79°S 100°W / 79°S 100°W / -79; -100
128-547: The Chilean Antarctic Territory , or Chilean Antarctica (Spanish: Territorio Chileno Antártico , Antártica Chilena), is a part of West Antarctica and nearby islands claimed by Chile . It comprises the region south of 60°S latitude and between longitudes 53°W and 90°W , partially overlapping the Antarctic claims of Argentina ( Argentine Antarctica ) and the United Kingdom ( British Antarctic Territory ). It constitutes
256-643: A biodiversity region known as Marielandia Antarctic tundra (after Marie Byrd Land ). This area has the warmest climate in Antarctica and the moss and lichen -covered rocks are free of snow during the summer months, although the weather is still intensely cold and the growing season very short. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from "West Antarctica" . Geographic Names Information System . United States Geological Survey . Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558)
384-741: A Dutch expedition to the East Indies in 1599. Gerritsz may have sighted the South Shetland Islands , though there are doubts about his trustworthiness. Other authorities place the first sighting of mainland Antarctica as late as 27 January 1820 by an expedition of the Imperial Russian Navy led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen . Open ocean south of South America was reported by the Spanish navigator Francisco de Hoces in 1525 and by Sir Francis Drake in 1578. The existence of Drake Passage
512-576: A baby in 1500. Charles's mother went into labour at a ball in February 1500. He was named in honour of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who had tried to turn the Burgundian State into a continuous territory. When Charles was born, a poet at the court reported that the people of Ghent "shouted Austria and Burgundy throughout the whole city for three hours" to celebrate his birth. Given the dynastic situation,
640-622: A monastery. Indeed, his son and heir, later Philip II of Spain , was born and raised in Castile. Nonetheless, many Spaniards believed that their resources (largely consisting of flows of silver from the Americas) were being used to sustain Imperial-Habsburg policies that were not in the country's interest. Charles inherited the Austrian hereditary lands in 1519, as Charles I of Austria , and obtained
768-471: A narrow channel. And those two seas which clamour to join, passing along it, beat the rocks and spread out their waves, preventing numerous islands from joining together. At this point the land is split; here the waters can communicate. Magellan, Sir, was the first to open this path, which was then given his name. A circle located '27 degrees from the South Pole' corresponds to a latitude of 63 degrees south, on
896-554: A note on November 12 November 1940, rejecting Chile's claim and expressing a potential claim to the same area. In January 1942, Argentina declared Antarctic rights between the meridians 25° W and 68° 24' W, the westernmost meridian passing through Punta Dúngeness , the southernmost point of mainland Argentina. On September 2, 1946, Decree No. 8944 expanded the bundary for the Argentine Antarctic Sector , widening this sector out to 74° W. Chile began to exercise sovereignty in
1024-539: A southern land that he believed was a continent. In 1823, James Weddell claimed to have discovered the sea that now bears his name, lying inside the Antarctic Circle to the east of the Antarctic peninsula. The hunting of baleen whales and South American sea lions began to increase in the following years. In 1831, Chile's liberator Bernardo O'Higgins wrote to the Royal Navy , saying: Old and new Chile extends, on
1152-426: A stormy sea of icebergs , won him national and international recognition. On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Queen Maud Land between 0° and 20°W. This prompted President Pedro Aguirre Cerda of Chile to encourage the definition of Chilean territory in the Antarctic. Following Decree No. 1541 on September 7, he organized a commission which set the bounds of Chilean territory according to
1280-522: A surviving Trastámara heir to the throne, so Charles remained the heir presumptive to the Iberian realms. With his father dead and his mother confined, Charles became Duke of Burgundy and was recognised as Prince of Asturias (heir presumptive of Castile) and honorific Archduke (heir apparent of Austria). The Burgundian inheritance included the Habsburg Netherlands , which consisted of a large number of
1408-720: A sword and a helmet, objects of Burgundian chivalric tradition representing, respectively, the instrument of war and the symbol of peace. The death in July 1500 of the young heir presumptive Miguel de Paz to the Iberian realms of his maternal grandparents meant baby Charles's future inheritance potentially expanded to include Castile, Aragon, and the overseas possessions in the Americas. In 1501, his parents Philip and Joanna left Charles in care of Philip's step-grandmother Margaret of York in Mechelen and went to Spain. The main goal of their Spanish mission
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#17328448482131536-587: A year later. Charles of Austria was born on 24 February 1500 in the Prinsenhof of Ghent , a Flemish city of the Habsburg Netherlands , to Philip of Austria and Joanna of Trastámara . His father Philip, nicknamed Philip the Handsome , was the firstborn son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor , Archduke of Austria , and Mary of Burgundy , heiress to the Burgundian Netherlands . Charles's mother Joanna
1664-468: Is a hypothesis that it could have life; this would have developed in conditions of extreme isolation and the lake is encapsulated. Coastal areas north of the Antarctic Peninsula and in the South Shetland Islands , have a subarctic climate or tundra , that is, the average temperature in the warmest month exceeds 0 °C (32 °F) and much is permafrost . The rest of the territory is under
1792-705: Is exercised in conformity with the Antarctic Treaty of 1959. This treaty established that Antarctic activities are to be devoted exclusively to peaceful purposes by the signatories and acceding countries, thereby freezing territorial disputes and preventing the construction of new claims or the expansion of existing ones. The Chilean Antarctic Territory corresponds geographically to time zones UTC-4 , UTC-5 , and UTC-6 , but as with Magallanes it uses UTC-3 year-round. Chile currently has 13 active Antarctic bases: 4 permanent, 5 seasonal, and 4 shelters. For many years, cartographers and European explorers speculated about
1920-612: Is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly. Over the past 50 years, the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula has been – and still is – one of the most rapidly warming parts of the planet, and the coasts of the Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become (in summer) ice-free. These constitute
2048-705: Is located predominantly in Lesser Antarctica or West Antarctica , which includes the Antarctic Peninsula, known in Chile as O'Higgins Land . Forming the spine of this peninsula are the mountains of the Antartandes , which are a continuation of the Andes mountains . Mount Hope is the highest mountain in the Antartandes, reaching 3,239 meters in altitude. The Antartandes clearly differentiate three geographic areas in O'Higgins Land:
2176-610: Is the only commune in Chile not administered by a municipality of its own). It belongs to the province of Antártica Chilena , which itself is a part of the region of Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena . The commune was created on July 11, 1961, and was part of the Magallanes Province until 1974, when the Antártica Chilena Province was created. Chilean sovereignty over the Chilean Antarctic Territory
2304-616: Is to say, modify the right of the succession, except by virtue of a formal agreement between the Corts and the King. So, upon the death of King Ferdinand II of Aragon, on 23 January 1516, Joanna inherited the Crown of Aragon , which consisted of Aragon , Majorca , Catalonia , Valencia , Naples , Sicily and Sardinia , while Charles became governor general. Nevertheless, the Flemings wished Charles to assume
2432-761: The Antártica commune of Chile. The territory covers the South Shetland Islands , the Antarctic Peninsula (called O'Higgins Land— Tierra de O'Higgins —in Chile), and the adjacent islands of Alexander Island , Charcot Island and Ellsworth Land , among others. Its boundaries are defined by Decree 1747, issued on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs : The Chilean Antarctica or Chilean Antarctic Territory is: all lands, islands, islets, reefs, glaciers (pack-ice), and others, known and unknown, and respective territorial waters, existing within
2560-644: The Algiers expedition in the early 1540s frustrated his anti-Ottoman policies. After years of negotiations, Charles came to an agreement with Pope Paul III for the organization of the Council of Trent (1545). The refusal of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League to recognize the council's validity led to a war , won by Charles. However, Henry II of France offered new support to the Lutheran cause and strengthened
2688-833: The Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea (partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ), and the Weddell Sea (largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ). It may be considered a giant peninsula , stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America. West Antarctica
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#17328448482132816-616: The Battle of Pavia in 1525. To gain his freedom, Francis ceded Burgundy to Charles in the Treaty of Madrid , as well as renouncing his support of Henry II's claim over Navarre . When he was released, however, Francis had the Parlement of Paris denounce the treaty because it had been signed under duress. France then joined the League of Cognac that Pope Clement VII had formed with Henry VIII of England,
2944-464: The Battle of Pavia . In 1535, Francesco II Sforza died without heirs, and Charles V annexed the territory as a vacant Imperial state with the help of Massimiliano Stampa , one of the most influential courtiers of the late Duke. Charles successfully held on to all of its Italian territories, though they were invaded again on multiple occasions during the Italian Wars . In addition, Habsburg trade in
3072-589: The Danube river. However, by 1541, central and southern Hungary fell under Ottoman control . Suleiman won the contest for mastery of the Mediterranean, in spite of Christian victories such as the conquest of Tunis in 1535. The regular Ottoman fleet came to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean after its victories at Preveza in 1538 and Djerba in 1560 (shortly after Charles's death), which severely decimated
3200-673: The Diego Ramírez Islands and San Ildefonso . In 1906, several decrees were promulgated , including some from the National Congress of Chile , offering mining permits in the Antarctic area. In that same year, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Chile mentioned on September 18 that the delimitation of Chilean Antarctic territory would be the subject of a preliminary investigation. On June 10, 1907, Argentina formally protested and asked for mutual recognition of Antarctic territories. There
3328-485: The Endurance was trapped for weeks and ultimately crushed by the ice. There followed an episode of bravery involving both Britain and Chile. Shackleton and his crew dragged three lifeboats over the frozen sea until they came to open water again, then sailed to the desolate Elephant Island at the very northern tip of the Antarctic peninsula. Shackleton and a picked crew then sailed one boat to South Georgia Island where help
3456-577: The Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf on the Weddell Sea , and the Ross Ice Shelf on the Ross Sea . West Antarctica was named in the early 20th century. That usage became standard following the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) and explorations which disclosed that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional border between West Antarctica and East Antarctica . The Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names approved
3584-771: The Franco-Ottoman alliance with Suleiman the Magnificent . Ultimately, Charles conceded the Peace of Augsburg and abandoned his multi-national project with abdications in 1556 that divided his hereditary and imperial domains between the Spanish Habsburgs, headed by his son Philip II of Spain , and Austrian Habsburgs, headed by his brother Ferdinand . In 1557, Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste in Extremadura and died there
3712-545: The Kingdom of Sardinia . As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles was sovereign in several states of northern Italy as King of Italy . The Duchy of Milan , however, was under French control. France took Milan from the House of Sforza after victory against Switzerland at the Battle of Marignano in 1515. Imperial- Papal troops succeeded in re-installing Francesco II Sforza in Milan in 1521, in
3840-616: The Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica. The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season. Lying on the Pacific Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains, West Antarctica comprises the Antarctic Peninsula (with Graham Land and Palmer Land ) and Ellsworth Land , Marie Byrd Land and King Edward VII Land , offshore islands such as Adelaide Island , and ice shelves , notably
3968-644: The Ottomans or accompanied him in his travels, and the bulk of his army was generally composed of German troops, especially the Imperial Landsknechte . In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories that included Franche-Comté and, most notably, the Low Countries . The latter territories mostly lay within the Holy Roman Empire and its borders, but were formally divided between fiefs of
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4096-565: The Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Antarctic base on King George Island , was opened on 9 April 1984 and has an airport, a bank, a school and child care, a hospital, a supermarket, mobile telephony and television. West Antarctica West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes
4224-589: The Revolt of the Comuneros , which Charles suppressed. Comuneros released Joanna and wanted to depose Charles and support Joanna to be the sole monarch instead. While Joanna refused to depose her son, her confinement would continue after the revolt to prevent possible events alike. Immediately after crushing the Castilian revolt, Charles was confronted again with the hot issue of Navarre when King Henry II attempted to reconquer
4352-649: The Russian Tsar . Although von Bellingshausen circumnavigated the continent twice, no member of his crew ever set foot on Antarctica. In 1819, the British mariner William Smith rediscovered the South Shetland Islands, including King George Island . The American Nathaniel Palmer spotted the Antarctic Peninsula that same year. Neither of them went ashore on the actual continental landmass. However, in 1821, Connecticut seal hunter John Davis reported setting foot on
4480-684: The Safavid Empire to open a second front against the Ottomans, in an attempt at creating a Habsburg–Persian alliance . Contacts were positive, but rendered difficult by enormous distances. In effect, however, the Safavids did enter in conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman–Safavid War , forcing it to split its military resources. During the 1541 expedition of Algiers , the losses amongst
4608-552: The Spanish Navy . At the same time, the Muslim Barbary corsairs , acting under the general authority and supervision of the sultan, regularly devastated the Spanish and Italian coasts and crippled Spanish trade. The advance of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean and central Europe chipped at the foundations of Habsburg power and diminished Imperial prestige. In 1536, Francis I allied France with Suleiman against Charles. While Francis
4736-427: The Western Extended Continental Shelf of the Chilean Antarctic Territory. In August of the same year, it delivered oral presentations for both partial reports during the 55th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in New York. In 2023, the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy made available an illustrative graphic showing all the maritime areas claimed by
4864-564: The conquest of Nice by a Franco-Ottoman fleet , the French could not advance toward Milan, while a joint Anglo-Imperial invasion of northern France, led by Charles himself, won some successes but was ultimately abandoned, leading to another peace and restoration of the status quo ante bellum in 1544. A final war erupted with Francis' son and successor, Henry II , in 1551. Henry won early success in Lorraine , where he captured Metz , but French offensives in Italy failed. Charles abdicated midway through this conflict, leaving further conduct of
4992-554: The election as Holy Roman Emperor against the candidacy of the French king. Since the Imperial election, he was known as Emperor Charles V even outside of Germany. The dynastic motto of the House of Habsburg used by Charles was A.E.I.O.U. ("Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universo" — "it is Austria's destiny to rule the world"; although its exact meaning remains disputed). Charles staunchly defended Catholicism as Lutheranism spread. Various German princes broke with him on religious grounds, fighting against him. Charles's presence in Germany
5120-425: The epic poem La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla , is considered by Chileans to give encouragement to their territorial claims in Antarctica. In the seventh stanza of his Canto I: Northern Chile is of great length; it is called the coast of the new Sea of the South. From east to west it is narrow, 100 miles at its broadest, and at 27 degrees from the South Pole, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans mix their waters in
5248-405: The southern Italian kingdoms of Naples , Sicily and Sardinia . In the Americas, he oversaw the continuation of Spanish colonization and a short-lived German colonization . The personal union of the European and American territories he ruled was the first collection of realms labelled " the empire on which the sun never sets ". Charles was born in Flanders to Habsburg Archduke Philip
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5376-451: The viceroy of Peru , Luis de Velasco y Castilla . The goal of this expedition was to repress the incursions of Dutch privateers in the Southern Seas as far as 64 degrees south latitude. No documents confirming the latitude reached or land sighted have been found in the Spanish archives. However, a story told by the Dutch sailor Laurenz Claesz (date unknown, but probably after 1607), gives interesting details. Claesz said: [They] sailed under
5504-427: The Admiral don Gabriel of Castile with three ships along the coasts of Chile towards Valparaiso, and from there to the strait. In March of 1603, he reached 64 degrees and they had a lot of snow there. In the following April, they returned back to the coast of Chile. In 1622, a Dutch document was published in Amsterdam stating that at 64 degrees south there was land which was "very high and mountainous, snow cover, like
5632-412: The Antarctic Sea beyond 65° south latitude. Brown's report indicated the presence of nearby land, though he did not see any portion of the continent and no landings were made. On August 25, 1818, the government of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata , granted the first concessions for hunting earless seals and penguins in Antarctica to Juan Pedro de Aguirre, who operated
5760-595: The Antarctic area in 1947, beginning with the establishment of Sovereignty Base, currently known as Arturo Prat , in the South Shetland Islands . The following year, as a way of establishing the Chilean claims, Chilean President Gabriel Gonzalez Videla personally opened Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula . This was the first official visit of a head of state to Antarctica. On March 4, 1948, Chile and Argentina signed an agreement on mutual protection and legal defense of their Antarctic territorial rights, agreeing to act in concert to defend
5888-477: The Antarctic areas were considered res nullius , a no man's land, subject to the occupation of any nation that had the courage and ambition to send people to claim them. In 1534, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V divided the South American territory of Spain into three governorates: New Castile or Peru (to Francisco Pizarro ), New Toledo or Chile (to Diego de Almagro ) and New León (to Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor [ es ] ) also known as
6016-423: The Antarctic mainland. In 1554, the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia , who led the Governorate of Chile , talked to the Council of the Indies about giving the rights of New León and Terra Australis to Jeronimo de Alderete . After the death of Valdivia in the following year, Alderete became the governor of Chile and thereby claimed New León and Terra Australis for Chile. A Royal Decree of 1554 states: Because it
6144-454: The Argentine government followed suit. The United Kingdom submitted its written argument on March 16, 1956. On February 28, 1957, Argentine Decree Law No. 2129 established the limits of their claim as the meridians 25° and 74° W and the parallel 60° S. This continuied to overlap the territory claimed by Chile. In 1958, the U.S. president, Dwight Eisenhower , invited Chile to the International Geophysical Year Conference in an attempt to resolve
6272-474: The Castilian colonies of the West Indies and the Spanish Main , as well as Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. At the death of his grandfather Maximilian in 1519, he inherited the Austrian hereditary lands and was elected as Holy Roman Emperor. He adopted the Imperial name of Charles V as his main title, and styled himself as a new Charlemagne . Charles revitalized the medieval concept of universal monarchy . With no fixed capital, he made 40 journeys through
6400-486: The Castilian possessions in the Americas (the Spanish West Indies and the Province of Tierra Firme ) and the Aragonese kingdoms of Naples , Sicily , and Sardinia . Joanna inherited these territories in 1516 while confined, allegedly because she was mentally ill. Charles, therefore, claimed the crowns for himself jure matris , thus becoming co-monarch with Joanna with the title of Charles I of Castile and Aragon or Charles I of Spain . Castile and Aragon together formed
6528-410: The Chilean flag and established a coaling station. This area was visited by Jean-Baptiste Charcot in December 1908 to replenish coal. The site was manned during the summer seasons until 1914. On July 21, 1908, however, the United Kingdom had officially claimed sovereignty over all lands between 20°W and 80°W and south of 50°S, including the Falkland Islands and South Georgia (although not, of course,
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#17328448482136656-422: The Emperor. In 1508 Charles had been nominated by Henry VII to the Order of the Garter . His Garter stall plate survives in Saint George's Chapel . The first war with Charles's great nemesis Francis I of France began in 1521. Charles allied with England and Pope Leo X against the French and the Venetians , and was highly successful, driving the French out of Milan and defeating and capturing Francis at
6784-429: The Habsburg possessions, started a war in Italy that led to the Battle of Pavia (1525). In 1527, Rome was sacked by an army of Charles's mutinous soldiers. Charles then defended Vienna from the Turks and obtained coronations as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from Pope Clement VII . In 1535, he took possession of Milan and captured Tunis . However, the loss of Buda during the struggle for Hungary and
6912-480: The Handsome , son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Mary of Burgundy , and Joanna of Castile , younger child of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , the Catholic Monarchs of Spain . Heir of his grandparents, Charles inherited his family dominions at a young age. After his father's death in 1506, he inherited the Low Countries. In 1516 he became King of Spain as co-monarch of Castile and Aragon with his mother . Spain 's possessions included
7040-444: The Holy Roman Empire and French fiefs such as Charles's birthplace of Flanders , the last remnant of the Burgundian State , a powerful player in the Hundred Years' War . Since he was a minor, his aunt Margaret of Austria acted as regent, as appointed by Emperor Maximilian until 1515. She soon found herself at war with France over Charles's requirement to pay homage to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome
7168-459: The Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until 24 February 1558. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of emperor. Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with France , which found itself encircled by Charles's empire while it still maintained ambitions in Italy. In 1520, Charles visited England , where his aunt, Catherine of Aragon , urged her husband, Henry VIII , to ally himself with
7296-704: The Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs. The Low Countries held an essential place in the Empire. For Charles V, they were his home, the region where he was born and spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the wealth of the region's cities, the Low Countries also represented a significant income for the Imperial treasury. The Burgundian territories were generally loyal to Charles throughout his reign. The important city of Ghent rebelled in 1539 due to heavy tax payments demanded by Charles. The rebellion did not last long, however, as Charles's military response, with reinforcement from Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba ,
7424-418: The Magellanic Lands and subsequently extended to the Strait of Magellan. In 1539, a new governorate was formed south of New León called the Terra Australis under Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz . This consisted of the land south of the Strait of Magellan, i.e. Tierra del Fuego , and onward to the South Pole. At the time, the existence of the Drake Passage was not known and Tierra del Fuego thought to be part of
7552-406: The Mediterranean was consistently disrupted by the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Barbary pirates . In 1538 a Holy League consisting of all the Italian states and the Spanish kingdoms was formed to drive the Ottomans back, but it was defeated at the Battle of Preveza . Decisive naval victory eluded Charles; it would not be achieved until after his death, at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. After
7680-420: The Netherlands, which proved to be lost causes. Each hastened the economic decline of the Spanish Empire in the next generation. The enormous budget deficit accumulated during Charles's reign, along with the inflation that affected the kingdom , resulted in declaring bankruptcy during the reign of Philip II. The Crown of Aragon inherited by Charles included the Kingdom of Naples , the Kingdom of Sicily and
7808-406: The Pacific from the Mejillones Bay to New South Shetland , in latitude 65° South and on the Atlantic from San Jose Peninsula at latitude 42° to New South Shetland, that means, 23° with a glut of excellent ports on both oceans and all of them wholesome in all seasons. A simple glance at the map of South America is sufficient to prove that Chile, as is described, holds the keys of that vast portion of
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#17328448482137936-416: The Parliament of Navarre ( Cortes ) required him to attend the coronation ceremony (to become Charles IV of Navarre). Still, this demand fell on deaf ears, and the parliament kept piling up grievances. Charles was accepted as sovereign, even though the Spanish felt uneasy with the Imperial style. Spanish kingdoms varied in their traditions. Castile had become an authoritarian, highly centralized kingdom, where
8064-399: The Portuguese interpretation. The areas of Antarctica claimed by Chile today fall within the region granted to Spain by this original treaty. Though backed by the papal bull Ea quae pro bono pacis in 1506, the Treaty of Tordesillas was not recognized by several other European powers, including France and other Catholic states. For England , the Netherlands , Russia and other countries,
8192-428: The Romans , who thus became his designated successor as emperor, a move that "had profound implications for state formation in south-eastern Europe". Afterwards, Ferdinand managed to gain control of Bohemia , Croatia , and Hungary , with support from local nobles and his German vassals. Charles abdicated as emperor in 1556 in favour of his brother Ferdinand; however, due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure,
8320-418: The South American mainland). In 1917, the northern boundary of the claim was moved to 58°S, and in 1962 to the parallel 60°S. In 1914, Anglo-Irish explorer Ernest Shackleton began an expedition to cross the South Pole from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea , known as the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition . With the ship Endurance he sailed into the Weddell Sea, but the weather worsened dramatically and
8448-425: The South Atlantic In 1856, a treaty of friendship between Chile and Argentina recognized boundaries and was enacted uti possidetis juris . The growth of Chilean settlements in the Magallanes Region and especially the city of Punta Arenas allowed the founding of companies for the hunting and exploitation of whales in the Antarctic seas, which required authorization from the Chilean government. In 1894, control over
8576-425: The Spanish coat of arms since the 18th century. However, at his accession to the Iberian thrones, Charles was viewed as a foreign prince. Two rebellions, the Revolt of the Germanies and the Revolt of the Comuneros , contested Charles's rule in the 1520s. Following these revolts, Charles placed Spanish counselors in a position of power and spent a significant part of his life in Castile, including his final years in
8704-410: The Venetians, the Florentines , and the Milanese to resist imperial domination of Italy. In the ensuing war, Charles's sack of Rome (1527) and virtual imprisonment of Pope Clement VII in 1527 prevented the Pope from annulling the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon, so Henry eventually broke with Rome, thus leading to the English Reformation . In other respects,
8832-410: The annexation of Tournai , Artois , Utrecht , Groningen , and Guelders . The Seventeen Provinces had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. Charles eventually won the Guelders Wars and united all provinces under his rule, the last one being the Duchy of Guelders. In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction , declaring
8960-472: The bulk of the empire's financial resources. However, the two conflicting strategies of Charles V, enhancing the possessions of his family and protecting Catholicism against Protestant heretics, diverted resources away from building up the Spanish economy. Elite elements in Spain called for more protection for the commercial networks, which were threatened by the Ottoman Empire and Barbary pirates . Charles instead focused on defeating Protestantism in Germany and
9088-492: The children to stay with the parents. Philip was recognized King of Castile in 1506. He died shortly after, an event that was said to drive the mentally unstable Joanna into complete insanity. She was retired in isolation to the Royal Palace of Tordesillas . Charles's grandfather Ferdinand took control of all the Spanish kingdoms, under the pretext of protecting Charles's rights, which in reality he wanted to elude. Ferdinand's new marriage with Germaine de Foix failed to produce
9216-439: The claiming issues. On December 1, 1959, Chile signed the Antarctic Treaty . In July 2003, Chile and Argentina began maintaining a joint emergency shelter called Abrazo de Maipú in the Antarctic Peninsula , halfway between Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme , operated by Chile, and Esperanza Base , maintained by Argentina. It was closed in 2010. In February 2022, Chile submitted its second partial report regarding
9344-635: The claims of sovereignty of the two countries in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. Chilean Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955, added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to the Province of Magallanes , which on July 12, 1974, became the Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica . On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government formally rejected the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice in this case, and on August 1
9472-464: The context of an alliance between Charles V and Pope Leo X. A Franco-Swiss army was expelled from Lombardy at the Battle of Bicocca 1522. In 1524, Francis I of France retook the initiative, crossing into Lombardy where Milan, along with several other cities, once again fell to his attack. Pavia alone held out, and on 24 February 1525 (Charles's twenty-fifth birthday), Charles's forces led by Charles de Lannoy captured Francis and crushed his army in
9600-559: The country of Norway, all white, land. It seemed to extend to the Solomon Islands." This could be the first recorded sighting by a European of the Antarctic Peninsula . Other historians attribute the first sighting of Antarctic land to the Dutch mariner Dirk Gerritsz . According to his account, his ship was diverted from its course by a storm after passing through the Strait of Magellan as part of
9728-423: The country, including those of the continental shelf and extended continental shelf of the Chilean Antarctic Territory. The treaty states: The Chilean Antarctic Territory covers an area of 1,250,257.6 km. The thickness of ice covering the land can exceed 1,200 meters in some areas in the interior of the continent, and the extent of sea ice varies dramatically with the seasons. Chilean Antarctic Territory
9856-585: The court of his aunt Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy . William de Croÿ (later prime minister) and Adrian of Utrecht (later Pope Adrian VI ) served as his tutors. The culture and courtly life of the Low Countries played an important part in the development of Charles's beliefs. As a member of the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece in his infancy, and later its grandmaster, Charles was educated to
9984-517: The crowns of Castile and Aragon to Maximilian's male line, however, was unexpected. The marriage contract between Philip and Joanna was signed in 1495, and celebrations were held in 1496. Philip was already Duke of Burgundy (although the Duchy of Burgundy itself had been lost to the French crown), given Mary's death in 1482, and also heir apparent of Austria as honorific archduke . Joanna, in contrast,
10112-449: The death of his paternal grandfather, Maximilian , in 1519, Charles inherited the Habsburg monarchy . He was also the natural candidate of the electors to succeed his grandfather as Holy Roman Emperor . He defeated the candidacies of Frederick III of Saxony , Francis I of France , and Henry VIII of England in the 1519 Imperial election . According to some, Charles became emperor due to
10240-626: The decentralized structure of the Empire proved resilient, not least because of the Reformation . It was exactly during this crucial period, Charles V and Ferdinand were too busy with non-German affairs to prevent Imperial Cities in Upper Germany from becoming estranged from Imperial power. Due to Charles V's difficulties in coordinating between the Austrian, Hungarian fronts and his Mediterranean fronts in
10368-516: The different entities he ruled and spent a quarter of his reign travelling within his realms. Although his empire came to him peacefully, he spent most of his life waging war, exhausting his revenues and leaving debts in his attempt to defend the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Reformation , the expansion of the Ottoman Empire , and in wars with France . Charles borrowed money from German and Italian bankers and, to repay them, relied on
10496-571: The end Charles was accepted under the following conditions: he would learn to speak Castilian ; he would not appoint foreigners; he was prohibited from taking precious metals from Castile beyond the Quinto Real ; and he would respect the rights of his mother, Queen Joanna. The Cortes paid homage to him in Valladolid in February 1518. After this, Charles departed to the Crown of Aragon. He managed to overcome
10624-511: The existence of the Terra Australis Incognita , a landmass potentially of vast size located south of the Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego . On June 7, 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed between Spain and Portugal. This treaty gave rights to newly discovered territories to the two countries according to a line running from pole to pole; at 46° 37'W in the Spanish classical interpretation and farther west according to
10752-580: The exploitation of marine resources south of latitude 54 degrees south was given to the Punta Arenas Municipality. In the early years of the 20th century, interest in the Antarctic territories increased. Some expeditions to Antarctica asked permission from the government of Chile, among these being those of Otto Nordenskjöld in 1902 and of Robert F. Scott in 1900. Chile also granted mining permits, such as that conferred on December 31, 1902, by Decree No. 3310 allowing Pedro Pablo Benavides to lease
10880-514: The face of the Ottoman threat, as well as in his German, Burgundian and Italian theatres of war against German Protestant Princes and France, the defense of central Europe, as well as many responsibilities involving the management of the Empire, was subcontracted to Ferdinand. Charles V abdicated as Archduke of Austria in 1522, and nine years after that he had the German princes elect Ferdinand as King of
11008-512: The fact that by paying huge bribes to the electors, he was the highest bidder. He won the crown on 28 June 1519. On 23 October 1520, he was crowned in Germany and some ten years later, on 24 February 1530 , he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna , the last emperor to receive a papal coronation . Others point out that while the electors were paid, this was not the reason for
11136-457: The government became more absolute, even though until his mother died in 1555, Charles did not hold absolute power in the country. Soon resistance to the Emperor arose because of heavy taxation to support foreign wars in which Castilians had little interest and because Charles tended to select Flemings for high offices in Castile and America, ignoring Castilian candidates. The resistance culminated in
11264-499: The heiress of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret . Jeanne was instead forced to marry William, Duke of Julich-Cleves-Berg , but that childless marriage was annulled after four years. She next married Antoine de Bourbon , and both she and their son Henry of Navarre would oppose Philip II in the French Wars of Religion . After its integration into Charles's empire, Castile guaranteed effective military units and its American possessions provided
11392-478: The ideals of the medieval knights and the desire for Christian unity to fight the infidel. The Low Countries were very rich during his reign, both economically and culturally . Charles was very attached to his homeland and spent a large part of his life in Brussels and various Flemish cities. The Spanish inheritance, resulting from a dynastic union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon , included Spain as well as
11520-532: The kingdom . Main military operations lasted until 1524, when Hondarribia surrendered to Charles's forces, but frequent cross-border clashes in the western Pyrenees only stopped in 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai ). After these events, Navarre remained a matter of domestic and international litigation still for a century (a French dynastic claim to the throne did not end until the July Revolution in 1830). Charles wanted his son and heir Philip II to marry
11648-521: The kingdom. Charles arrived in his new kingdoms in autumn of 1517. Jiménez de Cisneros came to meet him but fell ill along the way, not without a suspicion of poison, and he died before reaching the King. Due to the irregularity of Charles assuming the royal title while his mother, the legitimate queen, was alive, the negotiations with the Castilian Cortes in Valladolid (1518) proved difficult. In
11776-479: The largest of Charles's personal possessions, and they also provided a great number of generals and tercios (the formidable Spanish infantry of the time), while Joanna remained confined in Tordesillas until her death. Plus Ultra , the rendition from French into Latin of Charles's personal motto "Plus Oultre" ( Further Beyond ), later became the national motto of Spain and features on the country's flag as part of
11904-527: The limits of the cap constituted by the meridians 53° longitude west of Greenwich and 90° longitude west of Greenwich. The commune of Antártica has an area of 1,250,257.6 km. If reckoned as Chilean national territory, it comprises 62.28% of the total area of the country. It is managed by the municipality of Cabo de Hornos with a seat in Puerto Williams in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago (thus Antártica
12032-513: The lordships that formed the Low Countries and covered modern-day Belgium , Netherlands and Luxembourg . It excluded Burgundy proper, annexed by France in 1477, with the exception of Franche-Comté . At the death of Philip in 1506, Charles was recognized Lord of the Netherlands with the title of Charles II of Burgundy . During his childhood and teen years, Charles lived in Mechelen together with his sisters Mary , Eleanor , and Isabella at
12160-506: The moment he became King of the Romans in 1486, Charles's paternal grandfather Maximilian had carried a very financially risky policy of maximum expansionism, relying mostly on the resources of the Austrian hereditary lands. Even though it is often implied (among others, by Erasmus of Rotterdam ) that Charles V and the Habsburgs gained their vast empire through peaceful policies (exemplified by
12288-458: The monarch's own will easily overrode legislative and justice institutions. By contrast, in the Crown of Aragon, and especially in the Pyrenean Kingdom of Navarre, law prevailed, and the monarchy was seen as a contract with the people . This became an inconvenience and a matter of dispute for Charles V and later kings since realm-specific traditions limited their absolute power. With Charles,
12416-413: The name in 1962. West Antarctica is mostly covered by a massive ice sheet referred to as the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . In recent decades, this ice sheet has shown signs of decreasing mass. The geologic history of West Antarctica was summarized in a 2020 publication. The parts of West Antarctica not covered with ice ( Antarctic oasis ), which are the coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula , constitute
12544-689: The newborn was originally heir apparent only of the Burgundian Low Countries as the honorific Duke of Luxembourg and second in line to the Austrian duchies, becoming known in his early years simply as "Charles of Ghent". He was baptised at the Church of Saint John by the Bishop of Tournai . The Burgundian nobles Charles I de Croÿ and John III of Glymes were his godfathers, and Margaret of York and Margaret of Austria , respectively his step-grandmother and aunt, his godmothers. Charles's baptism gifts were
12672-434: The outcome, or at most played only a small part. The important factor that swayed the final decision was that Frederick refused the offer, and made a speech in support of Charles on the ground that they needed a strong leader against the Ottomans, Charles had the resources and was a prince of German extraction. Although even at the beginning of his reign, his position was more powerful than that of any of his predecessors,
12800-617: The regime of a polar climate . Precipitation in the territory is relatively rare and decreases towards the South Pole, creating polar desert conditions. The Antártica Commune had a population of 150 inhabitants on the Chilean bases according to a census conducted nationwide in 2012, corresponding to 54 civilians and 96 military. These people were mostly members of the Chilean Air Force and their families, who lived predominantly in Villa Las Estrellas . This town, located next to
12928-702: The representative of India at the United Nations presented a project for the internationalization of Antarctica. The Chilean ambassador in New Delhi , Miguel Serrano , however, persuaded the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to withdraw the proposal. On May 4, 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits against Argentina and Chile before the International Court of Justice , to declare invalid
13056-473: The resistance of the Aragonese Cortes and Catalan Corts , and he was recognized as King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona jointly with his mother, while his mother was kept confined and could only rule in name. The Kingdom of Navarre had been invaded by Ferdinand of Aragon jointly with Castile in 1512, but he pledged a formal oath to respect the kingdom. On Charles's accession to the Spanish thrones,
13184-496: The rights of both countries in Antarctica, while leaving the delimitation of their territories for a later date. The governments agreed that "between the meridians 25° and 90° west longitude from Greenwich, indisputable sovereign rights are recognized by Chile and Argentina," stating that "Chile and Argentina have unquestionable rights of sovereignty in the polar area called American Antarctica" ( Antártida Americana in Spanish). In 1953,
13312-438: The royal title, and this was supported by Emperor Maximilian I and Pope Leo X . Thus, after the commemoration of Ferdinand II's obsequies on 14 March 1516, Charles was proclaimed king of the crowns of Castile and Aragon jointly with his mother. Finally, when the Castilian regent Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros accepted the fait accompli , he acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king and imposed his instatement throughout
13440-690: The same borders as their predecessor Spanish colonies. Thus the Republic of Chile included all lands formerly belonging to the Captaincy General of Chile , including claims over portions of Antarctica. In 1815, the Argentine-Irish Admiral William Brown launched a campaign to harass the Spanish fleet in the Pacific Ocean and, when passing Cape Horn with the Argentine vessels Hércules and Trinidad , his ships were driven down into
13568-416: The saying Bella gerant aliī, tū fēlix Austria nūbe / Nam quae Mars aliīs, dat tibi regna Venus or "Let others wage war, but thou, O happy Austria, marry; for those kingdoms which Mars gives to others, Venus gives to thee.", reportedly spoken by Mathias Corvinus ), Maximilian and his descendants fought wars aplenty (Maximilian alone fought 27 wars during his four decades of ruling). His general strategy
13696-761: The ship Espíritu Santo based on Deception Island . Espíritu Santo was joined by the American brig Hercilia . The fact that the Argentine sealers were able to sail directly to the island can be regarded as evidence that its location was already known. Between 1819 and 1821, the Russian ships Vostok and Mirny , under the command of the German Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen in Russian service, explored Antarctic waters, as already noted. In 1821, at 69°W 53'S, he sighted an island which he called Alexander I Land , after
13824-593: The southern side of the Drake Passage and just north of the Antarctic Peninsula . However, ambiguity suggests that a misplaced Strait of Magellan may be referred to. There are other stories and maps, both Chilean and European, indicating that Terra Australis and Antarctica were claimed by the Captaincy General of Chile for the Spanish Empire . In March 1603, the Spanish navigator Gabriel de Castilla sailed from Valparaiso entrusted with three ships belonging to
13952-463: The theory of polar areas, taking into account geographical, historical, legal, and diplomatic precedents. The bounds were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955. The Chilean claim extended no farther east than the 53°W meridian; thus the claim excluded the South Orkney Islands in favor of Argentina. Nevertheless, Argentina formally protested in
14080-514: The war to his son, Philip II , and his brother, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor . Charles fought continually with the Ottoman Empire and its sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent . The defeat of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 "sent a wave of terror over Europe." The Muslim advance in Central Europe was halted at the Siege of Vienna (1529) , followed by a counter-attack of Charles V across
14208-460: The war was inconclusive. In the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), called the "Ladies' Peace" because it was negotiated between Charles's aunt and Francis' mother, Francis renounced his claims in Italy but retained control of Burgundy. A third war erupted in 1536. Following the death of Francesco II Sforza , Charles installed his son Philip in the Duchy of Milan , despite Francis' claims on it. This war too
14336-645: The wealth of the Low Countries and on flow of silver from New Spain and Peru , brought under his rule following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires, which caused widespread inflation . Crowned King of Germany in Aachen , Charles sided with Pope Leo X and declared Martin Luther an outlaw at the Diet of Worms in 1521. The same year, Francis I of France , surrounded by
14464-566: The western slope, the central plateau and the eastern slope. To the southwest of the Antarctic Peninsula, within the land claimed by Chile, are the highest summits of the Antarctic continent, a part of the Sentinel Range including the Vinson Massif at 4,897 m, Mount Tyree at 4,852 m and Mount Shinn at 4,800 m in height. The claimed territory has a subglacial lake , the Lake CECs , which
14592-573: Was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy from 1506 to 1555. He was heir to and then head of the rising House of Habsburg . His dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire , extending from Germany to northern Italy with rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and Burgundian Low Countries , and Spain with its possessions of
14720-518: Was a younger daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile , the Catholic Monarchs of Spain from the House of Trastámara . The political marriage of Philip and Joanna was first conceived in a letter sent by Maximilian to Ferdinand to seal an Austro-Spanish alliance, established as part of the League of Venice directed against the Kingdom of France during the Italian Wars . From
14848-639: Was confirmed when the Dutch navigator Willem Schouten became the first to sail around Cape Horn en route to the East Indies in 1616. In 1772, the British explorer Captain James Cook circumnavigated the Southern Ocean . After the colonies in the Americas had gained their independence, the new Spanish republics agreed amongst themselves to recognize the principle of uti possidetis , meaning new states would have
14976-598: Was discovered in January 2014 by scientists of Centro de Estudios Científicos headquartered in Valdivia, Chile , and was validated in May 2015 with the publication of its existence in the journal Geophysical Research Letters . The lake has an estimated area of 18 km, lies 2.6 km deep under the ice and is located in a buffer zone of three major glaciers, in an area designated low-disturbance with ice motion almost nonexistent. There
15104-433: Was inconclusive. Francis failed to conquer Milan, but he succeeded in conquering most of the lands of Charles's ally, Charles III, Duke of Savoy , including his capital Turin . A truce at Nice in 1538 on the basis of uti possidetis ended the war but lasted only a short time. War resumed in 1542 , with Francis now allied with Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and Charles once again allied with Henry VIII. Despite
15232-574: Was obtained. However, three attempts to reach the rest of the expedition on Elephant Island were turned back by pack ice. Finally, in Punta Arenas , Shackleton obtained the help of the Chilean navy tugboat Yelcho , captained by Luis Pardo Villalón , which managed to rescue the remaining survivors. On 4 September 1916, they were received at the port of Punta Arenas as heroes. Captain Pardo's feat, sailing with temperatures close to −30 °C (−22 °F) and
15360-722: Was often marked by the organization of imperial diets to maintain religious and political unity. He was frequently in Northern Italy, often taking part in complicated negotiations with the Popes to address the rise of Protestantism. It is important to note, though, that the German Catholics supported the Emperor. Charles had a close relationship with important German families, like the House of Nassau , many of which were represented at his imperial court. Many German princes, noblemen and generals led his military campaigns against France and
15488-510: Was only third in the Spanish line of succession , preceded by her older brother John, Prince of Asturias and older sister Isabella of Aragon . Both heirs to the crowns of Castile and Aragon John and Isabella died in 1498, and the Catholic Monarchs desired to keep the Spanish kingdoms in Iberian hands, so they designated their Portuguese grandson Miguel da Paz as heir presumptive of Spain by naming him Prince of Asturias ; but he died as
15616-657: Was personally consulted, we will grant to the Captain Jeronimo de Alderete the land across the Magellan Strait. Later, in 1558, the Royal Decree of Brussels prompted the Chilean colonial government to "take ownership in our name from the lands and provinces that fall in the demarcation of the Spanish crown," referring to the land "across the Strait," i.e. Terra Australis. One of the most important works of Spanish literature,
15744-453: Was persuaded to sign a peace treaty in 1538, he again allied himself with the Ottomans in 1542 in a Franco-Ottoman alliance . In 1543, Charles allied himself with Henry VIII and forced Francis to sign the Truce of Crépy-en-Laonnois . Later, in 1547, Charles signed a humiliating treaty with the Ottomans to gain himself some respite from the huge expenses of their war. Charles V made overtures to
15872-660: Was swift and humiliating to the rebels of Ghent. In the Castilian Cortes of Valladolid in 1506 and of Madrid in 1510, Charles was sworn as the Prince of Asturias , heir-apparent to his mother Queen Joanna . On the other hand, in 1502, the Aragonese Corts gathered in Zaragoza and pledged an oath to Joanna as heiress-presumptive, but Alonso de Aragón , Archbishop of Zaragoza, (an illegitimate son of King Ferdinand) expressed firmly that this oath could not establish jurisprudence, that
16000-470: Was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528. From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants (led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama ). The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and executed in 1523. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with
16128-675: Was the recognition of Joanna as Princess of Asturias, given Prince Miguel's death a year earlier. They succeeded despite facing some opposition from the Castilian Cortes , which were reluctant to create the premises for Habsburg succession. In 1504, when her mother Isabella died, Joanna became Queen of Castile . Charles only met his father again in 1503 while his mother returned in 1504 (after giving birth to Ferdinand in Spain). The Spanish Ambassador Gutierre Gómez de Fuensalida reported that Philip often visited and they had lots of fun. The couple's unhappy marriage and Joanna's unstable mental state however created many difficulties, making it unsafe for
16256-406: Was to combine his intricate systems of alliance, wars, military threats and offers of marriage to realize his expansionist ambitions. Ultimately he succeeded in coercing Bohemia , Hungary and Poland into acquiescence in the Habsburgs' expansionist plan. The fact that the marriages between the Habsburgs and the Trastámaras, originally conceived as a marital alliance against France, would bring
16384-427: Was work on a treaty to more concretely define territories in the region, but it was never signed. On May 8, 1906, the Whaling Society of Magallanes was created with a base in Punta Arenas. On December 1, the society was authorized to expand its territory to the South Shetland Islands , as allowed by Decree No. 1314 of the governor of Magallanes. The group expanded to Whalers Bay on Deception Island , where they hoisted
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