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118-507: Mainly used for the purpose of conducting ceremonies for foreign governors, the hall is a designed concrete structure which radiates in a fan shape referencing a palm leaf. The design combines traditional building elements ( Khmer architecture ) with a modern structure. Chaktomuk Hall takes it name "from the original site of Phnom Penh at the junction of four rivers", the Upper and the Lower Mekong,

236-484: A "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor . The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are

354-459: A background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century,

472-484: A common feature of the Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Srahs and barays were reservoirs , generally created by excavation and embankment , respectively. It

590-753: A connection to the South China Sea. Although the hydraulic relationships between the Mekong and the Tonle Sap Great Lake systems during the Holocene are not well understood, it is clear that between 9,000 and 7,500 years ago the confluence of the Tonle Sap and the Mekong was in proximity to the South China Sea. The present river morphology of the Mekong Delta developed over the last 6,000 years. During this period,

708-534: A decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra . The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor. The kala

826-461: A guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group. The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery. Garuda is a divine being that

944-475: A high evaporation rate means it is classified as a semi-arid region. Consequently, although the Mun and Chi basins drain 15% of the entire Mekong basin, they only contribute 6% of the average annual flow. Sandy and saline soils are the most common soil types, which makes much of the land unsuitable for wet rice cultivation. In spite of poor fertility, however, agriculture is intensive. Glutinous rice, maize, and cassava are

1062-510: A large part of mainland Southeast Asia . At that time, Khmer was known as the Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of the Khmer empire. Latest research reveals that the Khmer already erected stone buildings in the protohistoric period, which they used for the worship of mighty tutelary spirits . This earliest extant architecture consists of relatively small cells made from prefabricated megalithic construction parts, which probably date at least to

1180-451: A light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation. A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean lacked the ability to construct a true arch , they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling . A pediment is

1298-464: A major distinction in the low-flow hydrology of the river. One fraction comes from melting snow in China and Tibet and the rest from over-season catchment storage in the lower basin. This has implications for the occurrence of drought conditions. For example, if runoff from melting snow in any given year is very low, then flows upstream of Vientiane - Nong Khai would be lower. In a large river system like

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1416-575: A maximum of about 4.5 m (15 ft) above present levels in the early Holocene about 8 ka. At this time the shoreline of the South China Sea almost reached Phnom Penh and cores recovered from near Angkor Borei contained sediments deposited under the influence of tides, and salt marsh and mangrove swamp deposits. Sediments deposited in the Tonle Sap Great Lake about this time (7.9–7.3 ka) also show indications of marine influence, suggesting

1534-748: A requiem memorial event in Chaktomuk Hall about the Phnom Penh stampede that happened in 2010 which had killed 353 people on the bridge to Koh Pich island in the hall. Since 2019, Chaktomuk has been the venue chosen by the Phnom Penh Symphonic Orchestra for its performances with the "acoustics of the cozy theatre" helping to make the Conference Hall a comfortable musical venue as well. The hall combines traditional Khmer elements with modern structural design. The design behind this structure

1652-414: A roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of

1770-402: A stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko , Lolei , Banteay Srei , Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei . The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as

1888-577: A stretch of some 2,200 km (1,400 mi). Here, it drops 4,500 m (14,800 ft) before it enters the lower basin where the borders of Thailand, Laos, China, and Myanmar come together in the Golden Triangle. Downstream from the Golden Triangle, the river flows for a further 2,600 km (1,600 mi) through Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia before entering the South China Sea via a complex delta system in Vietnam . The upper basin makes up 24% of

2006-624: A theater hall for special programs and concerts in Cambodia, but there is no longer a residential performing arts troupe. In 2009, King Norodom Sihamoni congratulated disabled Chinese artists at Chaktomuk Conference Hall. In December 2013, around two hundred monks led a protest in front of Chaktomuk Hall during a conference of the Buddhist leadership in Cambodia. Their complaint concerned the theft of Buddha's relics on Oudong mountain on 10 December 2013. In 2014, Royal Palace Minister Kong Sam Ol led

2124-474: A type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII : Ta Prohm , Preah Khan , Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar . It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras ; hence scholars have suggested that

2242-425: Is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva . In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as

2360-503: Is an archaic word meaning "river", loaned from Austroasiatic languages , such as Vietnamese sông (from * krong ) and Mon kruŋ "river", which led to Chinese 江 whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as /*kˤroŋ/ and which long served as the proper name of the Yangtze before becoming a generic word for major rivers. To the early European traders, the Mekong River

2478-584: Is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk , or samudra manthan , found in the Vishnu Purana . Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however,

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2596-477: Is flooded during the rainy season. The impact of road embankments and similar infrastructure developments on the movement of this flood water is an increasingly important consequence of development. Table 2 summarises the mean annual flows along the mainstream. The mean annual flow entering the lower Mekong from China is equivalent to a relatively modest 450 mm (18 in) depth of runoff. Downstream of Vientiane this increases to over 600 mm (24 in) as

2714-574: Is heterogeneous and active, and is the major factor controlling the course of rivers and the landscapes they carve out. The elevation of the Tibetan Plateau during the Tertiary period was an important factor in the genesis of the south-west monsoon , which is the dominant climatic control influencing the hydrology of the Mekong Basin. Understanding the nature and timing of the elevation of Tibet (and

2832-527: Is little evidence from the last 45 years of data of any systematic changes in the hydrological regime of the Mekong. The internal drainage patterns of the Mekong are unusual among those of large rivers. Most large river systems that drain the interiors of continents, such as the Amazon , Congo , and Mississippi , have relatively simple dendritic tributary networks that resemble a branching tree. Typically, such patterns develop in basins with gentle slopes where

2950-616: Is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom . The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at

3068-505: Is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas , and the battle steed of Vishnu . Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as follows: In the ancient religion of the Vedas , Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as

3186-416: Is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in

3304-665: Is the beginning of the Mekong Delta. The two rivers, the Bassac to the west and the Mekong to the east, enter Vietnam shortly after this. In Vietnam, the Bassac is called the Hậu River (Sông Hậu or Hậu Giang); the main, eastern, branch of the Mekong is called the Tiền River or Tiền Giang. In Vietnam, distributaries of the eastern (main, Mekong) branch include the Mỹ Tho River , the Ba Lai River ,

3422-746: The Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE. The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples , particularly in sculpture, had an influence on Southeast Asia and was widely adopted into the Indianised architecture of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India ). Evolved from Indian influences, Khmer architecture became clearly distinct from that of

3540-682: The Bhagavata Purana . The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna: Mekong The Mekong or Mekong River is a trans-boundary river in East Asia and Southeast Asia . It is the world's twelfth-longest river and the third-longest in Asia with an estimated length of 4,909 km (3,050 mi) and a drainage area of 795,000 km (307,000 sq mi), discharging 475 km (114 cu mi) of water annually. From its headwaters in

3658-554: The Central Highlands of Vietnam) therefore helps explain the provenance of sediment reaching the delta and the Tonle Sap Great Lake today. Studies of the provenance of sediments in the Mekong delta reveal a major switch in the source of sediments about eight million years ago (Ma) . From 36 to 8 Ma the bulk (76%) of the sediments deposited in the delta came from erosion of the bedrock in the Three Rivers Area . From 8 Ma to

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3776-590: The Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan , in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon , and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat , where they appear individually and in groups. Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as

3894-580: The Hàm Luông River , and the Cổ Chiên River . The Mekong Basin is frequently divided into two parts: the "upper Mekong basin" comprising those parts of the basin in Tibet , Yunnan and eastern Myanmar , and the "lower Mekong basin" from Yunnan downstream from China to the South China Sea . From the point where it rises to its mouth, the most precipitous drop in the Mekong occurs in the upper Mekong basin,

4012-604: The Indian sub-continent as it developed its own special characteristics, some of which were created independently and others of which were incorporated from neighboring cultural traditions, resulting in a new artistic style in Asian architecture unique to the Angkorian tradition. The development of Khmer architecture as a distinct style is particularly evident in artistic depictions of divine and royal figures with facial features representative of

4130-576: The Nam Ngum , Nam Theun , Nam Hinboun, Se Bang Fai , Se Bang Hieng and Se Done Rivers. The Mun - Chi river system from the right bank in Thailand enters the mainstream within this reach. Reach 4: Pakse to Kratie . The main hydrological contributions to the mainstream in this reach come from the Se Kong , Se San , and Sre Pok catchments. Together, these rivers make up the largest hydrological sub-component of

4248-697: The Phimeanakas , and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor . According to Charles Higham , "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite , was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship". Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from

4366-499: The Preah Ko style from the late 9th century. Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala , the nāga and the makara , as well as various forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra ,

4484-460: The Richter magnitude scale and is unlikely to cause material damage. The difficulty of navigating the river has meant that it has divided, rather than united, the people who live near it. The earliest known settlements date to 210 BCE, with Ban Chiang being an excellent example of early Iron Age culture. The earliest recorded civilization was the 1st century Indianised -Khmer culture of Funan , in

4602-790: The Three Parallel Rivers Area in the Hengduan Mountains , along with the Yangtze to its east and the Salween River (Nu Jiang in Chinese) to its west. Then the Mekong meets the China–Myanmar border and flows about 10 km (6 mi) along that border until it reaches the tripoint of China, Myanmar and Laos . From there it flows southwest and forms the border of Myanmar and Laos for about 100 km (60 mi) until it arrives at

4720-490: The Tibetan Plateau , the river runs through Southwest China (where it is officially called the Lancang River ), Myanmar , Laos , Thailand , Cambodia , and southern Vietnam . The extreme seasonal variations in flow and the presence of rapids and waterfalls in the Mekong make navigation difficult. Even so, the river is a major trade route between Tibet and Southeast Asia. The construction of hydroelectric dams along

4838-571: The Tonlé Sap . When the Mekong is low, the Tonle Sap is a tributary : water flows from the lake and river into the Mekong. When the Mekong floods, the flow reverses: the floodwaters of the Mekong flow up the Tonle Sap. Immediately after the Sap River joins the Mekong by Phnom Penh, the Bassac River branches off the right (west) bank. The Bassac River is the first and main distributary of the Mekong. This

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4956-722: The World Fellowship of Buddhists with delegates from twenty-eight countries was the first major international event held in the hall. During the Civil War in 1972, the Chaktomuk Conference Hall welcomed two major Christian gatherings known as "evangelistic crusades", attended by Taing Chhirc and Barnabas Mam, among others future leaders of the Christian churches in Cambodia. After the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia which sent

5074-625: The Yunnan component makes up almost 30% of the average dry season flow. A major concern is that the ongoing and planned expansion of dams and reservoirs on the Mekong mainstream in Yunnan could have a significant effect on the low-flow regime of the lower Mekong basin system. Reach 2: Chiang Saen to Vientiane and Nong Khai . This reach is almost entirely mountainous and covered with natural forest although there has been widespread slash and burn agriculture. Although this reach cannot be termed "unspoiled",

5192-447: The second century BC . There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles: Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Angkorian builders used brick , sandstone , laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite,

5310-543: The 1950s to around 50% in the mid-1990s. Agricultural expansion and population pressure are the major reasons for land use and landscape change. Both drought and flood are common hazards in the Delta, which many people believe is the most sensitive to upstream hydrological change. Table 1: Country share of Mekong River Basin (MRB) and water flows By taking into account hydrological regimes, physiography land use, and existing, planned and potential resource developments,

5428-653: The Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei , depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat ,

5546-699: The Bakong and Borobudur in Java , going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java . Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon , Pre Rup , Ta Keo , Koh Ker ,

5664-760: The Great Lake via the Tonle Sap River . Phnom Penh also marks the beginning of the delta system of the Mekong River. Here the mainstream begins to break up into an increasing number of branches. In Cambodia, wet rice is the main crop and is grown on the flood plains of the Tonle Sap, Mekong, and Bassac (the Mekong delta distributary known as the Hậu in Vietnam) Rivers. More than half of Cambodia remains covered with mixed evergreen and deciduous broadleaf forest, but forest cover has decreased from 73% in 1973 to 63% in 1993. Here,

5782-402: The Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents. Scenes from the life of Krishna , a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu , are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata , the Harivamsa , and

5900-400: The Khmers Rouges into hiding, Pol Pot was tried in absentia in an ad hoc tribunal occasionally set up at the Chaktomuk Hall. This "theatrical setting" would later be replaced by the Extraordinary Chambers of the Supreme Court of Cambodia which would judge the others Khmers Rouges leaders, such as Ieng Sary . Along with the Suramarit Theater , in the 1980s, Chaktomuk Hall became one of

6018-603: The Kingdom of Thailand which is the mechanism for cooperation with regard to riverine trade on the upper stretches of the Mekong. The Mekong basin is one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. Only the Amazon boasts a higher level of bio-diversity. Biota estimates for the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) include 20,000 plant species, 430 mammals, 1,200 birds, 800 reptiles and amphibians, and an estimated 850 freshwater fish species (excluding euryhaline species mainly found in salt or brackish water, as well as introduced species ). The most species rich orders among

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6136-415: The Laos-Thailand border for some 850 km (530 mi) as it flows first east, passing the capital of Laos, Vientiane , then turns south. A second time, the river leaves the border and flows east into Laos soon passing the city of Pakse . Thereafter, it turns and runs more or less directly south, crossing into Cambodia . At Phnom Penh the river is joined on the right bank by the river and lake system

6254-467: The Mekong delta. Excavations at Oc Eo , near modern An Giang , have found coins from as far away as the Roman Empire . This was succeeded by the Khmer culture Chenla state around the 5th century. The Khmer empire of Angkor was the last great Indianized state in the region. From around the time of the fall of the Khmer empire, the Mekong was the front line between the emergent states of Siam and Tonkin (North Vietnam), with Laos and Cambodia, then on

6372-404: The Mekong in the 2000s through the 2020s has caused serious problems for the river's ecosystem , including the exacerbation of drought . The Mekong was originally called Mae Nam Khong from a contracted form of Tai shortened to Mae Khong . In Thai and Lao, Mae Nam ("Mother of Water[s]") is used for large rivers and Khong is the proper name referred to as "River Khong". However, Khong

6490-413: The Mekong is divided into six distinct reaches : Reach 1: Lancang Jiang or Upper Mekong River in China . In this part of the river, the major source of water flowing into the river comes from melting snow on the Tibetan plateau . This volume of water is sometimes called the "Yunnan component" and plays an important role in the low-flow hydrology of the lower mainstream. Even as far downstream as Kratie,

6608-603: The Mekong, seasonal flows can be quite variable from year to year. Although the pattern of the annual hydrograph is fairly predictable, its magnitude is not. The average monthly flows along the mainstream are listed in Table 3, providing an indication of their range and variability from year to year. At Pakse , for example, flood season flows during August would exceed 20,000 m /s (5,300,000 US gal/s) nine years out of ten, but exceed 34,000 m /s (9,000,000 US gal/s) only one year in ten. Table 3: Mekong Mainstream monthly discharge, 1960–2004 (m /s). There

6726-442: The Mun and Chi Rivers, that drain a large part of northeast Thailand. Laos lies almost entirely within the lower Mekong basin. Its climate, landscape and land use are the major factors shaping the hydrology of the river. The mountainous landscape means that only 16% of the country is farmed under lowland terrace or upland shifting cultivation . With upland shifting agriculture (slash and burn), soils recover within 10 to 20 years but

6844-423: The Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and

6962-435: The Tonle Sap, and the Bassac. Chaktomuk has given its name to the current era of Cambodian history, after the Angkor , Longvek and Oudong eras. In 1961, Chaktomuk Conference Hall was originally opened as La salle de conférence Chaktomuk . Many important government meetings would, at a majority take place in this very hall for conference purposes. Chaktomuk was the place of major religious conventions before 1975. In 1961

7080-401: The audience to have the full view of the stage without the need for standing up. 11°32′39″N 104°54′49″E  /  11.5442°N 104.9135°E  / 11.5442; 104.9135 Khmer architecture Khmer architecture ( Khmer : ស្ថាបត្យកម្មខ្មែរ ), also known as Angkorian architecture ( Khmer : ស្ថាបត្យកម្មសម័យអង្គរ ), is the architecture produced by the Khmer during

7198-402: The axis of the enclosure wall. If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures ( dvarapalas ) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. A Hall of Dancers is the structure of

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7316-419: The base for other figures. Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism . Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent

7434-423: The basin are small. Only 14 have catchment areas that exceed 1,000 km (400 sq mi), yet the greatest amount of loss of forest cover in the entire river system per square kilometer has occurred in this region due to heavy unchecked demand for natural resources. In the south of Yunnan, in Simao and Xishuangbanna Prefectures, the river changes as the valley opens out, the floodplain becomes wider, and

7552-428: The border of Laos with Thailand. Khon Pi Long is a series of rapids along a 1.6 km (1.0 mi) section of the Mekong River dividing Chiang Rai and Bokeo Province in Laos. The name of the rapids means 'where the ghost lost its way'. It then turns east into the interior of Laos, flowing first east and then south for some 400 km (250 mi) before meeting the border with Thailand again. Once more, it defines

7670-407: The building flowing underneath of the stage, an unusual design that made one of Cambodia's major attractions. To avoid the heat that was transmitted from the sunlight in the hall, a double roof was installed. 4 main entry doors were planned, with exits on the sides of the room to make it easy for the audience to enter and leave without disturbing the performers. The building's peculiar fan-shape enables

7788-473: The cardinal points. A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress

7906-456: The center of the East Baray. The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean . Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta , known for its miraculous healing powers. The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru ,

8024-399: The centers of cultural renewal after the devastation of Cambodian culture inflicted by almost four years of Khmer Rouge terror. A twice yearly festival was organized by the National Dance Company. Later on, 1991 this hall designated for redevelopment as a restaurant. With a great view of the Tonlé Sap River , the customers had a great review. After a harmful yet devastating fire took place at

8142-420: The centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru , the legendary home of the Hindu gods. The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmerreligious architecture. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented

8260-475: The centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch . The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by

8378-417: The coast, torn between their influence. The first European to encounter the Mekong was the Portuguese António de Faria in 1540. A European map of 1563 depicts the river, although even by then little was known of the river upstream of the delta. European interest was sporadic: the Spanish and Portuguese mounted some missionary and trade expeditions, while the Dutch Gerrit van Wuysthoff led an expedition up

8496-492: The delta advanced 200 km (120 mi) over the continental shelf of the South China Sea, covering an area of more than 62,500 km (24,100 sq mi). From 5.3 to 3.5 ka the delta advanced across a broad embayment formed between higher ground near the Cambodian border and uplands north of Ho Chi Minh City . During this phase of its development the delta was sheltered from the wave action of long-shore currents and

8614-452: The delta. For much of its length the Mekong flows through bedrock channels, i.e., channels that are confined or constrained by bedrock or old alluvium in the bed and riverbanks. Geomorphologic features normally associated with the alluvial stretches of mature rivers, such as meanders , oxbow lakes , cut-offs, and extensive floodplains are restricted to a short stretch of the mainstream around Vientiane and downstream of Kratie where

8732-401: The external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII . The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of

8850-617: The former degrade with age. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam . A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai . While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. The only stone used by Angkorian builders

8968-415: The glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Many temples had been built before Cambodia became the powerful Khmer Empire which dominated

9086-438: The god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama , the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna , the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera , god of wealth, with North. Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread , producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From

9204-403: The ground floor flowing up toward the backstage to flow in both directions. Vann Molyvann considers the design of Chaktomuk Conference Hall a reinterpretation of the roofs of the nearby Royal Palace . The eight gabled roofs, fanned out across Chaktomuk’s quarter-circle plan, borrow the traditional gables seen in its architecture. The seating areas were made from the ground floor from the back of

9322-407: The hall itself may have been used for dancing. House of Fire, or Dharmasala , is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII : Preah Khan , Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar . A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as

9440-560: The hall, it partly destroyed the hall that ruined the structure. Chaktomuk Conference hall used to be a restaurant then theatre but this hall nowadays is mainly used for the conference, lectures and occasional performing art activities. The Chaktomuk Conference Hall in Phnom Penh has undergone several changes and was completely remodeled in the year 2000 mainly to provide international standard facilities for conferences, seminars and lectures. The flexible design allows it to be used more rarely as

9558-670: The home of the gods in Hinduism . Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong , a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I . The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid , popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of

9676-730: The hydrological impacts of land cover changes induced by the Vietnam War were quantified in two sub-catchments of the lower Mekong River basin. Loss of forest cover in the Thai areas of the lower basin has been the highest of all the lower Mekong countries over the past 60 years. On the Khorat Plateau , which includes the Mun and Chi tributary systems, forest cover was reduced from 42% in 1961 to 13% in 1993. Although this part of northeast Thailand has an annual rainfall of more than 1,000 mm (40 in),

9794-437: The hydrological response is perhaps the most natural and undisturbed of all the lower basin. Many hydrological aspects of the lower basin start to change rapidly at the downstream boundary of this reach. On 19 July 2019 this reach of the river dropped to its lowest level in a century. Officials are particularly concerned as July is in the wet season, when mainstream flows are abundant historically. Locals are blaming low water on

9912-606: The local Khmer population, including rounder faces, broader brows, and other physical characteristics. In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in

10030-437: The lower basin from Yunnan make up about 15% of the wet season flow at Kratie . This rises to 40% during the dry season, even this far downstream. During the wet season, the proportion of average flow coming from Yunnan rapidly decreases downstream of Chiang Saen, from 70% to less than 20% at Kratie. The dry season contribution from Yunnan is much more significant. The major portion of the balance comes from Laos, which points to

10148-462: The lower basin. Over 25% of the mean annual flow volume to the mainstream at Kratie comes from these three river basins. They are the key element in the hydrology of this part of the system, especially to the Tonle Sap flow reversal. Reach 5: Kratie to Phnom Penh . This reach includes the hydraulic complexities of the Cambodian floodplain, the Tonle Sap and the Great Lake. By this stage, over 95% of

10266-402: The more famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs: Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. Colonnettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on

10384-399: The mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru , the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at

10502-594: The newly constructed Xayaburi Dam , as it enters its test phase prior to the start of commercial operation in October 2019. Reach 3: Vientiane and Nong Khai to Pakse . The boundary between Reach 2 and 3 is where the Mekong hydrology starts to change. Reach 2 is dominated in both wet and dry seasons by the Yunnan Component. Reach 3 is increasingly influenced by contributions from the large left bank tributaries in Laos, namely

10620-713: The old name of Lao kingdom Lan Xang ; the characters may also be literally understood as "turbulent green river"). It originates in the " three rivers source area " on the Tibetan Plateau in the Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve . The reserve protects the headwaters of, from north to south, the Yellow (Huang He), the Yangtze , and the Mekong Rivers. It flows through the Tibetan Autonomous Region and then southeast into Yunnan Province, and then

10738-423: The period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonnettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves. Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards

10856-706: The present, however, the contribution from the Three Rivers Area fell to 40%, while that from the Central Highlands rose from 11 to 51%. One of the most striking conclusions of provenance studies is the small contribution of sediment from the other parts of the Mekong basin, notably the Khorat Plateau, the uplands of northern Laos and northern Thailand, and the mountain ranges south of the Three Rivers area. The last glacial period came to an abrupt end about 19,000 years ago (19 ka ) when sea levels rose rapidly, reaching

10974-436: The principal crops. Drought is by far the major hydrological hazard in this region. As the Mekong enters Cambodia, over 95% of its flows have already joined the river. From here on downstream the terrain is flat and water levels rather than flow volumes determine the movement of water across the landscape. The seasonal cycle of changing water levels at Phnom Penh results in the unique "flow reversal" of water into and out of

11092-781: The principal left bank tributaries enter the mainstream, mainly the Nam Ngum and Nam Theun. The flow level falls again, even with the right bank entry of the Mun-Chi system from Thailand. Although the Mun–Chi basin drains 20% of the lower system, average annual runoff is only 250 mm (10 in). Runoff in the mainstream increases again with the entry from the left bank of the Se Kong from southern Laos and Se San and Sre Pok from Vietnam and Cambodia. Table 2: Lower Mekong Mainstream annual flow (1960 to 2004) at selected sites. Flows at Chiang Saen entering

11210-456: The religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven", the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view", according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize , "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust". Apsaras , divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin

11328-485: The river as far as Vientiane in 1641–42. The French invaded the region in the mid-19th century, capturing Saigon in 1861, and establishing a protectorate over Cambodia in 1863. The first systematic European exploration began with the French Mekong Expedition led by Ernest Doudard de Lagrée and Francis Garnier , which ascended the river from its mouth to Yunnan between 1866 and 1868. Their chief finding

11446-400: The river becomes wider and slower. Major tributary systems develop in the lower basin. These systems can be separated into two groups: tributaries that contribute to the major wet season flows, and tributaries that drain low relief regions of lower rainfall. The first group are left bank tributaries that drain the high rainfall areas of Laos. The second group are those on the right bank, mainly

11564-448: The river develops alluvial channels that are free of control exerted by the underlying bedrock. The Mekong basin is not normally considered a seismically active area as much of the basin is underlain by the relatively stable continental block. Nonetheless, the parts of the basin in northern Laos , northern Thailand , Myanmar and China do experience frequent earthquakes and tremors. The magnitude of these earthquakes rarely exceeds 6.5 on

11682-459: The river landscape is flat. Small changes in water level determine the direction of water movement, including the large-scale reversal of flow into and out of the Tonle Sap basin from the Mekong River. The Mekong Delta in Vietnam is farmed intensively and has little natural vegetation left. Forest cover is less than 10%. In the Central Highlands of Vietnam, forest cover was reduced from over 95% in

11800-430: The structure of the temple. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor , passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points . In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along

11918-608: The support of the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement within the US State Department Bureau of Political-Military Affairs , to conduct underwater explosive removal. The many maps of the river basin produced throughout recorded history reflect the region's changing human geography and politics. In 1995, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam established the Mekong River Commission (MRC) to manage and coordinate

12036-409: The total area and contributes 15–20% of the water that flows into the Mekong River. The catchment here is steep and narrow with Soil erosion being a major problem and as a result of this, approximately 50% of the sediment in the river comes from the upper basin. In Yunnan Province in China, the river and its tributaries are confined by narrow, deep gorges. The tributary river systems in this part of

12154-572: The total flow has entered the Mekong system. The focus turns from hydrology and water discharge to the assessment of water level, over- bank storage and flooding and the hydrodynamics that determine the timing, duration and volume of the seasonal flow reversal into and out of the Great Lake. Reach 6: Phnom Penh to the South China Sea . Here the mainstream divides into a complex and increasingly controlled and artificial system of branches and canals. Key features of flow behaviour are tidal influences and salt water intrusion. Every year, 35–50% of this reach

12272-603: The tripoint of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand . This is also the point of confluence between the Ruak River (which follows the Thai–Myanmar border) and the Mekong. The area of this tripoint is sometimes termed the Golden Triangle , although the term also refers to the much larger area of those three countries that was notorious as a drug producing region. From the Golden Triangle tripoint, the Mekong turns southeast to briefly form

12390-473: The underlying geological structure is fairly homogeneous and stable, exerting little or no control on river morphology . In marked contrast, the tributary networks of the Salween , Yangtze , and particularly the Mekong, are complex with different sub-basins often exhibiting different, and distinct, drainage patterns. These complex drainage systems have developed in a setting where the underlying geological structure

12508-473: The underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple. The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity

12626-664: The use and care of the Mekong. In 1996 China and Myanmar became "dialogue partners" of the MRC and the six countries now work together in a cooperative framework. In 2000, the governments of China, Laos, Thailand and Myanmar signed a Agreement on Commercial Navigation on Lancang-Mekong River among the Governments of the People's Republic of China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the Union of Myanmar and

12744-419: The vegetation does not. Shifting cultivation is common in the uplands of northern Laos and is reported to account for as much as 27% of the total land under rice cultivation. As elsewhere in the basin, forest cover has been steadily reduced during the last three decades by shifting agriculture and permanent agriculture. The cumulative impacts of these activities on the river regime have not been measured. However,

12862-459: The wars in Indochina in the 1970s, a significant quantity of explosives (sometimes, entire barges loaded with military ordnance ) sank in the Cambodian section of the Mekong (as well as in the country's other waterways). Besides being a danger for fishermen, unexploded ordnance also creates problems for bridge and irrigation systems construction. As of 2013, Cambodian volunteers are being trained, with

12980-547: The wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko , Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya , and Chóp Mạt in Tay Ninh . Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This was because bricks were a softer material, and did not lend themselves to sculpting, as opposed to stones of different kinds such as

13098-462: Was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called " devatas ". Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor , but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in

13216-458: Was also known as Mekon River , May-Kiang River and Cambodia River . The local names for the river include: The Mekong rises as the Za Qu ( Tibetan : རྫ་ཆུ་ , Wylie : rDza chu , ZYPY : Za qu ; Chinese : 扎曲 ; pinyin : Zā Qū ) and soon becomes known as the Lancang River ( simplified Chinese : 澜沧江 ; traditional Chinese : 瀾滄 江 ; pinyin : Láncāng Jiāng , from

13334-473: Was constructed largely through fluvial and tidal processes. At this time the delta was advancing at a rate of 17 to 18 m (56 to 59 ft) per year. After 3.5 ka, however, the delta had built out beyond the embayment and became subject to wave action and marine currents. These deflected deposition south-eastwards in the direction of the Cà Mau Peninsula , which is one of the most recent features of

13452-411: Was created by Vann Molyvann, one of the major practitioners of New Khmer Architecture . To bring out the culture he was raised in, the building was designed as a concrete structure radiating in a fan, made to represent a palm leaf. The location was also a set back to the hall with a 270-degree view that can see the full views of the 4 rivers cross together. It also included novel bio-climate features and

13570-466: Was intended by architect Vann Molyvann to create a harmony with other surrounding buildings  as well as the general landscape, at the point were the Mekong meets the Tonle Sap . The hall was made to accommodate 850 people. It was designed to have an open-space area that functioned as a multi-purpose room. Ventilation in tropical buildings is one of the most important features, which is provided here from

13688-437: Was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva , most commonly by a linga ). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower ( prasat ) rising above it, by its location at

13806-449: Was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains . Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that

13924-534: Was that the Mekong had too many falls and rapids to ever be useful for navigation . The river's source was found by Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov in 1900. From 1893, the French extended their control of the river into Laos, establishing French Indochina by the first decade of the 20th century. This lasted until the First and Second Indochina Wars expelled French from its former colony and defeated US-supported governments. During

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