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186-649: The institution of the cardinal-nephew evolved over seven centuries, tracking developments in the history of the papacy and the styles of individual popes. From 1566 until 1692, a cardinal-nephew held the curial office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State , known as the Cardinal Nephew , and thus the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The curial office of the Cardinal Nephew as well as

372-595: A Papal Legate , arranging peace between the perpetually warring Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Francis I of France . In the Consistory of 24 November 1539 he was sent as Apostolic Legatus a latere to attempt to arrange a peace between the two feuding monarchs. He left Rome on 29 November and entered Paris on 31 December. He was in Rouen on 14 January 1540, met with the King on 14 February. He then left for Flanders on 17 February for

558-845: A council at Clermont in November 1095 with the hopes of reunion and lending support to the Byzantines who wanted to reclaim their lands lost to the Seljuk Turks . After the 10-day council Pope Urban II gave a rousing speech to a massive crowd when he "emphasized the duty of the Christian West to march to the rescue of the Christian East." This speech became the rallying cry of the First Crusade , which commenced nine months later, in August 1096. Unlike

744-469: A papal bull of March 14, 1566. However, Pius V relentlessly avoided delegating any real autonomous power to Bonelli. The Cardinal Nephew (also called cardinale padrone or Secretarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiasticæ : "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State", Italian : Sopraintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico ) was an official legate of the Roman Curia , approximately equivalent to

930-554: A synod . He was accompanied by his librarian, the famous antiquarian and papal biographer, Onofrio Panvinio , who, unhappily, died at Palermo on 16 (?) March 1568. The Cardinal continued to enjoy the income of the diocese until 1573, when he resigned the bishopric. On 17 June 1537, Farnese was appointed Administrator of the Diocese of Bitonto in the Kingdom of Naples on the resignation of Bishop Lopez de Alarcon; his administration ceased upon

1116-627: A Cardinal Nephew. Alexander VIII also undid another reform of Innocent XI by restoring the revenues of the former Chancery to the Vice-Chancellor , who was, at the time, his cardinal-nephew, Pietro Ottoboni . Edith Standen, a consultant to the Metropolitan Museum of Art , calls Ottoboni the "last and certainly not least magnificent example" of the "splendor of an extinct species, the Cardinal-Nephew". Until 1692 (and sometimes thereafter),

1302-414: A bull banning nepotism, which had been tediously composed between 1677 and 1686. Innocent XI refused entreaties from within the papal court to bring his only nephew, Livio Odescalchi , the prince of Sirmio , to Rome, although he did elevate Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri, a distant relative, cardinal on September 2, 1686. Innocent XI's successor, Pope Alexander VIII (1689–1691), was the last Pope to create

1488-610: A candidate by more than one-third of the voters); the Emperor even expressed fears that d'Este might try to bribe himself into the papacy. D'Avanson also had to break the news that Cardinal du Bellay, out of personal ambition, had broken ranks and would support Cardinal Carafa. In the voting, the Imperial candidate, Cardinal Carpi, seemed to be moving forward, until the French faction and the cardinals created by Julius III (of which there were fifteen at

1674-581: A city of expense-account whores and political graft, where everything and everyone had a price, where nothing and nobody could be trusted. The popes themselves seemed to set the tone." For example, Leo X was said to have remarked: "Let us enjoy the papacy, since God has given it to us." Several of these popes took mistresses and fathered children and engaged in intrigue or even murder. Alexander VI had four acknowledged children: Cesare Borgia , Lucrezia Borgia , Gioffre Borgia , and Giovanni Borgia before he became Pope. The Reformation (1517–1580) challenged

1860-508: A college may judge Morone." There was an immediate outcry. The cardinals wanted a Congregation be held at which explanations would be demanded. Paul IV took the initiative and held a Congregation at which he presided, telling the cardinals that it was not politics but the honor of God that was involved. The process against Morone would be carried out by the members of the Inquisition. Twenty-one charges were levelled at him. On 12 June 1557, Morone

2046-467: A considerable time, and conceived a high esteem for him on account of his singular holiness and zeal, I judged that no more fitting Pontiff than he could be found to rule the Christian commonwealth wisely and well. I therefore took up his cause with all my might; and with little delay he was elected Pope to the great satisfaction of all. Nothing could be so great a consolation to me in my grief for my uncle, as

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2232-450: A famed papal historian, "the evil wrought by them in and to the church has been well nigh fatal to it; and it continued to increase until increasing danger warned the Pontiffs to abstain. The worst cardinals, providing, of course, the material for the worst Popes, have been for the most part cardinal nephews, the temptation to the creation of such having been rendered too great to be resisted by

2418-504: A few choices for the creation of a Cardinal Nephew. According to papal historian Frederic Baumgartner, Pope Sixtus V 's (1585–1590) reign "started badly" because Alessandro Peretti di Montalto was "his only nephew eligible for the office, but he could hardly serve the Pope as a trustworthy confidant", causing several cardinals to refuse to attend his investiture. Another papal historian Ludwig von Pastor notes that "the misfortune of Pope Pamphilj

2604-731: A formal distance between the person of the pontiff and the everydayness of pontifical affairs. Gregorio Leti 's Papal Nepotism, or the True Relation of the Reasons Which Impel the Popes to make their Nephews Powerful (1667) is one example of contemporary criticism of the institution of the cardinal-nephew; Leti holds the rare distinction of having all of his publications on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books"). The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 defended

2790-602: A friend of the Emperor, and there were those who remembered Morone's troubles with the Inquisition, and the bull of Paul IV which had stated that no one who was arrested, imprisoned, or convicted by the Inquisition could ever vote in a papal election, let alone be elected pope. In addition, there were those who did not like Morone personally. It is alleged that both Alessandro Farnese and Ippolito d'Este had grudges against Morone due to decisions which he had made while Legate in Bologna. His enemies could always muster more than one-third of

2976-545: A leader, if not a pope-maker, approached Cardinal Farnese, who had the largest number of commitments. He indicated that he thought that Cardinal Morone should be pope. This was in accordance with the wishes of the Emperor, and Morone had been one of the Presidents of the Council of Trent. Farnese seemed friendly and willing to please, which Borromeo (wrongly) took as an agreement to supply votes. There were those who would never vote for

3162-443: A meeting with the Emperor; he stayed for three months, and returned to Paris on 14 May. He had a meeting with King Francis on the 17th at Saint-Germain-en-Laye . He returned to Rome on 5 June 1540. Cardinal Farnese was named Legatus a latere again, and for the same purpose, at the Consistory of 21 November 1543. He arrived at Fontainebleau on 29 December 1543 and remained until 6 January 1544, when he departed for Bruxelles to visit

3348-426: A month of each other. A new and brighter day dawned. For the approaching Conclave, King Philip II of Spain let it be known that his choices were Cardinals Rodolfo Pio de Carpi , Giacomo Puteo , Giovanni Angelo de' Medici , and Clemente d' Olera . In contrast, the French king François II was promoting the nomination of Cardinals Ippolito d'Este , François de Tournon , and Ercole Gonzaga . Cardinal Farnese, who

3534-553: A parallel government, in which family members often figured prominently. The loss of temporal power over the Papal States ( de facto in 1870 with the " Roman Question " and de jure in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty ) also eliminated the structural conditions which had figured prominently in the family politics of earlier Popes. A Pope's nephew dies twice; the second time like all men, the first time when his uncle dies. Even into

3720-473: A pope who would make him Duke of Tuscany , and would validate his control over Siena, and he had already picked out Cardinal Ghislieri. The Duchess of Ferrara, a daughter of the Emperor, was recommending Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, the 27 year old nephew of Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga (who had died in 1563), for whom she was soliciting the Emperor, the Duke of Savoy and the King of France, Francois II. The Duchess of Savoy

3906-445: A potential threat to any future pontiff; for example, Ludovisi came to lead the opposition against Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644), even talking about calling a council against the Pope (which never occurred as Ludovisi died in 1632) because "no one else had the standing to confront Urban's titanic temper". Nepotism is a common feature in the history of governance, particularly in cultures where identity and loyalty are determined more at

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4092-537: Is Anselm of Lucca , the nephew or brother of Pope Alexander II (1061–1073), although until the end of 12th the majority of the alleged cases of such appointments are dubious, either because the relationship between the Pope and cardinal is not proven, or because the cardinalate of the papal kinsman is uncertain. However, it is beyond doubt that the promotions of papal relatives to the College of Cardinals were common in 13th century . According to historian John Bargrave, "by

4278-465: Is considered to have exercised "more unlimited authority" than any previous cardinal-nephew. Notably, cardinal-nephews were allowed to create facultas testandi to will the rewards of their benefices to secular family members. Gregory XV's successor, Urban VIII (1623–1644) convened two special committees of theologians, both of whom endorsed this practice. As Fabio Chigi, I had a family. As Alexander VII I have none. You won't find my name anywhere in

4464-491: Is estimated that Paul V Borghese had transferred to his family approximately 4% of the total income of the Holy See during his pontificate. Borghese's personal revenues in 1610 were 153,000 scudi compared to the mere 4,900 scudi that constituted his entire family's income in 1592. Pope Gregory XIV (1590–1591) began the practice of creating cardinal-nephews whose formal appointment coincided de facto with their nomination, and

4650-557: Is maintained), as Charlemagne rose from prayer, the pope placed a crown on his head and acclaimed him emperor. It is reported that Charlemagne expressed displeasure but nevertheless accepted the honour. Charlemagne's successor, "Louis the Pious", intervened in the papal election by supporting the claim of Pope Eugene II ; the popes henceforth were required to swear loyalty to the Frankish Emperor. Papal subjects were made to swear loyalty to

4836-401: Is rich."), though the six votes he received in the first ballot caused considerable consternation, and the beginning of a "Stop D'Este" movement. Some of the cleverer cardinals, led by Carafa and Madruzzi of Trent, realized that, when all the opinions were factored in, there were very few electable cardinals, the best of whom was Cardinal Marcello Cervini. He was a reformer, he was strict, and he

5022-698: The Avignon Papacy , the Cardinal Nephew was responsible for the spiritual and temporal governance of the Comtat Venaissin , where the Avignon Popes had resided; in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV raised the Diocese of Avignon to the rank of an archbishopric, to the benefit of his nephew Giuliano della Rovere . The terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by Pius V's successors to Paul V (1605–1621). The Cardinal Nephew

5208-731: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312) relates his vision of the Chi Rho and the text in hoc signo vinces in the sky, and reproducing this symbol on the shields of his troops. The following year, Constantine and Licinius proclaimed the toleration of the Christian faith with the Edict of Milan , and in 325, Constantine convened and presided over the First Council of Nicaea , the first ecumenical council . None of this, however, had much in particular to do with

5394-516: The Byzantine Papacy (537–752). The role of the Ostrogoths became clear in the first schism, when, on November 22, 498, two men were elected pope. The subsequent triumph of Pope Symmachus (498–514) over Antipope Laurentius is the first recorded example of simony in papal history. Symmachus also instituted the practice of popes naming their own successors, which held until an unpopular choice

5580-501: The Cardinal Secretary of State increased. The church of Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) is described by historian Eamon Duffy as "all the evils of nepotism without the nephew". Neri Maria Corsini , cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement XII (1730–1740) was by far the most powerful cardinal-nephew of the 18th century, on account of his uncle's advanced age and blindness . However, Clement XII's successor, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758)

5766-411: The Cardinal Secretary of State , which absorbed its functions after the office of Cardinal Nephew was abolished in 1692. The office has been likened by historians to a " prime minister ", " alter ego ", or "vice-pope". The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a Pope's first cardinal creations, and his creature was traditionally accompanied by a salute from the guns of Castel Sant'Angelo . Following

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5952-467: The Council of Bazill , Session 21, the number of cardinals was not to be above 24, and not any nephew of the Pope or of any cardinal was to be of that number. ( Session 23.)" Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including six on September 20, 1342, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time. The capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave limited

6138-849: The Crescentii era, and the Tusculan Papacy . From 1048 to 1257 , the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). Conflict with the latter culminated in the East–West Schism , dividing the Roman and Eastern Churches. From 1257 to 1377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo , Orvieto , and Perugia , and lastly Avignon . The return of

6324-593: The English language about 1669. According to Duffy, "the inevitable outcome of all of this was a creation of a wealthy cardinalatial class, with strong dynastic connections." The college was dominated by cardinal-nephews —relatives of the popes that elevated them, crown-cardinals —representatives of the Catholic monarchies of Europe, and members of the powerful Italian families. The wealthy popes and cardinals increasingly patronized Renaissance art and architecture, (re)building

6510-595: The Gothic War (535–54) and appointed the next three popes , a practice that would be continued by his successors and later be delegated to the Exarchate of Ravenna . With the exception of Pope Martin I , no pope during this period questioned the authority of the Byzantine monarch to confirm the election of the bishop of Rome before consecration could occur; however, theological conflicts were common between pope and emperor in

6696-527: The Jews , and especially against converted Jews, he issued a bull on 14 July 1555, Cum nimis absurdum , creating the Jewish Ghetto of Rome. He refused to recognize the election of Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor, and he refused to recognize the retirement of Charles V. He ruled until his death on 18 August 1559, or rather his nephew, Cardinal Carlo Carafa, did. It was only three months before his death that Paul IV

6882-660: The Kingdom of Naples . In 1557, the efforts collapsed. On 23 October 1557, Henri struck against Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, issuing letters patent by which he confiscated all of the benefices of the Cardinal which he still enjoyed in France. The Abbeys of St. Étienne de Caën, Beauport in Brittany, and Granselve, as well as the Administratorship of the Diocese of Viviers, were also included. In

7068-699: The Lateran Palace to the bishop of Rome, and around 310 AD began the construction of Basilica of Constantine in Germany, called Aula Palatina . Emperor Constantine also erected the Old St. Peter's Basilica, or Constantinian Basilica, the current location of the current, Renaissance era, St. Peter's Basilica within the Vatican, on the place of St. Peter's burial, as held by the Catholic community of Rome, after his conversion to Catholicism. Pope Leo I (440–461), also called Leo

7254-790: The Reformation Papacy and Baroque Papacy led the Catholic Church through the Counter-Reformation . The popes during the Age of Revolution witnessed the largest expropriation of wealth in the church's history, during the French Revolution and those that followed throughout Europe. The Roman Question , arising from Italian unification , resulted in the loss of the Papal States and the creation of Vatican City . Roman-Catholics recognize

7440-463: The Roman Curia with them, and the College of Cardinals met in the city where the last pope had died to hold papal elections. Host cities enjoyed a boost to their prestige and certain economic advantages, but the municipal authorities risked being subsumed into the administration of the Papal States if they allowed the pope to overstay his welcome. According to Eamon Duffy , "aristocratic factions within

7626-712: The Spanish Netherlands , grandson of Emperor Charles V and great-grandson of Pope Paul III . Farnese was born at the family castle at Valentano in Tuscany on 7 October 1520 (current province of Viterbo ), the son of Pierluigi Farnese, who was the son of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (Pope Paul III); and Girolama Orsini, daughter of Ludovico Orsini, seventh Conte di Pitigliano, and Giulia Conti. They were married in Rome on 6 August 1519. Young Alessandro studied at Bologna along with his cousin, Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora . He

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7812-425: The de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself. Although Pope Leo XI (1605) died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini , Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XI's successor, Pope Paul V in 1615. Some historians consider Scipione Borghese , cardinal-nephew to Pope Paul V , to be the "prototypical representative" of a cardinal-nephew, unlike those before him, created to "provide for and oversee

7998-463: The medieval papacy was influenced by the temporal rulers of Italy; these periods are known as the Ostrogothic Papacy , Byzantine Papacy , and Frankish Papacy . Over time, the papacy consolidated its territorial claims to a portion of the peninsula known as the Papal States . Thereafter, the role of neighboring sovereigns was replaced by powerful Roman families during the saeculum obscurum ,

8184-401: The previous millennium , the process for papal selection became somewhat fixed during this period. Pope Nicholas II promulgated In nomine Domini in 1059, which limited suffrage in papal elections to the College of Cardinals . The rules and procedures of papal elections evolved during this period, laying the groundwork for the modern papal conclave . The driving force behind these reforms

8370-408: The 18th century, the cardinal-nephew was a natural power broker at the conclave following his uncle's death, as a figure whom cardinals desirous of continuing the status quo could rally around. In particular, the cardinal-nephew often commanded the loyalty of his uncle's creatures , whom he generally had a role in naming. For example, Alessandro Peretti di Montalto led his uncle's creatures in

8556-648: The Abbey of Tre Fontane on the Via Ostiense, a position he held until 1544. In 1535, he was also appointed Abbot commendatory of S. Étienne de Caën . Young Cardinal Farnese received many other offices and benefices, becoming Vice- Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church (13 August 1535 – 2 March 1589), He also became Governor of Tivoli (1535–1550), Archpriest of St. Mary Major Basilica (1537–1543), Archpriest of St. Peter's Basilica (1543–1589). On 27 August 1539, at

8742-648: The African coast had for many years been regulated by the papal bulls of 1455, 1456, and 1479. Alexander VI responded with three bulls, dated May 3 and 4, which were highly favorable to Castile; the third Inter caetera (1493) awarded Spain the sole right to colonize most of the New World . According to Eamon Duffy , "the Renaissance papacy invokes images of a Hollywood spectacular, all decadence and drag. Contemporaries viewed Renaissance Rome as we now view Nixon's Washington,

8928-635: The Apennine mountains. In 728, the Lombard King Liutprand took the Castle of Sutri , on the road to Perugia, but restored it to Pope Gregory II "as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul". The popes continued to acknowledge the imperial Government. In 738, the Lombard duke Transamund of Spoleto captured the Castle of Gallese, which protected the road to Perugia. By a large payment, Pope Gregory III induced

9114-631: The Carafas to young Duke Alessandro , the son of Ottavio and Margaret of Parma. That alliance did not take place. Nonetheless, Cardinal Alessandro's influence in Rome was considerable. He was named Cardinal Protector of the Empire (14 September 1541), Sicily, of Aragon (13 December 1565), of Portugal, of Poland, of the Republic of Genoa, and of Ragusa. Carafa was elected, and began dealing with real or imagined enemies. First Ascanio della Corgna came under suspicion. He

9300-494: The Carolingian emperors was disputed between their fractured heirs and local overlords; none emerged victorious until Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor invaded Italy. Italy became a constituent kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire in 962, from which point the emperors were German. As emperors consolidated their position, northern Italian city-states would become divided by Guelphs and Ghibellines . Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor found three rival popes when he visited Rome in 1048 because of

9486-431: The College to block his election. When it came to a vote, Morone got twenty-nine votes. Farnese must have realized that he was in somewhat the same situation himself. He could muster between twenty-eight and thirty votes, but not the thirty-five needed to elect. In his straightforward way, Borromeo then went on to his second candidate, Cardinal Sirleto, but he too failed. Borromeo went to Farnese, and stated flatly that he

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9672-413: The Conclave at all. The large number of factions would present a major difficulty for anyone trying to put together a two-thirds majority. Nationality was not the only way of dividing up the cardinals either. There were the seniors and the juniors, and the eager reformers and the complacent majority. As soon as the Conclave opened, Cardinal Borromeo, who, as the nephew of the late pope, considered himself

9858-482: The Conclave) combined to put him out of the running. Once it was clear that nobody in the French faction was going to succeed, Cardinal Farnese and Cardinal d'Este decided to throw their support to Cardinal Carafa. The Imperial faction was so frightened at what Pope Carafa might do in trying to get Naples out of the hands of the Emperor that they sent Cardinals Corner and Ricci to Alessandro Farnese to beg him to abandon Carafa and accept their votes for himself . But Farnese

10044-408: The Curia. An analysis of the five papal conclaves between 1605 and 1644 shows that cardinal-nephews were generally unsuccessful in electing their chosen candidates, although the victor was usually a cardinal created by the deceased Pope. Crown-cardinals in particular, when they deigned to travel to Rome for the conclave, tended to oppose the election of cardinal-nephews, although they equally opposed

10230-488: The Diocese of Cavaillon in Provence, which he resigned one year later on 20 July 1541. In 1549, his grandfather Pope Paul III died. He was Administrator of the Archdiocese of Tours from 28 April 1553, until Pope Julius III ordered the issue of bulls for Archbishop Simon de Mailly on 25 June 1554. In the case of Tours, the right of nomination belonged to the King of France, Henri II, whose daughter Diane had married Farnese's youngest brother Orazio in 1552. On 25 June 1554,

10416-625: The Emperor. He arrived on 14 January, and was back in France by 4 February. He returned to Rome on 1 March 1544. In 1546, he accompanied the troops sent by the pope to the aid of Charles V against the Schmalkaldic League . In 1548, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese took into his service as his private secretary Annibale Caro , the noted poet and prose stylist. Caro had previously been in the service of Cardinal Alessandro's father, Pierluigi Farnese , and after his murder on 10 September 1547, to Duke Ottavio Farnese, and then to Cardinal Ranuccio Farnese, his own younger brother. In 1551, Cardinal Alessandro

10602-495: The Faction of Pius IV, Borromeo and Altemps, that the Medici were interested only in Sirleto and Boncompagni. With the French and Florentine votes, in fact, Cardinal d'Este had the resources to block any candidate he pleased (the 'virtual veto'). D'Este, however, was not electable. The cardinals of Pius V (some twelve or thirteen votes) were joined with many of those of Pius IV to prevent the election of d'Este, but also of Farnese, Ricci, and Burali d' Arezzo. Cardinal Giovanni Morone

10788-570: The Frankish Emperor and the consecration of the pope could be performed only in the presence of the Emperor's representatives. The consecration of Pope Gregory IV (827-844), chosen by the Roman nobles, was delayed for six months to attain the assent of Louis. Pope Sergius II (844-847), choice of the Roman nobility, was consecrated without reference to Emperor Lothaire , the latter sent his son Louis with an army, and only when "Sergius succeeded in pacifying Louis, whom he crowned king" did Lothair I side with Sergius II. The period beginning with

10974-443: The French Crown, which considered Parma its entrée into northern Italy, where it challenged the Emperor to the possession of the Duchy of Milan and the Lombard plain. Julius was toying with explosive material. Ottavio refused, and Alessandro supported him. The Farnese had a complete breach in relations with the Pope, and Alessandro was immediately unwelcome in Rome. Pope Julius sequestrated his diocese of Monreale, and confiscated all of

11160-410: The French King in this time. In 1378, Gregory XI moved the papal residence back to Rome and died there. The French cardinals withdrew to a conclave of their own, where they elected one of their number, Robert of Geneva. He took the name Clement VII . This was the beginning of the period of difficulty from 1378 to 1417 which Catholic scholars refer to as the "Western Schism" or, "the great controversy of

11346-433: The Great, was so influential that he was later named a Doctor of the Church , a distinction he shares with only one other pope (Gregory I). During his papacy, the term Pope (which previously meant any bishop) came to exclusively mean the Bishop of Rome. The Ostrogothic Papacy period ran from 493 to 537. The papal election of March 483 was the first to take place without the existence of a Western Roman emperor. The papacy

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11532-505: The Guises, were the leaders of the devout hyper-Catholic party in France, who were eager for a show-down with the Huguenots . Catherine de' Medici was attempting to avoid a civil war in France, and she believed that the marriage of her daughter Margot with Henri of Navarre, a Protestant, might avert disaster but dispensations would be required of the pope. She was also trying to tempt Queen Elizabeth into marriage with her son, Henri, and that would require papal cooperation as well. Her choice

11718-407: The Imperial faction a great advantage. This was a matter of annoyance for the French, for King Henri had extracted from Pope Julius III, through negotiations carried on by Cardinals Georges d' Armagnac, Alessandro Farnese, and Jean du Bellay, a bull which allowed an extra 15 days before a Conclave began, in order to allow cardinals who had to travel a long distance (the French) to reach Rome. The bull

11904-437: The Lord far from Rome. The various administrations were carried out by authorized agents. In 1564, Alessandro Farnese succeeded his brother Ranuccio as Abbot Commendatory of the Monastery of Farfa , which he held until his death in 1589. It was he who introduced the Benedictine monks of the Congregation of Monte Cassino into the monastery in 1567. He also built, or rebuilt, the monastery's water supply. Farnese also became

12090-490: The Onesti lineage, an endeavor which yielded only a circuitous connection to Saint Romualdo. After the turbulent 1800 papal conclave , Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) shunned the institution of the cardinal-nephew and instead relied on his Cardinal Secretary of State , Ercole Consalvi . During the 19th century, the only nephew of a Pope created cardinal was Gabriele della Genga Sermattei , nephew of Pope Leo XII , created cardinal by Pope Gregory XVI on February 1, 1836. Although

12276-404: The Papacy's local jurisdiction and gave the impetus to missionary activity in northern Europe, including England. Gregory I rejected that any bishop had universal jurisdiction, but believed the Roman see had canonical privileges sourced from the Council of Sardica . The Duchy of Rome was a Byzantine district in the Exarchate of Ravenna, ruled by an imperial functionary with the title dux. Within

12462-637: The Pope it elected ( Pope Paul II ) to appointing one cardinal-nephew, along with other conditions designed to increase the power of the College of Cardinals and reduce the Pope's ability to dilute that power. The Fifth Council of the Lateran declared in 1514 that the care of relatives was to be commended, and the creation of cardinal-nephews was often recommended or justified based on the need to care for indigent family members. A cardinal-nephew could usually expect profitable appointments; for example, Alessandro Farnese , cardinal-nephew of Pope Paul III (1534–1549) held 64 benefices simultaneously in addition to

12648-706: The Roman Curia. On 14 April 1564, Cardinal Farnese was promoted to the title of Cardinal Priest of S. Lorenzo in Damaso, a post he held for less than a month. On 12 May, he was promoted to the Order of Cardinal Bishops with the diocese of Sabina. He distanced himself from the horrors surrounding the fall of the Carafa nephews in 1561. Pius was not a healthy man, and his anticipated demise gave Farnese and others time to plan. Pope Pius IV (Medici) died on 4 December 1565. The French, at this time Catherine de' Medici , having learned nothing from 1555 or 1559, still offered their support to Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. King Philip II favored d' Olera, Ghislieri, Ricci, Morone, and Pacecho. When

12834-430: The Spanish Ambassador, Don Luis Requesens de Zuniga, arrived in Rome on 21 December 1565, however, he carried instructions to support Ghislieri and Morone. He was suspicious of the orthodoxy of Cardinal Morone though, and he feared that Cardinal Farnese might pursue a vendetta against Spain for the murder of his father if he were to become pope. The Emperor Maximilian II was informed by his agent in Rome, Nosti Camiani, that

13020-416: The Spanish were against him. On the night of the opening of the Conclave, Cardinal Granvelle arrived from Naples. He had been sent to Italy by Philip II in 1571 to prepare the fleet which eventually met the Turks at Lepanto; he was kept on as Viceroy of Naples. Shortly after his entry into the Conclave, he produced an unopened letter which (he said) had reached him while he was on the highway from Naples. It

13206-429: The Spring of 1585, an embassy from Japan was making its way to Rome. They arrived by ship at Livorno on March 1, and proceeded by land through Tuscany. They were received in Florence by the Grand Duke Francesco de' Medici. They proceeded on to Rome, accompanied by Cardinal Francesco Gambara , and were received with a grand show of hospitality at Caprarola by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. Accompanied by Gambara and Farnese,

13392-403: The Vatican. Catholics were forbidden to vote or be voted for in national elections. However, they were permitted to participate in local elections, where they achieved successes. Pius himself was active during those years by creating new diocesan seats and appointing bishops to numerous dioceses, which had been unoccupied for years. Asked if he wanted his successor to follow his Italian policies,

13578-484: The abbey of St Denis, near Paris, together with Pepin's two young sons Charles and Carloman. Pepin duly invaded northern Italy in 754, and again in 756. Pepin was able to drive the Lombards from the territory belonging to Ravenna but he did not restore it to its rightful owner, the Byzantine emperor. Instead, he handed over large areas of central Italy to the pope and his successors. The land given to pope Stephen in 756, in

13764-517: The addition of the Filioque in the Nicene Creed in 1054 AD. Many of the bishops of Rome in the first three centuries of the Christian era are obscure figures. However, most of Peter's claimed successors in the first three centuries following his life are said to have suffered martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution. The legend surrounding the victory of Constantine I in

13950-474: The age of 18, Alessandro Farnese was named titular Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem; he vacated the office on the appointment of a new Patriarch on 28 February 1550. The office was highly lucrative, the duties were nominal and did not necessarily involve episcopal functions. In 1538, he was appointed Pope Paul III's principal Secretary and, with the assistance of Monsignor (Msgr.) Marcello Cervino, he managed most of

14136-813: The age of forty, seven of whom were under the age of thirty. Cardinal Farnese, nephew of Pope Paul III, had in his faction Cardinals Corregio, Gambara, Savelli, Paleotti and Orsini. Farnese was personally beloved by the Roman populace as a patron of the poor and a Maecenas of the arts. The cardinals who had been created by Paul IV were also supporting Farnese. They included: Vitelli (the Camerlengo ), Capizucchi , Reuman Suau, Rebiba, Ghislieri, and D' Olera. The cardinals created by Pius IV numbered nine, and under certain circumstances might draw four more. The Gonzaga faction had six members. The cardinals created by Julius III numbered five. The Florentines had between four and six. The Venetians had three. Six French cardinals did not come to

14322-411: The alternative; for example, the college urged Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) to appoint a cardinal-nephew, who they hoped would replace Benedict XIII's notorious lieutenant Niccolò Coscia . Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) also had to be urged by key figures in the college to appoint his cardinal-nephew: Filippo Boncompagni. The cardinal-nephews of the 18th century declined in influence as the power of

14508-479: The antipopes" (also called "the second great schism" by some secular and Protestant historians), when parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiances among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance , in 1417, finally resolved the controversy. Another council was convened in 1414 at Constance . In March 1415, the Pisan antipope, John XXIII, fled from Constance in disguise; he

14694-469: The appointment of a new bishop on 8 January 1538. He became Administrator of Diocese of Massa Marittima on 15 November 1538, on the resignation of Bishop Hieronymus de Glanderonibus; since he was only eighteen, he was not canonically eligible to be the bishop, though he could—and did—collect the income of the bishop until a successor was appointed in April 1547. On 16 July 1540, Farnese was named Administrator of

14880-482: The areas such as monotheletism and iconoclasm . Greek speakers from Greece, Syria, and Byzantine Sicily replaced members of the powerful Roman nobles from Italian descent in the papal chair during this period. Rome under the Greek popes constituted a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions, reflected in art as well as liturgy. Pope Gregory I (590–604) was a major figure in asserting papal primacy within

15066-402: The baptismal registers of Siena . Not all Cardinal Nephews were cardinal-nephews in the strictest sense. In fact, papal historian Valérie Pirie considers not having a nephew a "tremendous asset for a would-be Pope" as it left the position open for an ally cardinal. For example, Pope Clement X gave the office to Cardinal Paoluzzi-Altieri, whose nephew had recently married Laura Caterina Altieri,

15252-658: The cardinal that brought him to the Castel S. Angelo was that he had attempted to open communications with Philip II of Spain . The pressure of Spanish victories in Lombardy and Tuscany, however, forced their release. Then it was the turn of Cardinal Morone , a man of tested prudence and familiar with Germany. He had been chosen as the Papal Legate to the Imperial Diet in Augsburg , on

15438-464: The cardinal-nephew (or a lay nephew) would be the chief archivist of the Pope, usually removing the archives to a family archive upon the death of the pontiff. In particular, the archival collections of the Barberini , Farnese , Chigi , and Borghese families contain important papal documents. Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700) issued a papal bull on June 22, 1692, Romanum decet pontificem , banning

15624-536: The certainty that he is succeeded by one who possesses all the qualities that your Eminence sympathizes with me in lamenting, and who with equal courage and strength of soul will know how to maintain and uphold the authority of religion Within two hours, they had sufficient votes to elect Ghislieri. It was 7 January 1566. That afternoon, the Cardinals assembled and took a vote; two cardinals voted from their sickbeds. The votes were not by secret ballot, but out loud. Ghislieri

15810-566: The chief cardinal on how to create a faction of cardinals with all the requisites for the establishment of his grandeur"), discovered in the archive of the Santa Maria de Monserrato offers advice to cardinal-nephews for consolidating power within the College of Cardinals. Another text, the Ricordi dati da Gregorio XV al cardinale Lodovisio suo nipote ("Memoir addressed by Gregory XV to his Nephew Cardinal Lodovisio") offers advice for how to rise within

15996-456: The city of Rome once again made it an insecure base for a stable papal government. Innocent IV was exiled from Rome and even from Italy for six years, and all but two of the papal elections of the thirteenth century had to take place outside Rome. The skyline of Rome itself was now dominated by the fortified war-towers of the aristocracy (a hundred were built in Innocent IV's pontificate alone) and

16182-656: The college, saying he had "enough to account to God for the unworthy ones he had appointed". However, cardinal-nephews were not guaranteed the leadership of their uncle's creatures ; for example, in the papal conclave, 1621 , Scipione Borghese could count only twenty-nine votes (a fraction of his uncle's fifty-six cardinals), Pietro Aldobrandini controlled only nine (of his uncle's thirteen remaining cardinals), and Montalto only five of his uncle's remaining cardinals. In fact, international rivalries sometimes overwhelmed family loyalties when cardinal-nephews were relatively "poorly organized". As Pope Innocent X (1644–1655) died with

16368-676: The context of the larger dispute, has become legendary. Although the emperor renounced any right to lay investiture in the Concordat of Worms (1122), the issue would flare up again. Long-standing divisions between East and West also came to a head in the East–West Schism and the Crusades . The first seven Ecumenical Councils had been attended by both Western and Eastern prelates, but growing doctrinal, theological, linguistic, political and geographic differences finally resulted in mutual denunciations and excommunications. Pope Urban II (1088–99) convened

16554-594: The document, Henri complained of the Cardinal and his brothers taking the part of the King of Spain. The total loss for the Cardinal alone amounted to more than 30.000 francs . The benefices were all given to Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, Farnese's enemy, who had spent his youth at the French Court and was a personal friend of Henri and the Royal Family. These losses were in addition to those inflicted by Pope Julius III, whose election had been opposed by Cardinal Farnese in

16740-591: The duke to restore the castle to him. In 751, Aistulf took Ravenna and threatened Rome. In response to this threat, Pope Stephen II made an unusual journey north of the Alps to visit the Frankish king, Pepin III , to seek his help against the invading Lombards. The papal elections were marked by battles between various secular and ecclesiastical factions frequently entangled in the power politics of Italy. The pope anointed Pepin at

16926-613: The earliest of the Church Fathers , is identified with Clement of Philippians 4:3. His letter to the Corinthians is the "first known example of the exercise and acceptance" of the ecclesiastical authority of the papacy. Written while John the Apostle was still alive, Clement commanded that the Corinthians maintain unity with each other and bring to an end the schism that had divided the church in that region. This papal letter from Clement

17112-492: The early churches, citing instead that the bishop of Rome was, and is, "first among equals" as stated by the patriarch of the Orthodox Church in the 2nd century A.D. and again in the 21st century. However, what form that should take remains a matter of contention between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, which formed one church for at least the first seven ecumenical councils, and until the formal split over papal primacy and

17298-421: The election of Cardinal de' Medici, and Farnese crowned the new pope on 6 January 1560. The new Cardinal Nephews were Carlo Borromeo and Markus Sittich von Hohenems Altemps . During the reign of Pope Pius IV, Cardinal Farnese enjoyed good fortune. The Pope was a friend of his, and he was able to avoid the unpleasantries of international affairs, as he built a circle of friends in the College of Cardinals and in

17484-415: The election of crown-cardinals of other monarchs. In general, a cardinal-nephew had to outlive one or more successors of his uncle to become regarded as papabile , both because of their youth and their tendency to be blamed for any unpopular papal policies of their uncles. A papal election could bring a dramatic change of fortune for a cardinal-nephew, often bringing the former favorites into conflict with

17670-603: The exarchate, the two chief districts were the country about Ravenna where the exarch was the centre of Byzantine opposition to the Lombards, and the Duchy of Rome, which embraced the lands of Latium north of the Tiber and of Campania to the south as far as the Garigliano. There the pope himself was the soul of the opposition. The pains were taken, as long as possible, to retain control of the intervening districts and with them communication over

17856-506: The exorbitant greatness of the power, dignity, and wealth attributed to the members of the Sacred College. The value of these great "prizes" was so enormous, that the "hat" became an object of ambition to princes, and it was the primary object with a long series of Popes to bestow it on their kinsmen." The curial office of Cardinal Secretary of State in many ways evolved from the roles formerly filled by cardinal-nephews. From 1644 to 1692,

18042-513: The final stage of the Catholic Reformation, characteristic of the Baroque age of the early seventeenth century, shifting away from compelling to attracting. His reign focused on rebuilding Rome as a great European capital and Baroque city, a visual symbol for the Catholic Church. The last eight years of his long pontificate – the longest in church history – Pope Pius IX spent as prisoner of

18228-510: The first cardinal-nephew known as il cardinale padrone ("the Cardinal boss") accumulated a vast array of benefices: the bishopric of Bologna , 23 abbeys , the directorship of the Apostolic Signatura , as well as the offices of the vice-chancellor and high-chamberlain, and was able to have most of them redistributed among 17 of his kinsmen upon his death. These benefices and offices netted Ludovisi more than 200,000 scudi annually, and he

18414-536: The illegitimate daughter of Henri II. Unfortunately, Cardinal Farnese's brother Orazio was killed in battle on 18 July 1553, leaving no heirs. The dukedoms went to their younger brother Ottavio Farnese. Farnese had been in France, when on 6 June 1554 he was appointed by Henri II to go to Rome and take charge of French affairs in the absence of Cardinal d'Este, who was in Parma—over the objections of Cardinal du Bellay, who did not appreciate being supplanted. Cardinal d'Este

18600-614: The insistence of both Charles V and his brother Ferdinand. He received the Legatine cross on 13 February 1555, and was in Augsburg on 23 March, the day Pope Julius III died. He therefore arrived in Rome too late for the April Conclave. In the second Conclave, a month later, both Pole and Morone were Imperial candidates, but Cardinal Carafa (a candidate himself) loudly voiced his suspicions that both were heretics. Suddenly, on 31 May 1557, Morone

18786-502: The installation of Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasting for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII in 964 is sometimes referred to as Saeculum obscurum or the "dark age." Historian Will Durant refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy". During this period, the popes were controlled by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti , and their relatives. The Imperial crown once held by

18972-424: The institution of the cardinal-nephew as a necessary countermeasure to the intrigue of the old Church. According to Francis A. Burkle-Young, 15th century Popes in particular found it necessary to elevate their relatives to the College of Cardinals due to their distrust of the crown-cardinals , Roman baronial families, and Italian princely families who also populated the college. According to Thomas Adolphus Trollope ,

19158-808: The institution of the cardinal-nephew declined as the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased and the temporal power of popes decreased in the 17th and 18th centuries. The list of cardinal-nephews includes at least fifteen, and possibly as many as nineteen popes ( Gregory IX , Alexander IV , Adrian V , Gregory XI , Boniface IX , Innocent VII , Eugene IV , Paul II , Alexander VI , Pius III , Julius II , Leo X , Clement VII , Benedict XIII , and Pius VII ; perhaps also John XIX and Benedict IX , if they were really promoted cardinals; as well as Innocent III and Benedict XII , if in fact they were related to their elevators); one antipope ( John XXIII ); and two or three saints ( Charles Borromeo , Guarinus of Palestrina , and perhaps Anselm of Lucca , if he

19344-423: The institutionalization of nepotism disappeared in the 18th century, " pietas " (duty to family) remained a theme of papal administration into the 20th century, although rarely with the overt intervention of a papal uncle. Following the example of Pius VI, Popes Leo XIII (who elevated his brother, Giuseppe Pecci , cardinal on May 12, 1879) and Pius XII (1939–1958) weakened the formal curial bureaucracy in favor of

19530-601: The interest of Pope Paul III's secretary, Marcello Cervini. One of those was the Governorship of Tivoli, which also went to Cardinal d'Este. Another was the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which was granted away only twenty days after the end of the Conclave. But Julius III (Monte) had died in 1555, as had Marcellus II (Cervini). The Emperor Charles V had retired in 1556 and died in 1558 and both Paul IV and Henri II died in 1559, within

19716-599: The interim, accounting probably for the length of his Administration of Cahors. In 1555, Cardinal Farnese was named Administrator of the Diocese of Spoleto, a post he held until a new bishop was appointed on 16 December 1562. Cardinal Alessandro Farnese also served as Administrator of the Archdiocese of Benevento from 22 November 1556, until a new archbishop was approved by Paul IV on 14 January 1558. All of these appointments should be considered as opportunities for financial enrichment, not opportunities for service in vineyards of

19902-579: The landmarks of Rome from the ground up. The Papal States began to resemble a modern nation state during this period, and the papacy took an increasingly active role in European wars and diplomacy. Pope Julius II become known as "the Warrior Pope" for his use of bloodshed to increase the territory and property of the papacy. The popes of this period used the papal military not only to enrich themselves and their families, but also to enforce and expand upon

20088-554: The level of the family than that of the nation-state . The use of nephews, rather than direct descendants, is a product of the tradition of clerical celibacy within the Catholic Church , although hereditary descent from uncles to nephews is also seen in the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East . The creation of relatives and known-allies as cardinals was only one way in which medieval and Renaissance Popes attempted to dilute

20274-486: The longstanding territorial and property claims of the papacy as an institution. Although, before the Western Schism, the papacy had derived much of its revenue from the "vigorous exercise of its spiritual office," during this period the popes were financially dependent on the revenues from the Papal States themselves. With ambitious expenditures on war and construction projects, popes turned to new sources of revenue from

20460-399: The most favored cardinals were: d' Olera, Boncompagni, Suau, Sirleto, Simonetta, Gianbernardino Scotti, and Michele Ghislieri. He wrote directly to Cosimo III of Florence, asking for his assistance in the election. Cosimo replied that he was no longer in the business of influencing papal elections, but agreed to serve the Emperor's wishes. He was in fact very active behind the scenes. He wanted

20646-647: The moveables in the Palazzo Farnese, said to have been worth 30,000 scudi. Duke Ottavio's duchy was sequestered. He withdrew in April, first to a visit with his sister Vittoria, the Duchess of Urbino, then to Florence, and finally to Avignon. After peace was made between the Pope and France, Orazio Farnese had the Duchy of Castro restored to him (1552) and, to protect the Farnese's French connection, Orazio married Diane de France,

20832-402: The new Pope. For example, Prospero Colonna and Francisco de Borja were excommunicated , and Carlo Carafa was executed . The papal conclave, May 1605 , is one example of a conclave where a candidate ( Antonmaria Sauli ) was defeated because enough other cardinals were convinced of the need for "a Pope willing to punish the cardinal-nephews for robbing the papacy". A cardinal-nephew was also

21018-528: The new archbishop of Monreale in Sicily; his appointment was confirmed on 15 May 1536, by Pope Paul III. But Monreale was not a happy place, since the monks of the Cathedral of Monreale and the clergy of the diocese were in one squabble after another with each other. On 26 July 1549, the Pope was forced to intervene, in a letter in which he referred to the Cardinal under the title of perpetuus Administrator . A Vicar

21204-433: The office of Cardinal Nephew vacant his faction proved divided and leaderless in the conclave, although his sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini was invited to address the cardinals from within the enclosure, the only woman ever so honored. Instruzione al cardinal Padrone circa il modo come si deve procurare una fazione di cardinali con tutti i requisiti che deve avere per lo stabilimento della sua grandezza ("Instructions to

21390-484: The office of Cardinal Nephew, limiting his successors to elevating only one cardinal relative, eliminating various sinecures traditionally reserved for cardinal-nephews, and capping the stipend or endowment the nephew of a Pope could receive to 12,000 scudi . Romanum decet pontificem was later incorporated into the Code of Canon Law of 1917 in canons 240, 2; 1414, 4; and 1432, 1. In 1694, Innocent XII's series of reforms

21576-447: The old pontiff replied: Alessandro Farnese (cardinal) Alessandro Farnese (5 October 1520 – 2 March 1589), an Italian cardinal and diplomat and a great collector and patron of the arts , was the grandson of Pope Paul III (who also bore the name Alessandro Farnese ), and the son of Pier Luigi Farnese , Duke of Parma , who was murdered in 1547. He should not be confused with his nephew, Alessandro Farnese , Governor of

21762-448: The papacy to Rome in 1420. Although there were important divisions over the direction of the religion, these were resolved through the then-settled procedures of the papal conclave . Unlike their European peers, popes were not hereditary monarchs , so they could only promote their family interests through nepotism . The word nepotism originally referred specifically to the practice of creating cardinal-nephews , when it appeared in

21948-599: The papacy, with figures like Martin Luther labeling it as the Antichrist and criticizing practices like indulgences . In response, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation , led by Pope Paul III and the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which reaffirmed Catholic doctrines and initiated reforms to address corruption. Subsequent popes, including Paul IV , intensified efforts to combat heresy and promote Catholic renewal. The pontificate of Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) opened up

22134-623: The papal business until 1549. In 1541, Cardinal Farnese was named Protector of the Holy Roman Empire before the Holy See and Protector of Spain before the Holy See. These offices made him the most prominent expediter of all Imperial and Spanish business in the Roman Curia ; his opinion was always consulted and, since he was the Pope's nephew, it was often followed. At the same time, he was appointed Papal Legate in Avignon (1541–1565). Royal consent

22320-429: The papal conclave of 1590 despite being only 21. According to conclave historian Frederic Baumgartner, "the purpose of such appointments was ensuring that the Pope's family would have power and influence for a much longer time than the brief period that a Pope could expect to reign". A notable exception is Pope Gregory XV (1621–1623) who declined on his death bed the request of Ludovico Ludovisi to name more relatives to

22506-520: The papal service" proved more effective than nepotism for future Popes and thus "greatly reduced the need for papal nephews". The rise of the Cardinal Secretary of State was the "most obvious element of this new approach". History of the papacy According to Roman Catholicism , the history of the papacy , the office held by the pope as head of the Catholic Church , spans from

22692-594: The permanent social and economic ascent of the reigning papal family into the ranks of the high Roman aristocracy". For example, in 1616, 24 of the 30 abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out, a practice the Council of Trent had attempted to eliminate. A thorough financial analysis of Borghese's cardinalate by Volker Reinhardt (based on a series of extant account books) examines the strategies Borghese used to build up wealth during his uncle's pontificate and non-ecclesiastical assets before his uncle's death, which Volker considers to be exemplary of Baroque papal families. It

22878-427: The pontiff. Saint Charles Borromeo , cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, which came to be sometimes known as the secretarius maior . Pius IV was notorious for nepotism: between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives. Following the Council of Trent (1563), Pope Pius V (1566–1572) drew up

23064-560: The pope as both the successor to Peter and the first bishop of Rome. Official declarations of the church speak of the popes as holding within the college of the bishops a position analogous to that held by Peter within the "college" of the Apostles , namely Prince of the Apostles , of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is viewed by some to be the successor. Pope Clement I ,

23250-535: The pope, who did not even attend the council; in fact, the first bishop of Rome to be contemporaneously referred to as Pope is Damasus I (366–84). Moreover, between 324 and 330, Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire from Rome to Byzantium, a former Greek city on the Bosporus. The power of Rome was transferred to Byzantium which later, in 330 became Constantinople and today is Istanbul. The " Donation of Constantine ", an 8th-century forgery used to enhance

23436-451: The popes increasingly spent their time in the papal palaces at Viterbo and Orvieto." During this period, seven popes, all French, resided in Avignon starting in 1309: Pope Clement V (1305–14), Pope John XXII (1316–34), Pope Benedict XII (1334–42), Pope Clement VI (1342–52), Pope Innocent VI (1352–62), Pope Urban V (1362–70), Pope Gregory XI (1370–78). The papacy was controlled by

23622-658: The popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the Western Schism : the division of the Western Church between two and, for a time, three competing papal claimants. The Renaissance Papacy is known for its artistic and architectural patronage, frequent involvement in European power politics, and opposition against theological challenges to papal authority. After the start of the Protestant Reformation ,

23808-422: The power of the College of Cardinals as an "ecclesiastical rival" and perpetuate their influence within the church after their death. The institution of the cardinal-nephew had the effect both of enriching the Pope's family with desirable benefices and of modernizing the administration of the papacy, by allowing the pontiff to rule through a proxy which was more easily deemed fallible when necessary and provided

23994-498: The power of the Cardinal Secretary of State was essentially inversely proportional to that of the Cardinal Nephew, to whom the Secretariat was subordinate. During some pontificates, for example that of Pope Pius V (1566–1572) and his nephew Michele Bonelli , the cardinal-nephew and secretary of state were one and the same. According to Baumgartner, "the rise of a centralized administration with professional bureaucrats with careers in

24180-541: The prestige and authority of popes, places the pope more centrally in the narrative of Constantinian Christianity . The legend of the Donation claims that Constantine offered his crown to Sylvester I (314–35), and even that Sylvester baptized Constantine. In reality, Constantine was baptized (nearing his death in May 337) by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. Although the "Donation" never occurred, Constantine did hand over

24366-524: The reformers. He was a successful nuncio in Spain, and was acceptable to the Spanish faction, which included Naples. The Conclave turned out to be a very short one. On 14 May, Ugo Boncompagni was elected pope, and took the name Gregory XIII . He was crowned by Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, the senior Cardinal Deacon, on 20 May 1572. Cardinal d'Este, one of Alessandro Farnese's favorite enemies, died on 2 December 1572. In

24552-413: The rooms on the lower floor. The Stanza della solitudine was decorated by the same artists between 1563 and 1565, in accordance with a design created by Onufrio Panvinio. Cardinal Farnese retired to Parma in the meantime (1557), where he stayed with his brother, Duke Ottavio. It was there and at that time that they were approached with peace feelers by Cardinal Carafa, who was even willing to marry one of

24738-528: The sale of indulgences and bureaucratic and ecclesiastical offices. Pope Clement VII 's diplomatic and military campaigns resulted in the Sack of Rome in 1527. Popes were more frequently called upon to arbitrate disputes between competing colonial powers than to resolve complicated theological disputes. Columbus' discovery in 1492 upset the unstable relations between the kingdoms of Portugal and Castile , whose jockeying for possession of colonial territories along

24924-498: The same day that his administration of Tours ceased, Farnese was appointed Administrator of the Diocese of Viviers, which lasted until the Pope approved King Henri's nomination of a new bishop on 12 November 1554. He was likewise nominated by the King of France to be Administrator of the Diocese of Cahors , the appointment being approved by Pope Julius III on 12 November 1554; a new bishop was approved by Pope Paul IV on 7 May 1557, ending his appointment. There had been two Conclaves in

25110-421: The so-called Donation of Pepin , made the papacy a temporal power and for the first time created an incentive for secular leaders to interfere with papal succession . This territory would become the basis for the Papal States , over which the popes ruled until the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870. For the next eleven centuries, the story of Rome would be almost synonymous with

25296-441: The sole heiress of Clement X's family. Many historians consider Olimpia Maidalchini , the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (1644–1655), to have been a de facto Cardinal Nephew; the position was formally held by her son, Camillo Pamphili , then her nephew, Francesco Maidalchini (after Pamphili renounced his cardinalate in order to wed), and (after Francesco proved incompetent) Camillo Astalli , her cousin. Popes often had only

25482-484: The story of the papacy. After being physically attacked by his enemies in the streets of Rome, Pope Leo III made his way in 799 through the Alps to visit Charlemagne at Paderborn. It is not known what was agreed between the two, but Charlemagne traveled to Rome in 800 to support the pope. In a ceremony in St Peter's Basilica, on Christmas Day, Leo was supposed to anoint Charlemagne's son as his heir. But unexpectedly (it

25668-527: The terms for the office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, who was to handle the temporal affairs of the Papal States and the foreign relations of the Holy See . After abortively attempting to divide the duties of the Superintendent among four non-familial cardinals, Pius V acceded to the urgings of the College of Cardinals and his Spanish ambassador, and appointed his grandnephew, Michele Bonelli , as Superintendent, demarcating his duties with

25854-529: The time of Peter to the present day. In the first three centuries of the Christian era, many of Peter's successors as bishops of Rome are obscure figures, most suffering martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution. During the Early Church , the bishops of Rome enjoyed no temporal power until the time of Constantine . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire about 476,

26040-617: The unprecedented actions of Pope Benedict IX . He deposed all three and installed his own preferred candidate: Pope Clement II . The history of the papacy from 1048 to 1257 would continue to be marked by conflict between popes and the Holy Roman Emperor , most prominently the Investiture Controversy , a dispute over who—pope or emperor—could appoint bishops within the Empire. Henry IV's Walk to Canossa in 1077 to meet Pope Gregory VII (1073–85), although not dispositive within

26226-472: The unwelcome attention of the Pope. But, on the news of the death of Pope Julius, he took the road for Rome. He was carrying letters from Henri II of France to the College of Cardinals and to individual cardinals, in favor of Cardinal Reginald Pole. He did not arrive, however, until after the middle of the month of April. Cardinal Louis de Guise-Lorraine, also travelling from France, arrived on the 21st. In fact, only two French cardinals were in Rome, thereby giving

26412-407: The vice-chancellorship. Pope Paul IV (1555–1559), in his old age, was said to have "fallen almost completely under the cardinal-nephew's influence"; Paul IV's cardinal-nephew, Carlo Carafa , was accused in August 1558 by a Theatine of seducing a Roman noble woman, Plautila de' Massimi, who had come into possession of an inordinate amount of money and jewelry, but the accusations were dismissed by

26598-508: Was 38 years old and the senior Cardinal Deacon by this point, disliked both d'Este and his cousin Gonzaga, and therefore decided to do everything he could to see the election of Carpi. Farnese could only effectively directly influence four or five of the votes, and so had to work in alliance with another group - allying himself with the cardinals created by Paul IV and who were being led by his nephew, Cardinal Carlo Carafa . This eventually led to

26784-409: Was Cardinal Hildebrand, who later became Gregory VII. The pope is the bishop of Rome , but nowhere is it written that he has to stay there (in fact, only 200 years prior, cardinals would have been required to reside in Rome ). Political instability in thirteenth-century Italy forced the papal court to move to several different locations, including Viterbo , Orvieto , and Perugia . The popes brought

26970-682: Was Farnese who, using both blandishments and threats, managed to get the Imperialists to give in and assemble with the rest of the cardinals in the Cappella Paolina. On the afternoon of 23 May, the Feast of the Ascension , the seventy-eight year old Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa of Naples was elected pope by acclamation . He chose the name Paul IV . He had been the co-founder of the Theatine Order , and

27156-580: Was a member of the Collegio Ancarano, which had been founded in the 15th century by Petrus de Ancarano in Tuscia, for students specializing in legal studies . On 18 December 1534, at the age of 14, he was appointed Cardinal Deacon of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria by his grandfather Paul III , who had been elected to the papacy two months previously. On 11 August 1535, he was appointed Abbot Commendatory of

27342-516: Was a period of return to Imperial domination of the papacy from 537 to 752, when popes required the approval of the Byzantine Emperors for episcopal consecration , and many popes were chosen from the apocrisiarii (liaisons from the pope to the emperor) or the inhabitants of Byzantine Greece , Syria , or Sicily . Justinian I restored the Roman imperial rule in the Italian peninsula after

27528-448: Was a promoter of reform in the Church. He was no humanist , however, and preferred the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas . He was also a vigorous opponent of Protestantism , and anything that favored it. He saw heretics everywhere, even inside the College of Cardinals, and as an Inquisitor he showed no scruple or mercy for those who were tainted. Showing all of the traditional prejudices against

27714-404: Was also a candidate again, but Cardinal Bonelli (Alessandrino, the nephew of Pius V) was prepared to use his votes to exclude him. His friends nonetheless made an effort to have him elected by acclamation on the opening day of the Conclave, 12 May, but the attempt failed. Cardinal Farnese believed that this was his conclave, and he was making every effort to win supporters. He knew, however, that

27900-562: Was also the correspondence liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates , and the prefect for two congregations: the Consulta and the Congregazione del Buon Governo . The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army and a "channel through which flowed benefices one way and gold the other". However, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak Popes; most Cardinal Nephews were

28086-403: Was an influential group, led by Carafa, Carpi, and Alvarez (all professional Inquisitors), who openly questioned the orthodoxy of Pole and of Morone. The French Ambassador, Jean d' Avanson, informed King Henri that his favorite candidate, Cardinal d'Este, was being opposed vigorously by the Imperial faction, and that he could not win, thanks to a "virtual veto" (that is, the withholding of votes for

28272-698: Was appointed for the underage and absentee Archbishop, Msgr. Giovanni Antonio Fassari, titular Bishop of Christopolis in Greece; he was succeeded in 1546 by Pompeo Zambecari. In 1557, he was followed by Msgr. Giovanni Pietro Fortiguerra, Bishop of Cyrene in Libya., The Cardinal allowed the Jesuits to found a college in Monreale, and allowed the priests of the Society to work in the diocese. In 1568, Cardinal Farnese visited his diocese and held

28458-405: Was arrested by the Pope's nephew and Secretary of State personally. Pietro Carnesecchi, a former adherent of Morone, wrote: "Why Morone is imprisoned, no one knows; many say that the Cardinals have brought it about, in order that he may be out of their way at the next election of a Pope, when he would get the greatest number of votes. The Pope intends summoning all the Cardinals to Rome, that they as

28644-452: Was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July. The council in Constance, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes, elected Pope Martin V as pope in November. From the election of Pope Martin V of the Council of Constance in 1417 to the Reformation, Western Christianity was largely free from schism as well as significant disputed papal claimants . Martin V returned

28830-439: Was completely ignored by the Cardinals already in Rome, and only the Novendiales were observed. In accordance with older instructions direct from Henri II, the French faction was supporting Cardinal d'Este, then the Cardinal de Tournon (who was not present at the Conclave), and then Cardinal du Bellay. The Emperor, as in the Conclave of 1550, had a preference for Cardinal Reginald Pole, the Papal Legate in England. Pole, however,

29016-524: Was concluded with an expensive campaign to eliminate the " venality " of offices while reimbursing their current holders. These reforms are viewed by some scholars as a delayed reaction to the financial crisis created by the nepotism of Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644). However, even following Romanum decet pontificem , only three of the eight Popes of the 18th century failed to make a nephew or brother cardinal. The College of Cardinals apparently preferred rule by nephews than by favorites, which they perceived as

29202-437: Was considerable danger to Farnese properties because of Paul IV's anti-imperial policy. It was in 1556 that Cardinal Farnese commissioned Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola to take in hand the half-completed fortress at Caprarola and turn it into a country villa. Actual construction began in 1559 and was completed in 1573. Even when half completed, in 1561, Cardinal Alessandro commissioned Taddeo Zuccari and his workshop to decorate

29388-448: Was described by Hugh Walpole as "a priest without indolence or interest, a prince without favorites, a Pope without nephews". Romualdo Braschi-Onesti , cardinal-nephew of Pius VI (1775–1799), was the penultimate cardinal-nephew. Despite Pius VI's lineage to a noble Cesena family, his only sister had married a man from the poor Onesti family. Therefore, he commissioned a genealogist to discover (and inflate) some trace of nobility in

29574-406: Was elected unanimously and took the name Pius V . Borromeo and Farnese had made a pope. By 1569, the Cardinal was Legatus perpetuus (Permanent legate) of the Province of the Patrimony of St. Peter, resident in Viterbo . This is recorded on the inscription of a new town gate. In 1569, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese made his journey to Sicily, to inspect his Archdiocese of Monreale. Transportation

29760-430: Was from Philip II. Granvelle opened the letter in Cardinal Farnese's presence and read the contents, which ordered Granvelle to advise Farnese that he was not to attempt to become pope "this time"—it should be remembered that, experienced as he was, Cardinal Farnese was only fifty-one. Farnese's chances ended on the first day of the Conclave. Boncompagni was the obvious candidate. He was acceptable to Cardinal Borromeo and

29946-427: Was fully informed of the misdeeds of his nephews, Cardinal Carafa, Giovanni Caraffa Duke of Paliano, and Antonio Carafa Marchese of Montebello. When the Florentine Ambassador, Bongiano Gianfiliazzi, had attempted to have an audience with Paul IV to enlighten him about his corrupt nephews, the door was slammed in his face by Cardinal Carafa. Obviously, there was no room in the Curia for the advice of Cardinal Farnese. There

30132-425: Was general of the papal cavalry, and was actually suspected of being loyal to the Emperor. Paul IV had him sent to the Castel S. Angelo, along with his brother, Cardinal della Corgna (27 July 1556). Both were nephews of Pope Julius III. The cardinal had been Administrator of the Diocese of Spoleto on the appointment of Julius III, but Paul IV immediately replaced him with Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. The charge against

30318-571: Was held in such esteem that it was considered by some as part of the New Testament canon, as the Ethiopian Orthodox Church still does. Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, writing to Pope Soter ("as a father to his children") references Pope Clement's letter: Today we have kept the holy Lord's day, on which we have read your letter, which we shall ever possess to read and to be admonished, even as the former one written to us through Clement… Many deny that Peter and those claimed to be his immediate successors had universally-recognized supreme authority over all

30504-438: Was interrogated in the Castel S. Angelo by the committee: Cardinals Innocenzo del Monte, Jean Suau, Scipione Rebiba, Spoletano [Alessandro Farnese], and Michele Ghislieri. Having examined him and heard his extensive rejoinders, the committee reported in favor of Morone but Paul IV was not satisfied. Morone remained in the Castel S. Angelo until the death of Paul IV, when the College of Cardinals ordered his release. Cardinal Rebiba

30690-564: Was made in 530, and discord continued until the selection in 532 of John II , the first to rename himself upon succession. Theodoric was tolerant towards the Catholic Church and did not interfere in dogmatic matters. He remained as neutral as possible towards the pope, though he exercised a preponderant influence in the affairs of the papacy. Ostrogothic influence ended with the reconquest of Rome by Justinian, who had had pro-Gothic Pope Silverius (536–537) deposed and replaced with his own choice, Pope Vigilius (537–555). The Byzantine Papacy

30876-445: Was named the new Administrator (enjoying his Parmesan income until he resigned in 1560). Farnese was appointed Administrator of Jaen , Spain, from 30 July 1535 until another Administrator, Cardinal Alessandro Cesarini, was appointed on 6 July 1537. He was Administrator of the Archdiocese of Avignon from 1535 to 1551 and of the Diocese of Vizeu , Portugal (1547–1552). On 9 May 1536, the Emperor Charles V named Cardinal Farnese as

31062-442: Was necessary. The second Conclave of 1555 opened on 15 May, with the same cardinals as in April, but with the addition of eight late arrivals. The leading candidate seemed to be Cardinal Carafa, the Inquisitor, but he was told to his face by the Imperial Ambassador that the Emperor Charles V did not want him as Pope. The Imperial faction was favoring Cardinals Carpi, Morone, and Pole. Pole also seemed to have French support, but there

31248-540: Was needed was a pope who could hold the various forces together: a Crusading pope who would also be generous with Church money to finance the war. The new pope must also be a strong and strict defender of the Faith in the face of unorthodoxy and one who would enforce the decrees of the Council of Trent (1545–1547; 1551-1552; 1562–1563). There were other problems that a pope would have to face. Queen Elizabeth of England had been excommunicated by Pius V, and she had obtained possession of Mary, Queen of Scots . Mary's relatives,

31434-416: Was no doubt delighted to find his grandfather's secretary, Cardinal Marcello Cervini, on the throne of Peter. Unfortunately, on the morning of the 18th, Pope Marcellus II showed symptoms of a fever and in the night between 30 April and 1 May, he died. But even before Marcellus was dead, Cardinal Farnese wrote directly to Henri II, urging him to send the French cardinals to Rome immediately. A second Conclave

31620-412: Was not going to support Farnese in the current Conclave, and he asked Farnese to help him in choosing a worthy pope. Farnese suggested the names of four cardinals whom he would support: Gianbernardino Scotti (Trani), D' Olera (Aracoeli), Ghislieri (Alessandrino) and Ricci (Montepulciano). Borromeo was delighted with the naming of Cardinal Ghislieri: Having known the Cardinal of Alessandria [Ghislieri] for

31806-421: Was not so foolish as to believe that he could be successful without the endorsement either of the Emperor or of the King of France—and he had neither. He did not respond to the offer. The supporters of Carafa finally numbered more than the two-thirds needed for election, but the Imperialists (who were caucusing in the Hall of the Secret Consistory) refused to come to the Chapel and carry out the electoral process. It

31992-506: Was on the docks at Civitavecchia to welcome home the hero, his brother's brother-in-law. One of the determining factors in the minds of the electors was the recent Battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571). It had been a stunning defeat for the Ottoman Turks, the first naval defeat in more than a century, and nearly their entire navy was destroyed. But they did not lose control over the Eastern Mediterranean, and they were already rebuilding their navy at lightning speed. In some people's minds, what

32178-442: Was provided by four galleys lent by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. At Monreale, he conducted a diocesan synod . He resigned the diocese on 9 December 1573. On 7 October 1571, the Battle of Lepanto took place in the Gulf of Corinth . The Christian fleet, commanded by King Philip II's half-brother, Don John of Austria, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Ottoman Turks , destroying all but thirty of its ships. Cardinal Farnese

32364-460: Was pushing for Cardinal Ferrero, who was only 28 years old. The nephews of Pius IV, Cardinal Borromeo and Cardinal Altemps, had another candidate in mind, the Nuncio in Spain, Cardinal Ugo Boncompagni, and they sent a swift galley to fetch him. He did not arrive in time though. And then there was Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who was campaigning for himself. There were fifty-two cardinals in attendance on 20 December 1565. Seventeen cardinals were under

32550-701: Was really a cardinal). The creation of cardinal-nephews predates the hierarchical preeminence of cardinals within the Roman Catholic Church , which grew out of the 1059 decree of Pope Nicholas II , In nomine Domini , which established cardinal bishops as the sole electors of the Pope, with the consent of cardinal deacons and cardinal priests . The first known cardinal-nephew is Lottario ( Latin : Loctarius ), seniore, cousin of Pope Benedict VIII (1012–1024), elected circa 1015. Benedict VIII also elevated his brother Giovanni (the future Pope John XIX) and his cousin Teofilatto (the future Pope Benedict IX) as cardinal-deacons. The first known cardinal-nephew after 1059

32736-429: Was required. From 1564 to 1565, he was Bishop of Sabina and it is conjectured (in the absence of positive evidence) that it was in 1564 that Farnese finally was consecrated a bishop. He was certainly a bishop when he was the principal Consecrator of Cardinal Giulio della Rovere on 15 April 1566. From 1565 to 1578, he was Bishop of Tusculum (Frascati). He was the Bishop of Porto from 9 July 1578 to 5 December 1580. He

32922-443: Was ruling Parma on behalf of the French king, who had acquired the duchy from Paul III as the price of an alliance. In November, Henri named a new Ambassador to the Holy See, and Cardinal Farnese was free to return to France. He took up residence in Avignon. Cardinal Farnese did not participate in the first conclave of 1555, 5 April–9 April, which followed the death of Julius III. He had been in Avignon, serving as Legate and avoiding

33108-411: Was sent as Nuncio to France, to discuss the matter of an alliance with Henri II. For two decades, the Farnese had been trying to maintain friendships both with King Henri II of France and the Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. This became more difficult when Cardinal Carafa, in the name of Paul IV, concluded a treaty with Henri II on 23 July 1556, committing them to a war against the Emperor for

33294-402: Was sent by Pope Julius III to convince his brother Ottavio, the Duke of Parma and Piacenza, to surrender those territories, which, the Pope said were fiefs of the Church. The Farnese had spent more than fifteen years developing their dukedom, and Cardinal Alessandro's father had been assassinated in the struggle with the Gonzaga and the Emperor Charles over it. The Farnese were being protected by

33480-402: Was strongly influenced by the Ostrogothic Kingdom , though the pope was not outright appointed by the Ostrogothic King. The selection and administration of popes during this period was strongly influenced by Theodoric the Great and his successors Athalaric and Theodahad . This period ended with Justinian I 's reconquest of Italy and City of Rome itself during the Gothic War , inaugurating

33666-428: Was strongly opposed by the French (in ignorance of the letters which Farnese was carrying), and by Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa, the Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals and principal Inquisitor of the Roman Inquisition, who regarded Pole (and a number of other cardinals) as Protestant heretics. D'Este was not electable (Sir John Masone, the English agent wrote: "Marry, we hear of no quality to set him forward but that he

33852-429: Was that the only person in his family who would have had the qualities necessary to fill such a position was a woman". Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689) despised the practice and only accepted his election as Pope after the College of Cardinals consented to his plans for reform, which included a ban on nepotism. However, Innocent XI backed down after thrice failing to achieve the support of the majority of his cardinals for

34038-401: Was the Cardinal of Ferrara, Ippolito d'Este , who was as disliked in 1572 as he had been in 1549. His collection of enemies had grown to include Cardinals Bonelli, Borromeo, Farnese, Medici, and Morone. Catherine, however, was in contact with her cousin, Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany , who, behind the scenes, was promoting Cardinal Boncompagni. Cardinal de' Medici was to inform the leaders of

34224-502: Was then Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri and Dean of the College of Cardinals from 5 December 1580 until his death on 2 March 1589. His grandfather, Pope Paul III, immediately named Alessandro Farnese Administrator of the Diocese of Parma (1 November 1534), allowing him to collect the episcopal income during the interregnum. Alessandro resigned on 13 August 1535, when Cardinal Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora , another grandson of Paul III and only two years older than Alessandro,

34410-570: Was thus separate from the ordinal process for creating cardinals, and, when he fell ill, he authorized his cardinal-nephew, Paolo Emilio Sfondrato , to use the Fiat ut petitur , a power which was later diminished at the urging of the college. Paul V issued a motu proprio on April 30, 1618, formally bestowing on his cardinal-nephew the same authority Pope Clement VIII had given to Pietro Aldobrandini , beginning what historian Laurain-Portemer calls "l'age classique'" of nepotism . Pope Gregory XV 's (1621–1623) cardinal-nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi ,

34596-400: Was uncorrupted; he was opposed to nepotism . Unfortunately, Cervini was disliked by the Emperor. But the genuine reformers, who wanted the resumption of the Council of Trent , worked with Carafa and Madruzzi to produce a two-thirds majority. Among them were Ranuccio Farnese, Farnese's brother, and Guido Ascanio Sforza, his first-cousin. When Farnese finally arrived from Avignon in mid-April, he

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