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46-539: The Chona (Russian: Чона ; Yakut : Чуона , Çuona ) is a river in the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) and Irkutsk Oblast , Russia . It is a right hand tributary of the Vilyuy , and is 802 kilometres (498 mi) long, with a drainage basin of 40,600 square kilometres (15,700 sq mi). The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition in 1853–55 to survey the orography , geology and population of

92-440: A life of mobility   ... they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh" (49). They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery (50). The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements:

138-564: A loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths Facial tattooing was also very common. The traditional Evenki economy was a mix of pastoralism (horses or reindeer), fishing, and hunting. The Evenki who lived near the Okhotsk Sea hunted seal, but for most of the taiga-dwellers, elk, wild reindeer, and fowl were the most important game animals. Other animals included "roe deer, bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, Siberian marmot, fox, and sable" Trapping did not become important until

184-649: A population of 38,396 ( 2010 census ). In China, the Evenki form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised by the People's Republic of China , with a population of 30,875 ( 2010 census ). There are 537 Evenki in Mongolia (2015 census), called Khamnigan in the Mongolian language . The Evenki or Ewenki are sometimes conjectured to be connected to the Shiwei people who inhabited

230-516: Is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender . Word order is usually subject–object–verb . Yakut has been influenced by Tungusic and Mongolian languages . Historically, Yakut left the community of Common Turkic speakers relatively early. Due to this, it diverges in many ways from other Turkic languages and mutual intelligibility between Yakut and other Turkic languages is low and many cognate words are hard to notice when heard. Nevertheless, Yakut contains many features which are important for

276-436: Is a common sound-change across the world's languages, being characteristic of such languages as Greek and Indo-Iranian in their development from Proto-Indo-European, as well as such Turkic languages as Bashkir, e.g. höt 'milk' < *süt . Debuccalization of /s/ to /h/ is also found as a diachronic change from Proto-Celtic to Brittonic , and has actually become a synchronic grammaticalised feature called lenition in

322-535: Is about 2,500,000 km . In all of Russia only the Russians inhabit a larger territory. According to the administrative structure, the Evenki live, from west to east, in: However, the territory where they are a titular nation is confined solely to the Evenk Autonomous Okrug, where 3,802 of the 35,527 Evenki live (according to the 2002 census). More than 18,200 Evenki live in the Sakha Republic . Evenki

368-738: Is also a similarly named Siberian group called the Evens (formerly known as Lamuts ). Although related to the Evenki, the Evens are now considered to be a separate ethnic group. The Evenki are spread over a huge territory of the Siberian taiga from the River Ob in the west to the Okhotsk Sea in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Manchuria and Sakhalin in the south. The total area of their habitat

414-764: Is entirely predictable, and all words will follow the following pattern: Like the consonant assimilation rules above, suffixes display numerous allomorphs determined by the stem they attach to. There are two archiphoneme vowels I (an underlyingly high vowel) and A (an underlyingly low vowel). Examples of I can be seen in the first-person singular possessive agreement suffix -(I)m : as in (a): aat- ïm name- POSS . 1SG aat- ïm name-POSS.1SG 'my name' et- im meat- POSS . 1SG et- im meat-POSS.1SG 'my meat' uol- um son- POSS . 1SG uol- um son-POSS.1SG 'my son' üüt- üm milk- POSS . 1SG üüt- üm milk-POSS.1SG 'my milk' The underlyingly low vowel phoneme A

460-881: Is forbidden to torment an animal, bird, or insect, and a wounded animal must be finished off immediately. It is forbidden to spill the blood of a killed animal or defile it. It is forbidden to kill animals or birds that were saved from pursuit by predators or came to a person for help in a natural disaster." Prior to contact with the Russians, the belief system of the Evenki was animistic . Many have adopted Tibetan Buddhism . The Evenki, like most nomadic, pastoral, and subsistence agrarian peoples, spend most of their lives in very close contact with nature. Because of this, they develop what A. A. Sirina calls an "ecological ethic". By this she means "a system of responsibility of people to nature and her spirit masters, and of nature to people"(9). Sirina interviewed many Evenki who until very recently spent much of their time as reindeer herders in

506-606: Is represented through the third-person singular agreement suffix -(t)A in (b): aɣa- ta father- POSS . 3SG aɣa- ta father-POSS.3SG 'his/her father' Evenks The Evenki , also known as the Evenks and formerly as the Tungus , are a Tungusic people of North Asia . In Russia, the Evenki are recognised as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North , with

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552-681: Is the largest of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages , a group which also includes Even and Negidal . Many Evenki in Russia still engage in a traditional lifestyle of raising reindeer, fishing, and hunting. According to the 2021 census 39,226 Evenki lived in Russia. At the 2000 census, there were 30,505 Evenki in China, mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans . 88.8% of China's Evenki live in

598-726: The Greater Khingan Range in the 5th to 9th centuries, although the native land of the majority of Evenki people is in the vast regions of Siberia between Lake Baikal and the Amur River . The Evenki language forms the northern branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is closely related to Even and Negidal in Siberia . By 1600 the Evenki or Ewenki of the Lena and Yenisey river valleys were successful reindeer herders . By contrast

644-650: The Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar . The Ewenki Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenki in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province. The Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji conquered the Evenki in 1640, and executed their leader Bombogor . After the Manchu conquest, the Evenki were incorporated into the Eight Banners . In 1763,

690-593: The Manchus . The ancestors of the south-eastern Evenki most likely lived in the Baikal region of Southern Siberia (near the modern-day Mongolian border) since the Neolithic era. Considering the north-western Evenki, Vasilevich claims: "The origin of the Evenki is the result of complex processes, different in time, involving the mixing of different ancient aboriginal tribes from the north of Siberia with tribes related in language to

736-589: The Qing government moved 500 Solon Evenki and 500 Daur families to the Tacheng and Ghulja areas of Xinjiang , in order to strengthen the empire's western border. Another 1020 Xibe families (some 4000 persons) also came the following year. Since then, however, the Solons of Xinjiang have assimilated into other ethnic groups, and are not identified as such anymore. The Japanese occupation led to many murders of Evenkis, and Evenki men were conscripted as scouts and rangers by

782-903: The Solons (ancestors of the Evenkis in China) and the Khamnigans (Ewenkis of Transbaikalia ) had picked up horse breeding and the Mongolian deel from the Mongols . The Solons nomadized along the Amur River . They were closely related to the Daur people . To the west the Khamnigan were another group of horse-breeding Evenki in the Transbaikalia area. Also in the Amur valley a body of Siberian Evenki-speaking people were called Orochen by

828-677: The Vilyuy and Chona basins. The river begins in the Lena Plateau , part of the Central Siberian Plateau , at an elevation of 317 metres (1,040 ft). It flows roughly northeastwards forming rapids which make the river not navigable. The lowest 170 km (110 mi) of its course were flooded by the Vilyuy Reservoir after the Vilyuy Dam was built in 1967. The river freezes between October and late May. The main tributaries of

874-503: The 17th century, the Russian empire made contact with the Evenki. Cossacks , who served as a kind of "border-guard" for the tsarist government, imposed a fur tax on the Siberian tribes. The Cossacks exploited the Evenki clan hierarchy, taking hostages from the highest members to ensure payment of the tax. Although there was some rebellion against local officials, the Evenki generally recognized

920-477: The Chona are the 362 kilometres (225 mi) long Vakunayka and the 105 kilometres (65 mi) long Ichoda on the right, and the 158 kilometres (98 mi) long Dekinde , the 122 kilometres (76 mi) long Delinde and the 109 kilometres (68 mi) long Markhaya on the left. There are no permanent settlements by the Chona. Yakut language The Yakut language differs from all other Turkic languages in

966-866: The Evenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim were evident. She hid her prize possession—an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among

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1012-458: The Evenki caused them (and other indigenous peoples) language erosion , a decline in traditions, and identity loss, among others. This was especially true during the Soviet regime. Soviet policies of collectivization , forced sedentarization (sometimes referred to as sedentism ), " unpromising villages ", and Russification of the education system compromised social, cultural, and mental well-being of

1058-890: The Evenki to "colonize vast areas of the eastern taiga which had previously been impenetrable" The Evenki used a saddle unique to their culture, placed on the shoulders of the reindeer to lessen the strain on the animal, and used a stick rather than stirrups to balance. Evenki did not develop reindeer sledges until comparatively recent times They instead used their reindeer as pack animals and often traversed great distances on foot, using snowshoes or skis. The Evenki people did hunt and eat wild reindeer, but not their domesticated reindeer, which they kept for milk. Large herds of reindeer were very uncommon. Most Evenki had around 25 head of reindeer, because they were generally bred for transportation. Unlike in several other neighboring tribes Evenki reindeer-breeding did not include "herding of reindeer by dogs nor any other specific features". Very early in

1104-903: The Evenki. The Evenki were formerly known as tungus . This designation was spread by the Russians , who acquired it from the Yakuts (in the Yakut language tongus ) in the 17th century. The Evenki have several self-designations, of which the best known is evenk . This became the official designation for the people in 1931. Some groups call themselves orochen ('an inhabitant of the River Oro'), orochon ('a rearer of reindeer '), ile ('a human being'), etc. At one time or another tribal designations and place names have also been used as self-designations, for instance manjagir , birachen , solon , etc. Several of these have even been taken for separate ethnic entities. There

1150-568: The Japanese secret service in 1942. Some Evenkis fled to Soviet Siberia across the Amur river after murdering a Japanese officer to avoid punishment from the Japanese. The Evenki of China today tend to be settled pastoralists and farmers. (Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >0.1% of China's Evenki population.) According to the 2001 census, there were 48 Evenki living in Ukraine . The majority (35) stated that their native language

1196-525: The Mongols and Dauer peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online. Olga Kudrina (c. 1890–1944) was a shaman among the Reindeer Evenki of northern Inner Mongolia along the Amur River 's Great Bend (today under the jurisdiction of Genhe , Hulunbuir ). 40 percent of Evenki men carry haplogroup C-M217 . Their second most common Y-DNA haplogroup

1242-626: The Turks and Mongols. The language of these tribes took precedence over the languages of the aboriginal population". Elements of more modern Evenki culture, including conical tent dwellings, bone fish-lures, and birch-bark boats, were all present in sites that are believed to be Neolithic. From Lake Baikal, "they spread to the Amur and Okhotsk Sea   ... the Lena Basin   ... and the Yenisey Basin". In

1288-601: The Yakut language during the 2002 census . Yakut has the following consonants phonemes , where the IPA value is provided in slashes '//' and the native script value is provided in bold followed by the romanization in parentheses. Yakut is in many ways phonologically unique among the Turkic languages . Yakut and the closely related Dolgan language are the only Turkic languages without hushing sibilants . Additionally, no known Turkic languages other than Yakut and Khorasani Turkic have

1334-663: The below section ). There is an additional regular morphophonological pattern for [ t ] -final stems: they assimilate in place of articulation with an immediately following labial or velar. For example at 'horse' > akkït 'your [pl.] horse', > appït 'our horse'. Yakut initial s- corresponds to initial h- in Dolgan and played an important operative rule in the development of proto-Yakut, ultimately resulting in initial Ø- < *h- < *s- (example: Dolgan h uoq and Yakut s uox, both meaning "not"). The historical change of *s > h , known as debuccalization ,

1380-535: The development of the views of spirit-masters There are few sources on the shamanism of the Evenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted by Richard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Evenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name). She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in

1426-418: The following table for the suffixes -GIt (second-person plural possessive suffix, oɣoɣut 'your [pl.] child'), -BIt (first-person plural possessive suffix, oɣobut , 'our child'), -TA ( partitive case suffix, tiiste 'some teeth'), -LArA (third-person plural possessive suffix, oɣoloro 'their child'). Note that the alternation in the vowels is governed by vowel harmony (see the main article and

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1472-506: The horse and cattle pastoral Evenki as well as some farming Evenki". The Evenki lived mostly in taiga , or boreal forest. They lived in conical tents made from birch bark or reindeer skin tied to birch poles. When they moved camp, the Evenki would leave these frameworks and carry only the more portable coverings. During winter, the hunting season, most camps consisted of one or two tents while spring encampments had up to 10 households Their skill at riding their domesticated reindeer allowed

1518-419: The imposition of the fur tax by the tsarist government. Before they acquired guns in the 18th century, Evenki used steel bows and arrows. Along with their main hunting implements, hunters always carried a "pike"—"which was a large knife on a long handle used instead of an axe when passing through thick taiga, or as a spear when hunting bear". The Evenki have deep respect for animals and all elements of nature: "It

1564-513: The native script bold and romanization in italics: Like other Turkic languages , a characteristic feature of Yakut is progressive vowel harmony . Most root words obey vowel harmony, for example in кэлин ( kelin ) 'back', all the vowels are front and unrounded. Yakut's vowel harmony in suffixes is the most complex system in the Turkic family. Vowel harmony is an assimilation process where vowels in one syllable take on certain features of vowels in

1610-494: The need for peaceful cultural relations with the Russians. The Russians and their constant demands for fur taxes pushed the Evenki east all the way to Sakhalin island, where some still live today. In the 19th century some groups migrated south and east into Mongolia and Manchuria. Today there are still Evenki populations in Sakhalin, Mongolia, and Manchuria, and to a lesser extent, their traditional Baikal region. Russian invasion of

1656-401: The palatal nasal / ɲ / . Consonants at morpheme boundaries undergo extensive assimilation , both progressive and regressive. All suffixes possess numerous allomorphs . For suffixes which begin with a consonant, the surface form of the consonant is conditioned on the stem-final segment. There are four such archiphonemic consonants: G , B , T , and L . Examples of each are provided in

1702-418: The preceding syllable. In Yakut, subsequent vowels all take on frontness and all non-low vowels take on lip rounding of preceding syllables' vowels. There are two main rules of vowel harmony: The quality of the diphthongs /ie, ïa, uo, üö/ for the purposes of vowel harmony is determined by the first segment in the diphthong. Taken together, these rules mean that the pattern of subsequent syllables in Yakut

1748-611: The presence of a layer of vocabulary of unclear origin (possibly Paleo-Siberian ). There is also a large number of words of Mongolian origin related to ancient borrowings, as well as numerous recent borrowings from Russian . Like other Turkic languages and their ancestor Proto-Turkic , Yakut is an agglutinative language and features vowel harmony . Yakut is a member of the Northeastern Common Turkic family of languages, which also includes Shor , Tuvan and Dolgan . Like most Turkic languages , Yakut has vowel harmony ,

1794-533: The reconstruction of Proto-Turkic , such as the preservation of long vowels. Despite all the aberrant features of Sakha (i.e. Yakut), it is still considered to belong to Common Turkic (in contrast to Chuvash ). Yakut is spoken mainly in the Sakha Republic . It is also used by ethnic Yakuts in Khabarovsk Region and a small diaspora in other parts of the Russian Federation , Turkey , and other parts of

1840-622: The related Goidelic languages ( Irish , Scottish , and Manx ). Debuccalization is also an active phonological process in modern Yakut. Intervocalically the phoneme / s / becomes [ h ] . For example the /s/ in кыыс ( kïïs ) 'girl' becomes [h] between vowels: kïï s girl > > kïï h -ïm girl- POSS . 1SG kïï s > kïï h -ïm girl > girl-POSS.1SG 'girl; daughter' > 'my daughter' Yakut has twenty phonemic vowels: eight short vowels, eight long vowels, and four diphthongs. The following table give broad transcriptions for each vowel phoneme, as well as

1886-474: The spring season, winter camps broke up and moved to places suitable for calving. Several households pastured their animals together throughout the summer, being careful to keep "[s]pecial areas   ... fenced off   ... to guard the newborn calves against being trampled on in a large herd" The Evenki wore a characteristic garb "adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of the Central Siberia and to

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1932-505: The taiga" The religious beliefs and practices of the Evenki are of great historical interest since they retain some archaic forms of belief. Among the most ancient ideas are spiritualization and personification of all natural phenomena, belief in an upper, middle, and lower world, belief in the soul ( omi ) and certain totemistic concepts. There were also various magical rituals associated with hunting and guarding herds. Later on, these rituals were conducted by shamans. Shamanism brought about

1978-540: The taiga, just like their ancestors. The Evenki people also spoke along the same lines: their respect for nature and their belief that nature is a living being. This idea, "[t]he embodiment, animation, and personification of nature—what is still called the animistic worldview—is the key component of the traditional worldview of hunter-gatherers" Although most of the Evenkis have been "sedentarized"—that is, made to live in settled communities instead of following their traditional nomadic way of life —"[m]any scholars think that

2024-536: The world. Dolgan , a close relative of Yakut, which formerly was considered by some a dialect of Yakut, is spoken by Dolgans in Krasnoyarsk Region . Yakut is widely used as a lingua franca by other ethnic minorities in the Sakha Republic – more Dolgans , Evenks , Evens and Yukagirs speak Yakut than their own languages. About 8% of the people of other ethnicities than Yakut living in Sakha claimed knowledge of

2070-410: The worldview characteristic of hunter-gatherer societies is preserved, even if they make the transition to new economic models. Although nominally Christianized in the 18th century, the Evenki people maintain many of their historical beliefs—especially shamanism The Christian traditions were "confined to the formal performance of Orthodox rites which were usually timed for the arrival of the priest in

2116-453: Was Russian ; four indicated Evenki as their native language, and three that it was Ukrainian . Traditionally they were a mixture of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers —they relied on their domesticated reindeer for milk and transport and hunted other large game for meat. Today "[t]he Evenki are divided into two large groups   ... engaging in different types of economy. These are the hunting and reindeer-breeding Evenki   ... and

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