP Inc. and spin off Hewlett Packard Enterprise as a newly created company. HP Inc. retained the old HP's personal computer and printing business, as well as its stock-price history and original NYSE ticker symbol for Hewlett-Packard; Enterprise trades under its own ticker symbol: HPE. At
8585-510: The time of the spin-off, HPE's revenue was slightly less than that of HP Inc. In 2017, HPE spun off its Enterprise Services business and merged it with Computer Sciences Corporation to become DXC Technology . Also in 2017, it spun off its software business segment and merged it with Micro Focus . Also in 2024, as part of the change in strategy, HPE's telecommunications business unit, the Communication Technology Group (CTG),
8686-621: The use of the Cray-developed HIPPI computer bus and details of the interconnects used in the T3 series. SGI's long-term strategy was to merge its high-end server line with Cray's product lines in two phases, code-named SN1 and SN2 (SN standing for "Scalable Node"). The SN1 was intended to replace the T3E and SGI Origin 2000 systems and later became the SN-MIPS or SGI Origin 3000 architecture. The SN2
8787-552: Was a successful follow-on to the XT3, XT4 and XT5 products. The first multi-cabinet XE6 system was shipped in July 2010. The next generation Cascade systems were designed make use of future multicore and/or manycore processors from vendors such as Intel and Nvidia. Cascade was scheduled to be introduced in early 2013 and designed to use the next-generation network chip and follow-on to Gemini, code named Aries . In early 2010, Cray also introduced
8888-613: Was acquired by HCLTech for $ 225 million. HPE was ranked No. 107 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. The full name for the company is "Hewlett Packard Enterprise Company", which drops the hyphen that previously existed between the "Hewlett" and "Packard" of the former Hewlett-Packard Company. The company is commonly referred to as "Hewlett Packard Enterprise" or by its initials "HPE". The company has also been referred to as "HP Enterprise" by some media outlets and has even been incorrectly referred to as "HP Enterprises". In May 2016,
8989-525: Was acquired by Silicon Graphics (SGI) for $ 740 million. In May 1996, SGI sold the Superservers business to Sun. Sun then turned the UltraSPARC-based Starfire project then under development into the extremely successful Sun Enterprise 10000 range of servers. SGI used several Cray technologies in its attempt to move from the graphics workstation market into supercomputing. Key among these was
9090-480: Was also standard-conforming under Fortran 90, and either standard should have been usable to define its behavior. A small set of features were identified as "obsolescent" and were expected to be removed in a future standard. All of the functionalities of these early-version features can be performed by newer Fortran features. Some are kept to simplify porting of old programs but many were deleted in Fortran 95. Fortran 95 , published officially as ISO/IEC 1539-1:1997,
9191-502: Was born and raised. After being acquired by Silicon Graphics in 1996, the modern company was formed after being purchased in 2000 by Tera Computer Company , which adopted the name Cray Inc. In 2019, the company was acquired by Hewlett Packard Enterprise for $ 1.3 billion. In 1950, Seymour Cray began working in the computing field when he joined Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in Saint Paul, Minnesota . There, he helped to create
9292-430: Was divided into four fields, as described above. Two compilers of the time, IBM "G" and UNIVAC, allowed comments to be written on the same line as instructions, separated by a special character: "master space": V (perforations 7 and 8) for UNIVAC and perforations 12/11/0/7/8/9 (hexadecimal FF) for IBM. These comments were not to be inserted in the middle of continuation cards. Perhaps the most significant development in
9393-410: Was finally released as ISO/IEC standard 1539:1991 in 1991 and an ANSI Standard in 1992. In addition to changing the official spelling from FORTRAN to Fortran, this major revision added many new features to reflect the significant changes in programming practice that had evolved since the 1978 standard: Unlike the prior revision, Fortran 90 removed no features. Any standard-conforming FORTRAN 77 program
9494-461: Was instead 10101 DO101I = 1.101 , the assignment of 1.101 to a variable called DO101I . Note the slight visual difference between a comma and a period. Hollerith strings , originally allowed only in FORMAT and DATA statements, were prefixed by a character count and the letter H (e.g., 26HTHIS IS ALPHANUMERIC DATA. ), allowing blanks to be retained within the character string. Miscounts were
9595-411: Was later overcome by "logical" facilities introduced in FORTRAN IV. The FREQUENCY statement was used originally (and optionally) to give branch probabilities for the three branch cases of the arithmetic IF statement. It could also be used to suggest how many iterations a DO loop might run. The first FORTRAN compiler used this weighting to perform at compile time a Monte Carlo simulation of
9696-609: Was originally intended to unify all high-end/supercomputer product lines including the T90 into a single architecture. This goal was never achieved before SGI divested itself of the Cray business, and the SN2 name was later associated with the SN-IA or SGI Altix 3000 architecture. In October 1996, founder Seymour Cray died as a result of a traffic accident. In 1998, under SGI ownership, one new Cray model line,
9797-651: Was ranked at #1 in the TOP500 supercomputer list in the November 2024 edition. HPE Cray supercomputers were listed in 7 of the top 10 positions on the list, including the #1, #2, and #3 positions. Hewlett Packard Enterprise The Hewlett Packard Enterprise Company ( HPE ) is an American multinational information technology company based in Spring, Texas . HPE was founded on November 1, 2015, in Palo Alto, California , as part of
9898-627: Was subjected to an investigation by the UK's antitrust watchdog, the Competition and Markets Authority . On June 19, 2024, the Competition and Markets Authority announced that it had initiated a merger inquiry to assess potential competition concerns arising from the deal, setting an August 14, 2024 deadline to decide whether to conduct a full investigation. At the time the deal was announced, HPE had agreed to pay $ 40 per share in cash for Juniper. The headquarters
9999-485: Was the Digital Equipment Corporation Alpha -based Cray T3D and Cray T3E series, which left Cray as the only remaining supercomputer vendor in the market besides NEC's SX architecture by 2000. Most sites with a Cray installation were considered members of the "exclusive club" of Cray operators. Cray computers were considered quite prestigious because Crays were extremely expensive machines, and
10100-454: Was the first system to exceed a sustained performance of 1 petaflops on a 64-bit scientific application. In May 2010, the Cray XE6 supercomputer was announced. The Cray XE6 system had at its core the new Gemini system interconnect. This new interconnect included a true global-address space and represented a return to the T3E feature set that had been so successful with Cray Research. This product
10201-454: Was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate faster and more efficient code. The inclusion of a complex number data type in the language made Fortran especially suited to technical applications such as electrical engineering. By 1960, versions of FORTRAN were available for the IBM 709 , 650 , 1620 , and 7090 computers. Significantly,
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