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68-551: 45°27′47″N 9°10′21″E  /  45.4631558°N 9.172412°E  / 45.4631558; 9.172412 Gruppo Bertone , commonly known as Bertone , was an Italian industrial design company which specialized in car styling , coachbuilding and manufacturing . It was also a car manufacturing company . The company was based in Grugliasco , northern Italy . Gruppo Bertone was founded as Carrozzeria Bertone in 1912 by Giovanni Bertone . Designer Nuccio Bertone took charge of

136-810: A Bachelor of Industrial Design (B.I.D.), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) or Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.). Afterwards, the bachelor programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design , Master of Fine Arts and others to a Master of Arts or Master of Science . Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment. Generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships. Industrial designers don't usually design motors, electrical circuits, or gearing that make machines move, but they may affect technical aspects through usability design and form relationships. Usually, they work with other professionals such as engineers who focus on

204-530: A Luigi Pagani -tuned barchetta bodied by boatbuilders Riva di Merate on a pre-war chassis (1946), a Bertone convertible (1947), one of Michelotti 's first, while at Vignale (1949). Lancia had opened their first plant outside Italy at Bonneuil on the south side of Paris in 1931, and the Aprilia was assembled here between 1937 and 1939. The French version was badged as the Lancia Ardennes, but apart from

272-557: A 1,352 cc V4 motor providing 47 PS (35 kW). The second series (mod. 438, 9,728 units, 1939–49) had its engine capacity increased to 1,486 cc which provided 48 PS (35 kW). A Lusso model of this second series was also offered as well as a lungo (lengthened) version (706 made, 1946–49). A total of 20,082 cars and 7,554 additional chassis for coach built bodies were produced in Turin along with about 700 in France . With

340-419: A CAD model. From this the manufacturing process may be modified to improve the product. Product characteristics specified by industrial designers may include the overall form of the object, the location of details with respect to one another, colors , texture, form, and aspects concerning the use of the product . Additionally, they may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of materials and

408-415: A better quality of life. " Although the process of design may be considered 'creative,' many analytical processes also take place. In fact, many industrial designers often use various design methodologies in their creative process. Some of the processes that are commonly used are user research, sketching, comparative product research, model making, prototyping and testing. These processes are best defined by

476-562: A carriage manufacturing business in Turin, Italy , at the age of 28. Along with three workers, he built horse-drawn vehicles . In 1914, Bertone's second son, Giuseppe , nicknamed "Nuccio", was born. The outbreak of the First World War forced Giovanni Bertone to close his company. In 1920, a new plant was opened near the Monginevro 119 in Turin. Twenty people were on the payroll. One year later,

544-521: A complete line of modern furniture, among many other items. Richard Teague , who spent most of his career with the American Motors Corporation , originated the concept of using interchangeable body panels so as to create a wide array of different vehicles using the same stampings. He was responsible for such unique automotive designs as the Pacer , Gremlin , Matador coupe , Jeep Cherokee , and

612-657: A contract on a torpedo -styled body based on the SPA 23S chassis was signed by the company. Then, the FIAT "501 Sport Siluro Corsa" was designed. During the 1920s, Giovanni Bertone began doing bodywork on the Fast, Chiribiri, Aurea, SCAT, and Diatto chassis. Vincenzo Lancia nicknamed him "Bertunot"; he commissioned Bertone to create cars for the "limited series". Giovanni Bertone produced torpedo and saloon bodies for FIAT and Lancia and for Itala , Diatto , and SPA . Alongside sports models like

680-530: A design in use to this day. Schreckengost also founded The Cleveland Institute of Art's school of industrial design. Oskar Barnack was a German optical engineer, precision mechanic, industrial designer, and the father of 35mm photography. He developed the Leica , which became the hallmark for photography for 50 years, and remains a high-water mark for mechanical and optical design. Charles and Ray Eames were most famous for their pioneering furniture designs, such as

748-489: A first drop in filings since 2014. The Hague System for the International Registration of Industrial Designs provides an international mechanism that secures protection of up to 100 designs in multiple countries or regions, through a single international application. International design applications are filed directly through WIPO . The domestic legal framework of each designated contracting party governs

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816-479: A mix of both. It can be influenced by factors as varied as materials , production processes , business strategy , and prevailing social, commercial, or aesthetic attitudes. Industrial design, as an applied art , most often focuses on a combination of aesthetics and user-focused considerations, but also often provides solutions for problems of form, function, physical ergonomics , marketing, brand development, sustainability, and sales. For several millennia before

884-402: A procedure for an international registration exists. An applicant can file for a single international deposit with WIPO or with the national office in a country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member countries of the treaty as desired. In 2022, about 1.1 million industrial design applications were filed worldwide. This represents a decrease of 3% on 2021, marking

952-626: A significant number of household items, such as chairs, stools, lamps, a tea-cart, and vases. Raymond Loewy was a prolific American designer who is responsible for the Royal Dutch Shell corporate logo, the original BP logo (in use until 2000), the PRR S1 steam locomotive, the Studebaker Starlight (including the later bulletnose), as well as Schick electric razors, Electrolux refrigerators, short-wave radios, Le Creuset French ovens, and

1020-471: A suitable buyer was not found by the end of April. In May 2013, the license rights to the brand were granted by Bertone Cento to Bertone Design. They also formed a partnership with Citroën , but since the 2013 acquisition of the name, a car prototype or series was never made. In June 2016, the Bertone brand was acquired for more than € 2.6 million by AKKA Technologies, an engineering company. The rights to use

1088-681: A tribute to the company's founder, the Maserati Khamsin and the Fiat X1/9 were released. Based on the Fiat 128 chassis but with a mid-rear-engine layout, the X1/9 was in production from 1972 to 1988, with 160,000 units manufactured. The company also began working for Volvo on the 264 TE . The Volvo 262C was presented at the 1977 Geneva Motor Show . From the start of the 1980s, the Fiat Ritmo Cabrio and

1156-764: A workforce of 1,500 staff, and the Grugliasco factory covered an area of 267,000 square metres (2,870,000 sq ft). The partnership with Lamborghini led to the development of the Lamborghini Espada . The design was inspired by the Jaguar Pirana . After his initial success with the Espada, he went on to design the Lamborghini Jarama and the Lamborghini Urraco . In 1972, Giovanni Bertone died. In that year, as

1224-551: Is a family car manufactured by Lancia , one of the first designed using a wind tunnel in collaboration with Battista Farina and Politecnico di Torino , achieving a record low drag coefficient of 0.47. The berlinetta aerodinamica was first shown in 1936. Production commenced in February 1937, the month in which the firm's founder died: this was the last of Vincenzo Lancia 's designs, featuring four pillarless doors . The first series (mod. 238, 10,354 units, 1937–39) featured

1292-477: Is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences." An extended version of this definition is as follows: "Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences. Industrial Design bridges

1360-583: Is effectively defined by credentials and/or licensure required to engage in the practice of engineering. "Industrial design" as such does not overlap much with the engineering sub-discipline of industrial engineering , except for the latter's sub-specialty of ergonomics . At the 29th General Assembly in Gwangju, South Korea, 2015, the Professional Practise Committee unveiled a renewed definition of industrial design as follows: "Industrial Design

1428-541: Is often difficult to describe to non-designers because the meaning accepted by the design community is not made of words. Instead, the definition is created as a result of acquiring a critical framework for the analysis and creation of artifacts. One of the many accepted (but intentionally unspecific) definitions of design originates from Carnegie Mellon's School of Design : "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." This applies to new artifacts, whose existing state

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1496-457: Is undefined, and previously created artifacts, whose state stands to be improved. Industrial design can overlap significantly with engineering design , and in different countries the boundaries of the two concepts can vary, but in general engineering focuses principally on functionality or utility of products, whereas industrial design focuses principally on aesthetic and user-interface aspects of products. In many jurisdictions this distinction

1564-603: The Eames Lounge Chair Wood and Eames Lounge Chair . Other influential designers included Henry Dreyfuss , Eliot Noyes , John Vassos , and Russel Wright . Dieter Rams is a German industrial designer closely associated with the consumer products company Braun and the Functionalist school of industrial design. German industrial designer Luigi Colani , who designed cars for automobile manufacturers including Fiat , Alfa Romeo , Lancia , Volkswagen , and BMW ,

1632-504: The Fiat 850 Spider . The commercial success of this model led Nuccio Bertone to increase the company's production capacity to 120 units per day. Between 1965 and 1972, nearly 140,000 were produced, the great majority of which were sold in the United States. With the Fiat 850, the company increased its production volumes, from 13,000 units produced in 1966 to nearly 30,000 in 1968. At the end of

1700-844: The Iso Rivolta GT 340 , and the Iso Grifo were also created in the 1960s. Giorgetto Giugiaro designed a prototype cabriolet of the latter and a racing version known as the A3C. The Grifo years were also the years of the Chevrolet Testudo , driven personally by Nuccio Bertone to the Geneva Motor Show in 1963. The following year, they created the Alfa Romeo Canguro , followed in 1965 by the Alfa Romeo Giulia GT . In 1965, Bertone launched

1768-664: The Italian Renaissance . In the 17th century, the growth of artistic patronage in centralized monarchical states such as France led to large government-operated manufacturing operations epitomized by the Gobelins Manufactory , opened in Paris in 1667 by Louis XIV . Here teams of hundreds of craftsmen, including specialist artists, decorators and engravers, produced sumptuously decorated products ranging from tapestries and furniture to metalwork and coaches , all under

1836-631: The Lancia Aprilia Cabriolet, the Fiat 1100 Stanguellini racing car, and the Berlinetta Aerodinamica Tecnica (BAT) concept cars. In 1956, they produced the Abarth 750 Record ; it was built on a Fiat 600 chassis and tested on the high-speed track at Monza . Abarth 750 Record sets ten world records, including doing 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) at an average of 156.36 km/h and covering 10,125.26 km in 72 hours. In 1957,

1904-616: The 1928 Ansaldo 6BS, Giovanni Bertone also designed cars like the Fiat 505 limousine and the Itala 51S , both in 1924. He later designed the Lancia Lambda VIII Series in 1928. In 1932, Giovanni designed the Lancia Artena , which was produced until 1936. In 1933, Nuccio Bertone officially began working in his father's company. The company moved to Corso Peschiera 225. Gruppo Bertone now had fifty members of staff. In 1934, Bertone created

1972-831: The 1960s, they formed a partnership with Ferruccio Lamborghini . The first vehicle to come out of this was the Lamborghini Miura . The Miura was followed by the Marzal in 1967 and the Espada in 1968. In the same period, two other coupés appeared: the Alfa Romeo Montreal and the Fiat Dino Coupé , both out in 1967. At the Paris Motor Show of 1968, Bertone presented the Carabo concept car, based on an Alfa 33 chassis. By 1970, Bertone had

2040-520: The Aprilia Lancia followed their tradition of offering cars with the steering wheel on the right even in markets seen by other manufacturers as left hand drive markets. Outside the UK and Sweden customers increasingly picked the optional left hand drive versions, however. Special designs include those by Ugo Zagato (1938), a Carrozzeria Touring convertible, the army's Torpedo militare ( World War II ),

2108-518: The Bertone GB110 was publicly unveiled at Top Marques Monaco . Industrial design All manufactured products are the result of a design process, but the nature of this process can vary. It can be conducted by an individual or a team, and such a team could include people with varied expertise (e.g. designers, engineers, business experts, etc.). It can emphasize intuitive creativity or calculated scientific decision-making , and often emphasizes

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2176-478: The Fiat 527S Ardita 2500. With the outbreak of the Second World War , Bertone reacted to the crisis by turning to manufacturing military vehicles. The company created vehicles such as the Bertone ambulance on a Lancia Artena base. The chassis Fiat 2800 cabriolet was manufactured; it was built on commission for race driver and motoring journalist Giovanni Lurani Cernuschi . Nuccio Bertone also created cars like

2244-761: The Fiat X1/9 were produced and sold directly under the Bertone brand. In 1982, Marcello Gandini turned out the Citroën BX . A new commercial agreement drawn up with General Motors Europe in 1986 saw the production of the Kadett Cabrio handed over to Bertone. In 1993, the Opel Astra Cabrio and the Fiat Punto Cabrio began production. Next year, Bertone presented the Zero Emission Record (ZER); Gruppo Bertone

2312-690: The National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD). Of course, engineering education requires heavy training in mathematics and physical sciences, which is not typically required in industrial design education. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a vocational school or university. Relevant programs include graphic design , interior design, industrial design, architectural technology, and drafting . Diplomas and degrees in industrial design are offered at vocational schools and universities worldwide. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study. The study results in

2380-639: The USA's first industrial design degree programs in 1934 at Carnegie Institute of Technology . Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design , information design , and interaction design . Various schools of industrial design specialize in one of these aspects, ranging from pure art colleges and design schools (product styling), to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines such as exhibit design and interior design , to schools that almost completely subordinated aesthetic design to concerns of usage and ergonomics,

2448-460: The brand, however, were shared with Bertone Design which does not have the authorization to use it in the automotive field. Starting from November 2018, AKKA Technologies sold the license to use the Bertone brand in the electric automotive sector to Flymove Holding Limited UK, which in May 2019 proceeded with the definitive purchase of the brand for all applications and sectors. They relaunched Bertone through

2516-646: The commissioning client; and the others for his personal use, the Aston Martin DB4 GT 'Jet' and the Maserati 5000 GT . At the same time, two new industrial partnerships were worked on with the Simca 1000 Coupé and the BMW 3200 CS limited series. The ASA 1000 GT , better known as the "Ferrarina", or "little Ferrari" (as the project originated with Enzo Ferrari ), was a commercial failure upon its release. The Iso Rivolta GT 300 ,

2584-403: The company after World War II and the company was divided into two units: Carrozzeria for manufacturing and Stile Bertone for styling. Until its bankruptcy in 2014, the company was headed by the widow of Nuccio Bertone, Lilli Bertone. At the time of bankruptcy, it had around 100 direct employees. In 2014, most employees lost their jobs and were not absorbed by following acquisitions. Cars from

2652-724: The company expanded to start the production of the NSU Sport Prinz . Construction work began in Grugliasco for a new plant that became operative in 1959 with a workforce of 550. At the end of the 1950s, Bertone created the Giulietta Sprint Speciale , the Aston Martin DB2/4 , and the Maserati 3500 GT . Giorgetto Giugiaro came up with five variations of five GT models: the Alfa Romeo 2600 Sprint , in coupé and cabriolet versions; two Ferrari 250 GTs , one named 'Wax' after

2720-401: The company museum went to other museums, like Automotoclub Storico Italiano and Volandia . After its bankruptcy, the Bertone name was acquired by an architect and retained by some of its former employees, who continued as a Milan -based small external design office, Bertone Design, more focused on industrial design and architecture. Bertone Design was sold to the group AKKA Technologies in

2788-458: The complete interior of the Eagle Premier . Milwaukee's Brooks Stevens was best known for his Milwaukee Road Skytop Lounge car and Oscar Mayer Wienermobile designs, among others. Viktor Schreckengost designed bicycles manufactured by Murray bicycles for Murray and Sears, Roebuck and Company. With engineer Ray Spiller, he designed the first truck with a cab-over-engine configuration,

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2856-541: The creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Under the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs , a WIPO -administered treaty,

2924-549: The creative supervision of the King's leading artist Charles Le Brun . This pattern of large-scale royal patronage was repeated in the court porcelain factories of the early 18th century, such as the Meissen porcelain workshops established in 1709 by the Grand Duke of Saxony , where patterns from a range of sources, including court goldsmiths, sculptors, and engravers, were used as models for

2992-449: The design protection provided by the resulting international registrations. The Hague System does not require the applicant to file a national or regional design application. in 2019 in 2020 in 2021 in 2022 in 2023 A number of industrial designers have made such a significant impact on culture and daily life that their work is documented by historians of social science. Alvar Aalto , renowned as an architect , also designed

3060-455: The early 16th century led to the emergence in Italy and Germany of pattern books : collections of engravings illustrating decorative forms and motifs which could be applied to a wide range of products, and whose creation took place in advance of their application. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during

3128-436: The emotional attachment of the user. These values and accompanying aspects that form the basis of industrial design can vary—between different schools of thought, and among practicing designers. Industrial design rights are intellectual property rights that make exclusive the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. A design patent would also be considered under this category. An industrial design consists of

3196-559: The gap between what is and what's possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology, research, business and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across economic, social and environmental spheres. Industrial Designers place

3264-484: The human in the centre of the process. They acquire a deep understanding of user needs through empathy and apply a pragmatic, user centric problem solving process to design products, systems, services and experiences. They are strategic stakeholders in the innovation process and are uniquely positioned to bridge varied professional disciplines and business interests. They value the economic, social and environmental impact of their work and their contribution towards co-creating

3332-548: The industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919 (although he himself denied this in interviews), but the discipline predates 1919 by at least a decade. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers. Industrial design's origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. For instance, the Deutscher Werkbund (a precursor to the Bauhaus founded in 1907 by Peter Behrens and others)

3400-454: The industrial designers and/or other team members. Industrial designers often utilize 3D software, computer-aided industrial design and CAD programs to move from concept to production. They may also build a prototype or scaled down sketch models through a 3D printing process or using other materials such as paper, balsa wood, various foams, or clay for modeling. They may then use industrial CT scanning to test for interior defects and generate

3468-457: The instruction of draftsmen employed in preparing patterns for the silk manufacture. It has been much more successful than the Paris school; and having been disorganized by the revolution, was restored by Napoleon and differently constituted, being then erected into an Academy of Fine Art: to which the study of design for silk manufacture was merely attached as a subordinate branch. It appears that all

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3536-484: The mechanical and other functional aspects of the product, assuring functionality and manufacturability, and with marketers to identify and fulfill customer needs and expectations. Industrial design (ID) is the professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer. Industrial Designers Society of America , Design, itself,

3604-417: The mid 18th century. The rise of industrial manufacture changed the way objects were made, urbanization changed patterns of consumption , the growth of empires broadened tastes and diversified markets, and the emergence of a wider middle class created demand for fashionable styles from a much larger and more heterogeneous population. The first use of the term "industrial design" is often attributed to

3672-581: The name and slightly larger headlights (possibly to compensate for the dimming effects of French legislation requiring headlight bulbs to be yellow) the French Lancia Ardennes was indistinguishable from the Turin built Lancia Aprilia. Curiously, the models assembled in France made it to the market ahead of the Italian cars, being sold from Autumn 1936, whereas the Italian cars were not sold till early 1937, after

3740-436: The onset of industrialization , design, technical expertise, and manufacturing was often done by individual crafts people , who determined the form of a product at the point of its creation, according to their own manual skill, the requirements of their clients, experience accumulated through their own experimentation, and knowledge passed on to them through training or apprenticeship . The division of labour that underlies

3808-432: The practice of industrial design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The growth of trade in the medieval period led to the emergence of large workshops in cities such as Florence , Venice , Nuremberg , and Bruges , where groups of more specialized craftsmen made objects with common forms through the repetitive duplication of models which defined by their shared training and technique. Competitive pressures in

3876-536: The presentation of new models of electric cars designed by Carlos Arroyo Turon (former Bertone Designer) and which use the battery swap system. The AKKA Technologies group subsequently sold the Bertone brand to Ideactive, a company owned by Mauro and Jean-Franck Ricci. In 2022, the two Ricci brothers revived the Bertone brand. The first in a series of limited edition vehicles, the GB110, was launched in December 2022. In June 2024,

3944-424: The purpose of examining the state of schools of design in those countries, will be fresh in the recollection of our readers. His report on this subject was ordered to be printed some few months since, on the motion of Mr. Hume; and it is the sum and substance of this Report that we are now about to lay before our own especial portion of the reading public. The school of St. Peter, at Lyons, was founded about 1750, for

4012-541: The second quarter of 2016, which already had automotive design activities through Mercedes-Benz Technologies. The AKKA Technologies group subsequently sold the Bertone brand in 2020 to Mauro and Jean-Franck Ricci, the new owners. In 2022, Mauro and Jean-Franck Ricci revived the Bertone brand. The first in a series of limited edition vehicles, the GB110 , was presented in December 2022, then unveiled in June 2024. Giovanni Bertone started

4080-486: The so-called functionalist school. Except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, the former is considered an applied art while the latter is an applied science. Educational programs in the U.S. for engineering require accreditation by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) in contrast to programs for industrial design which are accredited by

4148-715: The students who entered the school commence as if they were intended for artists in the higher sense of the word and are not expected to decide as to whether they will devote themselves to the Fine Arts or to Industrial Design, until they have completed their exercises in drawing and painting of the figure from the antique and from the living model. It is for this reason, and from the fact that artists for industrial purposes are both well-paid and highly considered (as being well-instructed men), that so many individuals in France engage themselves in both pursuits. The Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud

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4216-443: The vessels and figurines for which it became famous. As long as reproduction remained craft-based, however, the form and artistic quality of the product remained in the hands of the individual craftsman, and tended to decline as the scale of production increased. The emergence of industrial design is specifically linked to the growth of industrialization and mechanization that began with the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain in

4284-517: The way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale . The inclusion of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added value by improving usability , lowering production costs, and developing more appealing products. Industrial design may also focus on technical concepts, products, and processes. In addition to aesthetics , usability, and ergonomics , it can also encompass engineering, usefulness, market placement, and other concerns—such as psychology, desire, and

4352-448: The worst of the winter was over. Despite being well regarded by enthusiasts, the Lancia Ardennes was overshadowed in the French market place by the pioneering and aggressively priced Citroën Traction . In the context of heightened nationalism and increasing political tension between the political classes in Italy and in France, only 1,620 Lancia Ardennes models had been produced before war put an end to its production. The Lancia Aprilia

4420-434: Was a state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing with Great Britain and the United States. The earliest published use of the term may have been in The Art-Union , 15 September 1840. Dyce's Report to the Board of Trade, on Foreign Schools of Design for Manufactures. Mr. Dyce's official visit to France, Prussia, and Bavaria, for

4488-576: Was also awarded the ISO 9001 quality certification . By 2009, a worsening financial situation caused Bertone to sell its Grugliasco plant, along with its manufacturing activities, to FIAT. Bertone underwent a major restructuring process. By then, the Bertone workforce had dropped to roughly 300 people, mainly engineers and designers. The financial situation continued, prompting Bertone to sell off some of its concept cars in 2011. After having ceased trading because of financial difficulties, Bertone, on 18 March 2014, confirmed that it would be declared bankrupt if

4556-471: Was also known to the general public for his unconventional approach to industrial design. He had expanded in numerous areas ranging from mundane household items, instruments and furniture to trucks, uniforms and entire rooms. A grand piano created by Colani, the Pegasus , is manufactured and sold by the Schimmel piano company. Many of Apple 's recent products were designed by Sir Jonathan Ive . Lancia Aprilia The Lancia Aprilia (1937–1949)

4624-458: Was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the (translated) work explains, that it wants to offer a "complete course of mechanical, engineering, and architectural drawing." The study of those types of technical drawing, according to Armengaud, belongs to the field of industrial design. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the field of drawing education in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of

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