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100-584: The China Cables are a collection of secret Chinese government documents from 2017 which were leaked by exiled Uyghurs to the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists , and published on 24 November 2019. The documents include a telegram which details the first known operations manual for running the Xinjiang internment camps , and bulletins which illustrate how China's centralized data collection system and mass surveillance tool , known as

200-427: A consequentialist analysis of racial profiling, weighing the benefits and costs against each other. They conclude that racial profiling is morally permissible because the harms done to the search subjects are fewer than the potential benefits for society in terms of security. Moreover, the (innocent) subjects themselves also benefit because they will live a safer environment overall. Risse and Zeckhauser conclude that

300-588: A 2016 report by the Interior ministry in Germany, there had been an increase in hate crimes and violence against migrant groups in Germany. The reports concluded that there were more than 10 attacks per day against migrants in Germany in 2016. This report from Germany garnered the attention of the United Nations, which alleged that people of African descent face widespread discrimination in Germany. A 2017 statement by

400-473: A collection of individual offenses”, but rather a systemic phenomenon across American society, dating back to the era of slavery. “At the root of the emergence of the modern Anglo-American police was the problem of changing social relations and conditions arising from industrialization and urbanization,” says sociologist Dr. Tia Dafnos. This is exemplified in the large wage and generational wealth gaps and workplace and housing discrimination that exists between

500-609: A connection between mass surveillance in China and the Xinjiang camps, confirming earlier suspicions from multiple international news sources. For example, the predictive policing program flagged 1.8 million Uyghur users for investigation who had installed the file sharing app Zapya developed by the Chinese company Dewmobile on their phones. One of the bulletins reveals that during one week in June 2017

600-403: A correlation exist, it is based on data that is skewed by previous racial profiling. Because more subjects of a certain racial group were targeted, more crime was registered in this group. It is therefore epistemically unjustified to assume that this group commits more crime. Accusations of racial profiling of visible minorities who accuse police of targeting them due to their ethnic background

700-415: A law that is no different from Arizona's", referring to legislation which gives local police forces the power to check documents of people suspected of being in the country illegally. Immigration and human rights activists have also noted that Mexican authorities frequently engage in racial profiling, harassment, and shakedowns against migrants from Central America. Ethnic Sri Lankan Tamils traveling from

800-476: A list of ethnic Tigrayans from an office of the World Food Programme . Tigrayans' houses were arbitrarily searched and Tigrayan bank accounts were suspended. Ethnic Tigrayan members of Ethiopian components of United Nations peacekeeping missions were disarmed and some forcibly flown back to Ethiopia, at the risk of torture or execution, according to United Nations officials. In 1972, terrorists from

900-478: A new policy regarding officer racially profiling persons, "the policy explicitly forbids officers from investigating or detaining anyone based on their race and will force officers to go through training on racial profiling". This policy was implemented after the 2008 incident where an African Canadian woman was strip searched by members of the Ottawa police. There is a video showing the strip search where one witnesses

1000-480: A policy approach that combined centralized leadership with intense mass mobilization, and that this mode of governance is defined by continuous experimentation and improvisation. According to academics Jérôme Doyon and Chloé Froissart, the adaptive capacity resulting from a heritage of guerrilla warfare has made the CCP adept in dealing with uncertainty and has translated into a capacity to experiment first and then systemize

1100-591: Is China's leading official since the CCP is tasked with formulating and setting national policy which the state, after being adopted by the NPC or relevant state organ, is responsible for implementing. The State Council, also referred to as the Central People's Government, consists of, besides the Premier, a variable number of vice premiers , five state councilors (protocol equal of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios),

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1200-916: Is a growing concern in Canada . In 2005, the Kingston Police released the first study ever in Canada which pertains to racial profiling. The study focused on the city of Kingston, Ontario , a small city where most of the inhabitants are white. The study showed that black-skinned people were 3.7 times more likely to be pulled over by police than white-skinned people, while Asian and White people are less likely to be pulled over than Black people. Several police organizations condemned this study and suggested more studies like this would make them hesitant to pull over visible minorities. Canadian Aboriginals are more likely to be charged with crimes, particularly on reserves . The Canadian crime victimization survey does not collect data on

1300-550: Is assisted by several vice premiers , currently four, each of them overseeing a certain area of administration. The premier, vice premiers and the State Councilors collectively form the inner cabinet that regularly convenes for the State Council Executive Meeting. The State Council includes 26 constituent ministries, and officially oversees the provincial-level governments throughout China. Generally,

1400-463: Is mainly used when referring to the disproportionate searching of African Americans , and Hispanic , along with other visible minorities. According to an American College of Physicians study, 92% of Blacks, 78% of Latino Americans, 75% of Native Americans, and 61% of Asian Americans have “reported experiencing racial discrimination in the form of racial slurs, violence, threats, and harassment.” Racial profiling has roots in slavery and has grown with

1500-664: Is morally permissible under certain circumstances, whereas others argue it is never morally permissible. Those who argue in favor of racial profiling usually set some conditions for the practice to be justified. The profiling should be fair, evidence-based and non-abusive. Proponents of racial profiling generally argue that, if these conditions are met, it can be an efficient tool for crime prevention because it allows law enforcement to focus their efforts on groups that are statistically more likely to commit crimes. The most influential defense of racial profiling comes from Mathias Risse and Richard Zeckhauser . Risse and Zeckhauser provide

1600-474: Is more assertive than the NPC itself and has vetoed proposed laws. The CCP Politburo Standing Committee consists of the government's top leadership. Historically it has had five to nine members. As of 2024, it has seven members. Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to

1700-437: Is the general fiscal budget, which is a unitary budget that is allocated between central fiscal and local fiscal budgets. The central government sets targets for its fiscal revenue and expenditures, as well as local government fiscal revenue and expenditures. Ethnic profiling The subject of racial profiling has sparked debate between philosophers who disagree on its moral status. Some believe that racial profiling

1800-458: The Toronto Star daily newspaper found that black people across Toronto were three times more likely to be stopped and documented by police than white people. To a lesser extent, the same seemed true for people described by police as having "brown" skin ( South Asians , Arabs and Latinos ). This was the result of an analysis of 1.7 million contact cards filled out by Toronto Police officers in

1900-672: The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . On the relationship between the government and the CCP, James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy , states that, "[t]he Chinese government is essentially the shadow of the Communist Party, moving as the party does, and consequently government roles matter far less than party ones." According to The Economist , "[e]specially when meeting foreigners, officials may present name cards bearing government titles but stay quiet about party positions which may or may not outrank their state jobs." According to scholar Rush Doshi , "[t]he Party sits above

2000-556: The Chinese economic reform , China has been characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization. The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out, including developing the details of policy. Academics Sebastian Heilmann and Elizabeth Perry write that policy-making in China is influenced by the Chinese Communist Revolution , resulting in

2100-632: The Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities published The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities in 2021, finding overall that there was no institutional racism in the UK . The report and its findings were criticised by many including the United Nations working group who argued that the report 'attempts to normalise white supremacy' and could 'fuel racism'. In the United States, racial profiling

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2200-707: The Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square , Beijing . These annual meetings are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the CPPCC, providing an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation. The NPC generally has a reputation of approving the work of the State Council and not engaging in overmuch drafting of laws itself. However, it and its Standing Committee have occasionally asserted themselves. For example,

2300-604: The Integrated Joint Operations Platform , uses artificial intelligence to identify people for interrogation and potential detention. The Chinese government has called the cables "pure fabrication" and " fake news ", further stating that the West were "slandering and smearing" them. The documents release sparked renewed attention to the Uyghur internment camps and persecution of Uyghurs in China . On November 24, 2019,

2400-405: The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists and collaborating media in 14 countries on November 23, 2019, followed a New York Times report on November 16 "puts to rest attempts by the Chinese government to portray the facilities in the western province of Xinjiang as anything other than internment camps" according to The Irish Times . In 2018, the Chinese government had "legalized"

2500-489: The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists published secret Chinese government documents from 2017 dubbed as the "China Cables", which exiled Uyghurs had leaked to them. The documents consisted of a classified telegram called "New Secret 5656" from 2017, four bulletins/security briefings and one court document. The classified telegram detailed the first known operations manual for running "between 1,300 and 1,400" internment camps of Muslim Uyghurs in Xinjiang, It

2600-924: The Japanese Red Army launched an attack that led to the deaths of at least 24 people at Ben Gurion Airport . Since then, security at the airport has relied on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalized as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology." As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance. Additionally, all passengers, including those who do not appear to be of Arab descent, are questioned as to why they are traveling to Israel, followed by several general questions about

2700-725: The Northern Province and Eastern Province in Sri Lanka have to compulsory register with the Police and mandatory carry a police certificate as per the Prevention of Terrorism Act and emergency regulations if found not living in the house in the certificate they could be arrested. In 2007 Tamils were expelled from Colombo . The move to expel these people drew wide criticism of the government. The United States Embassy in Sri Lanka condemned

2800-519: The chairman , one of China's top officials. The president represents China abroad, though since the 1990s, the presidency has always been held by the CCP general secretary . Elected separately by the NPC, the vice president has no power other than what the president bestowed on them but assists the president. The head of the State Council , the NPC's executive organ, is the premier . The CCP general secretary

2900-553: The secretary-general , and 26 ministers and other cabinet-level department heads . It consists of ministries and agencies with specific portfolios. The State Council presents most initiatives to the NPCSC for consideration after previous endorsement by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee . China's judicial organs are political organs that perform prosecutorial and court functions. Because of their political nature, China does not have judicial independence . China's courts are supervised by

3000-554: The "Partner Institute for Computational Biology" and funded one scientist from the Beijing Institute of Genomics with a grant, even though he was employed by the Chinese police, the Ministry of Public Security . He published findings exploring the DNA of physical appearance traits in 2018 and 2019 in the journal Human Genetics by Springer Nature, and said he had been unaware of the origins of

3100-664: The CCP's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee. The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence . Historically, the general secretary (or party chairman ) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the general secretary (also the president), premier, chairman of

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3200-438: The CCP, and are mostly CCP members. All government departments, state-owned enterprises and public institutes include CCP committees, from the village level to the national level. The CCP committees in government bodies supervise and lead the bodies, with the State Council legally required to implement CCP policies. As outlined by the CCP constitution: "Government, the military, society and schools, north, south, east and west –

3300-531: The CCP, and effectively acts as the state arm of the CCDI. It replaced the former Ministry of Supervision . The Supreme People's Court is the judicial organ of the People's Republic of China and is subject to the control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . Hong Kong and Macau , as special administrative regions, have separate judicial systems based on British common law traditions and Portuguese civil-law traditions, respectively. The judges of

3400-587: The Chinese internet, according to Süddeutsche Zeitung , one of the collaborators of ICIJ China Cables. In December 2019, the European Parliament approved a resolution condemning the treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang. The resolution on China was adopted by 505 votes in favour, 18 against, with 47 abstentions. The resolution called on the Chinese Government to put an end to arbitrary detentions, without any charge, trial or conviction for criminal offence, of

3500-509: The DNA samples of the men from Tumxuk . The NYT had first reported about ethnic phenotyping in spring of 2019, calling it "automated racism". On November 24, 2019, Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Geng Shuang said that the affairs in Xinjiang were an "internal matter". The Chinese embassy in London called the cables "pure fabrication" and "fake news". China has censored reports about the cables and erased almost all references to ICIJ searches on

3600-564: The European Union, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom that have ties to Xinjiang. About a dozen were German companies; Volkswagen Group operates a relatively unprofitable car manufacturing plant in Urumqi since 2013, employing 650 workers, which was criticised as existing for solely political reasons. Bosch warned the Chinese authorities against internment of their employees and said that

3700-628: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one-party system. The office is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. The current president is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. The office

3800-525: The IJOP system detected 24,412 "suspicious" persons in southern Xinjiang, 15,683 of whom were sent to "education and training" and 706 were "criminally detained". The non-classified court document is the sentencing of a Uyghur man to 10 years in jail for telling his colleagues not to watch pornography or consume alcohol, and to pray regularly. He also stated that "All people who do not pray are Han Chinese kafirs ." The main contents are: The cables publication by

3900-645: The Jews", and the Asian Center of Human Rights urged India to intervene. Racial profiling by police forces in Spain is a common practice. A study by the University of Valencia , found that people of non-white aspect are up to ten times more likely to be stopped by the police on the street. Amnesty International accused Spanish authorities of using racial and ethnic profiling, with police singling out people who are not white in

4000-679: The NPC Standing Committee , the chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference , the secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection , the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked secretary of the CCP secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee. Ranked below the party's Politburo Standing Committee are deputy state leaders including

4100-421: The NPC. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in all state bodies through a two-thirds majority in the NPC. The remaining seats are held by nominally independent delegates and eight minor political parties , which are non- oppositional and support the CCP. All government bodies and state-owned enterprises have internal CCP committees that lead

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4200-571: The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Rights after a visit to Germany states: "While the Basic Law guarantees equality, prohibits racial discrimination, and states that human dignity is inviolable, it is not being enforced." and calls racial profiling by police officials endemic. Recommendations include legal reform, establishing an independent complaint system, training and continuing education for

4300-407: The People's Republic of China is put in practice through its comprehensive control of the state, military, and media. The National People's Congress (NPC) is the national legislature of China. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world. Under China's current Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature , with the power to legislate, to oversee

4400-587: The Presidency was gone. The 3rd promulgation in 1978 expanded the number of articles, but was still under the influence of the very-recent Cultural Revolution . The current constitution is the PRC's fourth promulgation, declared on 4 December 1982, and has served as a stable constitution for 30 years. The legal power of the CCP is guaranteed by the PRC Constitution and its position as the supreme political authority in

4500-707: The Spanish government approved a law which prohibited racial profiling by police forces. Racial issues have been prevalent in the UK for a long time. For example, following the arrival of Windrush migrants from the Caribbean and West Indies after the Second World War, racial tensions began to flare up in the country - see the Notting Hill Race Riot . The most recent statistics from the Migration Observatory at

4600-401: The State Council and the CCP were unable to secure passage of a fuel tax in 2009 to finance the construction of expressways . Likewise, the Ministry of Finance has sought to institute property taxes since the early 2010s, but opposition from the NPC (as well as local governments) have prevented any property tax proposals from reaching the NPC's legislative agenda. The NPC Standing Committee

4700-615: The Supreme People's Court (SPC), which answers to the NPC. The Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP) is responsible for prosecutions and supervises procuracies at the provincial, prefecture, and county levels. At the same administrative ranking as the SPC and SPP, the National Supervisory Commission (NSC) was established in 2018 to investigate corruption within the CCP and state organs. All courts and their personnel are subject to

4800-497: The Supreme People's Court are appointed by the National People's Congress. The governors of China's provinces and autonomous regions and mayors of its directly administered municipalities are appointed by the State Council after receiving the nominal consent of the National People's Congress (NPC). The Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions (SARS) have significant local autonomy including separate governments, legal systems, and basic constitutional laws, but must follow

4900-761: The University of Oxford in 2019 show that people born outside of the UK made up 14% of the UK's population or 9.5 million people. Black Britons make up 3% of the population and Indian Britons occupy 2.3% of the population with the remainder being largely EU or North American migrants. An increase in knife crime in the capital in recent decades has led to an increase in police stop and search powers. However, there are concerns that these powers lead to discrimination and racial profiling with statistics showing that there were 54 stop and searches for every 1000 black people compared to just 6 for every 1000 white people. Following social dissatisfaction and claims of institutional racism ,

5000-526: The Uyghur, Kazakh, or Tibetan ethnic minorities. The Parliament called for the sanctioning of companies and individuals that are complicit with any acts that would deter human rights. In November 2019, Germany's foreign minister Heiko Maas condemned the internment of Uyghurs and insisted on talks with the Chinese government to gain access to the camps. One year after the publication of the Cables, as of November 2020, no mission of independent observers has assessed

5100-557: The White and non-White populations. Racial profiling in policing institutions is not new, either. The modern American police force has taken inspiration and structure from slave patrols and as a result people in minority populations report high rates of unfair treatment by courts, unreasonable arrests and frisking , and hesitancy to call the police in times of need out of fear of discrimination. The US Constitution's Fourth Amendment , which protects citizens from unreasonable search and seizure,

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5200-456: The ability to exercise social control and regulation, (3) coercive resources, (4) the capacity to consult and collaborate with emerging social groups and organizations to balance conflicting interests, and (5) the ability to learn from failures and mistakes. China's fiscal budget has four parts: general fiscal budget, budget for government funds, budget for operating income of state-owned capital, and social insurance budget. The largest part

5300-550: The act, asking the government of Sri Lanka to ensure the constitutional rights of all the citizens of the country. Norway also condemned the act, describing it as a clear violation of international human rights law. Their press release urged government of Sri Lanka to desist from any further enforced removals. Canada has also condemned the action. Human rights groups, Local think tank and other observers have termed this act as " ethnic cleansing ". The media group said that this type of act reminds people of what " Hitler did to

5400-625: The authority of government departments is defined by regulations and rules rather than law. The State Council issues regulations on the forms of official government and CCP documentation which govern the level of authority, urgency, and confidentiality required by the document. Official documents include ones which must be strictly implemented by lower levels of government (such as "Decisions" and "Orders"), ones which can be treated more flexibly (such as "Opinions" and "Notices"), and ones with less or more general content (such as "Letters" and "Minutes"). The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises

5500-571: The base of the government and party hierarchies. Power is concentrated in the "paramount leader," an informal title currently occupied by Xi Jinping, who heads the four most important political and state offices: He is the general secretary of the CCP Central Committee , Chairman of the Central Military Commission , and President of the PRC. Near the end of Hu Jintao's term in office, experts observed growing limitations to

5600-558: The bill into law a week after it was passed by a veto-proof majority in Congress. As of November 2019, there had been no response by any United Nations personnel, nor any response from Australia, Japan, Canada, any Middle Eastern state, nor by the International Olympic Committee considering the fact that Beijing was to be hosting the 2022 Winter Olympics . As of May 2019, there were at least 68 companies originating from

5700-507: The black woman being held to the ground and then having her bra and shirt cut ripped/cut off by a member of the Ottawa Police Force which was released to the viewing of the public in 2010. The Chinese government has been using a facial recognition surveillance technology , analysing physiognomical output of surveillance cameras to track and control Uyghurs , a Muslim minority in China's Western province of Xinjiang . The extent of

5800-497: The central government allowed local governments to issue bonds to finance public capital spending for projects like infrastructure and hospitals. The quantity of such bonds is set by the central government. Local governments cannot issue bonds to pay for current spending, such as salaries. China's civil service is divided into tiers. The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making. After

5900-472: The central government in foreign policy and national security , and their chief executives are effectively picked by the CCP Politburo. Below the provincial level, there are prefectures and counties. Counties are divided into townships and villages . While most are run by appointed officials, some lower-level jurisdictions have direct elections. While operating under strict control and supervision by

6000-429: The central government, China's local governments manage relatively high share of fiscal revenues and expenditures. Their level of authority and autonomy in economic decision-making is high, and they have played a major role in national economic development. They do not have the right to make tax laws but may have the ability to adjust certain tax rates within boundaries established by the central government. Through

6100-406: The company offers Muslim prayer rooms for staff. Government of China The government of the People's Republic of China is based on a system of people's congress within the parameters of a unitary communist state , in which the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) enacts its policies through people's congresses. This system is based on the principle of unified state power , in which

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6200-607: The cost of providing public goods has devolved to local governments from the central government and therefore local governments need to generate fees to provide public services. Local governments are the key provider of public of goods in China. Since 2014, the National New-Type Urbanization Plan has resulted in the consolidation of planning processes that were formerly distributed across different bureaucracies, such as urban and rural land use, tourism planning, and environmental planning. Beginning in 2015,

6300-468: The decision-making in these institutions. The NPC meets annually for about two weeks in March to review and approve major new policy directions, and in between those sessions, delegates its powers to the working legislature, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC). This organ adopts most national legislation, interprets the constitution and laws, and conducts constitutional reviews , and is headed by

6400-587: The detention camps", per The Guardian , another one of the ICIJ China Cables collaborators. On November 26, 2019, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said documents confirmed China intentionally committing very significant human rights abuses in Xinjiang. On October 8, 2019, amidst trade talks between the US and China , Pompeo had introduced visa restrictions on Chinese government and Communist Party officials "who are believed to be responsible for, or complicit in,

6500-621: The detention or abuse of Uyghurs, Kazakhs or other members of Muslim minority groups in Xinjiang, China." On 3 December 2019, the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act was passed by the United States House of Representatives, awaiting consent by the Senate. It condemns abuses against Muslims, calls for the closure of mass detention camps and calls for sanctions against Chen Quanguo . On June 17, 2020, US President Donald Trump signed

6600-412: The direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs. The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels. China has a high degree of state capacity . Academic Thomas Heberer attributes China's state capacity to: (1) the legitimacy of its political system as viewed by its citizens, (2)

6700-403: The effective control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . The CCP constitution states that the party is the highest force for political leadership. The party's institutions overlap with government institutions and the party has authority over government decisions at both the local and central levels. Senior government officials throughout the country are appointed by

6800-440: The ethnic origin of perpetrators, so comparisons between incidence of victimizations and incidence of charging are impossible. Although aboriginal persons make up 3.6% of Canada's population, they account for 20% of Canada's prison population. This may show how racial profiling increases effectiveness of police, or be a result of racial profiling, as they are watched more intensely than others. In February 2010, an investigation of

6900-425: The first court ruling concerning racial profiling in German police policy, allowing police to use skin color and "non-German ethnic origin" to select persons who will be asked for identification in spot-checks for illegal immigrants. Subsequently, it was decided legal for a person submitted to a spot-check to compare the policy to that of the SS in public. A higher court later overruled the earlier decision declaring

7000-462: The human rights situation on the ground, as the German government had originally announced. The Auswärtiges Amt said it was watching the situation and that ambassadors of EU countries were trying to travel to Xinjiang. A speaker of the Mercator Institute for China Studies said that the COVID-19 pandemic had allowed China to quarantine the region even more. On 25 November 2019, the UK Foreign Office called for "immediate and unfettered UN access to

7100-420: The internment camps for people accused of religious extremism, after denying such centers even existed. El País wrote that the Chinese Embassy in Madrid did not answer their four questions, namely: If it collects and sends information about Uyghur citizens living in Spain or Europe to Beijing? How their visa policy has changed since 2017? If Beijing had requested to extradite Uyghur people? And if Uyghurs have

7200-434: The late 1980s and the early 1990s, the municipal government regulatory mechanisms expanded, as did their capacity to regulate peri-urban areas. The 1994 fiscal reforms resulted in the need of local governments to generate non-tax revenue, which they did in the form of revenues through land development and use fees. This resulted in their increase in both administrative size and geographic size. From 2002 to at least 2023,

7300-671: The legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is constitutionally enshrined as "the highest state organ of power." As China's political system has no separation of powers , there is only one branch of government which is represented by the legislature. The CCP through the NPC enacts unified leadership, which requires that all state organs, from the Supreme People's Court to the President of China , are elected by, answerable to, and have no separate powers than those granted to them by

7400-511: The main deliberative bodies of China, and are often referred to as the Two Sessions . Aside from the CCP, eight minor political parties participate, but are non- oppositional and have no real power. They must accept the primacy of the CCP to exist and their members are preapproved by the CCP's United Front Work Department . The NPC, elected for a term of five years, holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in

7500-409: The objections to racial profiling are not rooted in the practice per se but in background injustice in our societies . Instead of banning racial profiling, they argue, efforts should be made to remedy racial injustice in our societies. Opponents of racial profiling have claimed that those who support racial profiling grossly underestimate the harms done by racial profiling and fail to recognize how

7600-567: The operations of the government, and to elect the major officials of state. Its delegates are elected for a five-year term through a multi-tiered electoral system . According to the Constitution, the NPC is the highest state institution within China's political system. The NPC and the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various people's organizations , are

7700-514: The paramount leader's de facto control over the government, but at the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, Xi Jinping's term limits were removed and his powers were expanded. Under the PRC's constitution, the President of the People's Republic of China is a largely ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by

7800-563: The party and state systems. The commission is headed by the CMC Chairman. The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest state supervisory ( anti-corruption ) agency of China. At the same administrative ranking as the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate , it supervises all public officials who exercise public power. It closely operates together with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of

7900-457: The party leads them all." Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping , there were proposals to increase the separation of the state and the party, especially advocated by more liberal officials such as Zhao Ziyang . The proposals included abolishing CCP committees from some government departments, increasing the influence of the State Council, and having professional managers leader SOEs instead of CCP committees. These proposals were abandoned after

8000-446: The party's chief staff, vice premiers, and the party secretaries of China's most important municipalities and provinces. Ministers and provincial governors are next in rank, followed by deputy ministers and deputy provincial governors. Ministry director generals and sub provincial municipality mayors rank below this, followed by ministry deputy director generals and third-tier city mayors. There are five ranks below these which reach to

8100-416: The period 2003–2008. The Ontario Human Rights Commission states that " police services have acknowledged that racial profiling does occur and have taken [and are taking] measures to address [the issue], including upgrading training for officers, identifying officers at risk of engaging in racial profiling, and improving community relations". Ottawa Police addressed this issue and planned on implementing

8200-608: The police at higher rates” than their White counterparts, and Latinx men are killed at higher rates than White men. African American men are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police than White men. Unlawful and wrongful death in the cases of George Floyd and Sonya Massey have been attributed to extreme racial profiling and met with social media outburst and growing attention towards the Black Lives Matter and Say Her Name movements. The Terry v. Ohio court case of 1968 has also led to countless incidents of racial profiling in

8300-558: The police, and investigations to promote accountability and remedy. Ethnic profiling against Tigrayans occurred during the Tigray War that started in November 2020, with Ethiopians of Tigrayan ethnicity being put on indefinite leave from Ethiopian Airlines or refused permission to board, prevented from overseas travel, and an "order of identifying ethnic Tigrayans from all government agencies and NGOs" being used by federal police to request

8400-558: The potential threat justifies inconveniencing a certain ethnic group ." The General Law on Population (Reglamento de la Ley General de Poblacion) of 2000 in Mexico has been cited as being used to racially profile and abuse immigrants to Mexico. Mexican law makes illegal immigration punishable by law and allows law officials great discretion in identifying and questioning illegal immigrants. Mexico has been criticized for its immigration policy. Chris Hawley of USA Today stated that "Mexico has

8500-511: The practice can exacerbate racism . Adam Omar Hosein argues that racial profiling may be permissible under certain circumstances, but the present circumstances (in the United States ) make it unjust. The costs of racial profiling for black communities in the U.S. are much higher than Risse and Zeckhauer account for. Racial profiling can make targeted individuals assume they have an inferior political status, which can lead to an alienation from

8600-576: The racial profiling unlawful and in violation of anti-discrimination provisions in Art. 3 Basic Law and the General Equal Treatment Act of 2006. The civil rights organisation Büro zur Umsetzung von Gleichbehandlung (Office for the Implementation of Equal Treatment) makes a distinction between criminal profiling, which is legitimate in Germany, and ethnic profiling, which is not. According to

8700-493: The results. New policies are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback. This method of first implementing policy through local pilot testing was also used during the Mao era. Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to

8800-402: The rise of urbanization , conflated with gentrification . The US harbors a sense of fear and danger in people of color through the uncontested use of racial profiling in day-to-day interactions - from personal implicit biases, overt and covert racist laws and practices, and discriminatory law enforcement agencies. Sociologist Robert Staples said that racial profiling in the U.S. is “not merely

8900-464: The same rights as other Chinese nationals before the Embassy? On December 3, 2019 Deutschlandfunk reported that China has been using DNA samples collected in the prison camps together with facial recognition technology to "map faces", a project which had been supported by European scientists. There were concerns that the system is used to facilitate ethnic profiling . The German Max Planck Society founded

9000-442: The state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state." The integration of the CCP and the state has accelerated under Xi Jinping, chairing eight party commissions that direct government bodies. Under Xi, several government and party bodies have also merged, with one party organization having an external state government name under the one institution with two names system, further integrating party and

9100-459: The state. The Constitution of the PRC was first created on 20 September 1954, before which an interim constitution -like document created by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was in force. The second promulgation in 1975 shortened the constitution to just about 30 articles, containing CCP slogans and revolutionary language throughout. The role of courts was slashed, and

9200-414: The state. This can make racial profiling turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy when an individual is more likely to commit a crime because they are perceived as a criminal. Hosein also points to an epistemic problem. Arguments in favor of racial profiling are based on the premise that there is a correlation between belonging to a specific racial group and committing certain crimes. However, should such

9300-655: The street and public places. In 2011, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) urged the Spanish government to take "effective measures" to ethnic profiling, including the modification of existing laws and regulations which permit its practice. In 2013, the UN Special Rapporteur , Mutuma Ruteere, described the practice of ethnic profiling by Spanish law enforcement officers "a persisting and pervasive problem". In 2014,

9400-605: The supreme command and control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police, and the Militia. It operates within the CCP under the name "Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China", and as the military arm of the central government under the name "Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China". Under the arrangement of " one institution with two names ", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both

9500-442: The title was " Chairman "; after 1982, this translation was changed to " President ", although the Chinese title remains unchanged. In March 2018, presidential term limits were abolished. The State Council is the chief administrative authority and national cabinet of China. It is appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the premier and includes the heads of each governmental department and agency. The premier

9600-477: The trip in order to search for inconsistencies. Although numerous civil rights groups have demanded an end to the profiling, the Israeli government maintains that it is both effective and unavoidable. According to Ariel Merari , an Israeli terrorism expert, "it would be foolish not to use profiling when everyone knows that most terrorists come from certain ethnic groups. They are likely to be Muslim and young, and

9700-532: The vast system was published in the spring of 2019 by the NYT who called it "automated racism". In research projects aided by European institutions it has combined the facial output with people's DNA, to create an ethnic profile. The DNA was collected at the prison camps, which are interning more than one million Uyghurs, as had been corroborated in November 2019 by data leaks, such as the China Cables . In February 2012,

9800-692: Was extended after a run of controversial court cases in the 1960s in which people of color were facing higher rates of frisking and intimidation. This extension says that police must obey the law while enforcing it. Although the Supreme Court has claimed continued adherence to objectivity in the face of Fourth Amendment cases, American police employ racial profiling with harmful consequences. Recent incidents of racial profiling, often in mundane situations like traffic stops, have resulted in unnecessary violence and deaths. Data suggest that “African American and American Indian/Alaska Native women and men are killed by

9900-476: Was first established in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi . Liu fell into political disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, but with reduced powers. The official English-language translation of

10000-747: Was signed by Zhu Hailun , head of Xinjiang's Political and Legal Commission A, then deputy secretary of Xinjiang's Party Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . According to the American delegate to the UN committee on the elimination of racial discrimination, China is holding one million Uyghurs in these camps. The 4 bulletins are secret government intelligence briefings from China's centralized data collection system "Integrated Joint Operation Platform" (IJOP), which uses artificial intelligence to identify people for questioning and potential detention. It illustrated

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