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103-550: The history of Calatia is similar to that of its more powerful neighbor Capua, but as it lay near the point where the Via Appia turns east and enters the mountains, it had some strategic importance. In 313 BC it was taken by the Samnites and recaptured by the dictator Fabius Maximus Rullianus ; the Samnites captured it again in 311 BC, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In

206-472: A bull to their new homeland . Upon reaching this land they sacrificed this bull to Mars . Other Samnite tribes claimed to have been guided by different animals. The Hirpini claimed they were guided by a wolf , and the Picentes claimed to have been guided by a woodpecker . Alternatively, the Samnites may have been connected to Sparta . This legend is possibly apocryphal . It might have been created by

309-476: A distinction between men , who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled". Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying

412-469: A legio linteata ("linen legion"); this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure. Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome. Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through

515-496: A status symbol . There were three types of triple-disc cuirasses. The first used bronze to fill the space between the three identical discs. Small rings were attached to this bronze, and side straps were used to hold the armor together. Shoulder straps were also fastened to these small rings. The second type utilized an edge to outline the discs, while the third used plates to depict the heads of religious figures such as Athena or demons . All three types were constructed by placing

618-416: A Roman victory. After this bloody conflict, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted citizenship to avoid the possibility of another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla . The Samnites and their allies were led by Pontius Telesinus and a Lucanian named Marcus Lamponius . They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at

721-466: A disc below and between two upper discs forming a triangular shape. Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the abdomen . Samnite belts were made by heating up tin alloys at 800 degrees Celsius . Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a temperature ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. Hammers and abrasives were used to grind

824-532: A large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men. Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of

927-628: A large number of kinship terms. The Greek geographer Strabo wrote that the Samnite civilization originated from a group of Sabine exiles . According to this account, during either a famine , or as part of an attempt to end a war with the Umbrians , the Sabines vowed to hold a Ver Sacrum . As part of this ritual, all things produced that year were sacrificed , including babies . Once these babies had reached adulthood they were exiled, and then guided by

1030-487: A long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's hilt . Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. Maces were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a socket . Axes were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power. There

1133-454: A mosaic floor. The oppus tessellatum style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, warriors , or Greek subjects. Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense. Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondate there

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1236-416: A partly marshy and partly mountainous region. The latter saw the creation of numerous Roman and Latin colonies: small Roman colonies were created along the coast, while the inland areas were colonized by Latins and Romans without citizenship. The name Latium was thus also extended to this area south of Rome ( Latium adiectum ), up to the ancient Oscan city of Casinum , defined by Strabo as "the last city of

1339-455: A place was called in Italy "height" ( capitolium , the mountain-top), or "stronghold" ( arx , from arcere ); it was not a town at first, but it became the nucleus of one, as houses naturally gathered around the stronghold and were afterwards surrounded with the "ring" ( urbs , connected with urvus and curvus ). The isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers

1442-465: A pottery stamp is: Detfri (slave) of Herennis Sattis signed in planta pedis. Throughout the Iron Age Samnium was ruled by chieftains and aristocrats who used funerary displays to flaunt their wealth. During the early third and fourth centuries, the Samnite political system developed into an organization focused on rural settlements led by magistrates. The Samnite settlements, or vici , were at

1545-499: A secure position, would doubtless be first occupied by the newcomers. Here, along the narrow plateau above Palazzuola between the Alban lake ( Lagiod di Castello ) and the Alban mount ( Monte Cavo ), extended the town of Alba Longa , which was regarded as the primitive seat of the Latin stock, and the mother city of Rome as well as of all the other Old Latin communities; here on the slopes lay

1648-924: A series of three wars . Despite an overwhelming victory at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the Pyrrhic War and then with Hannibal in the Second Punic War . They also fought in the Social War and later in Sulla's civil war as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla , who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at

1751-578: A single geo-political entity, Italia , dividing it into eleven regions. Latium – together with the present region of Campagna immediately to the southeast of Latium and the seat of Naples – became Region I. After the Gothic War (535–554) A.D. and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) conquest, this region regained its freedom, because the "Roman Duchy" became the property of the Eastern Emperor. However

1854-448: A single unit. Due to corroborating archaeological evidence , other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story. Samnite soldiers wore a small single disc breastplate . This breastplate, called the kardiophylax consisted of straps that passed around the shoulders, chest, and back, and attached around points. Although the triple-disc cuirass offered more protection, this armor continued to be used as

1957-701: A social space, or forum , was built by c.  620 BC . The influence of the Etruscans played an important role, and migrants came from Etruscan towns. Soon (according to tradition) it was followed by the rule of Etruscan kings, the Tarquins (traditionally, 616-509 BC). While Rome may have acquired considerable territory (some 350 sq. miles) in Latium, Roman kings never exercised absolute power over Latium. The Latin cities did, however, look to Rome for protection, for Rome had more manpower than any other city in Latium. This

2060-450: A society led by influential clans ( gentes ). These clans were a sign of their tribal origin, which continued in Rome as the thirty curiae which organized Roman society. However, as a social unit the gens was replaced by the family which was headed by the paterfamilias - the oldest male who held supreme authority over the family. A fixed local center seemed necessary as the center of

2163-487: A soldier ran out of projectiles, they would throw rocks off the ground. Alongside spears, soldiers would use swords or even hand-to-hand combat . Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the Capestrano Warrior showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of Bronze Age sword called an antenna sword . Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the short sword . Short swords were carried using

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2266-532: A tradeable good, and as a source of food . Transhumance , or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer to winter pastures , was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth. Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium. During the fifth and fourth centuries BC , an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and urban development . This change

2369-473: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Ancient Rome –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Samnites The Samnites ( Oscan : Safineis ) were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium , which is located in modern inland Abruzzo , Molise , and Campania in south-central Italy . An Oscan-speaking people , who originated as an offshoot of

2472-748: Is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas . Another possible work of Samnite or Roman origin in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. One example of Samnite figurative art may be the Warrior of Capestrano. The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior. Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, draped , folded, and not stitched or sewn . Clothing held symbolic and ritual purposes in Samnite society. For example, clothing indicated social status, and chitons were often used in ceremonies. The most valuable kind of clothing

2575-431: Is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a round shield called an aspis . To carry the shield, two straps were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap – used to provide a firm grip – ran vertically near

2678-590: Is that Lazio comes from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide", expressing the idea of "flat land" meaning the Roman Campagna . The region that would become Latium had been home to settled agricultural populations since the early Bronze Age and was known to the Ancient Greeks and even earlier to the Mycenaean Greeks . The name is most likely derived from the Latin word " latus ", meaning "wide", expressing

2781-456: Is that women were capable of acquiring large amounts of wealth. However, they might have only been capable of displaying their partner's wealth. Artwork and pottery depicting Samnite women showcase them involved in rituals or nearby altars with votive offerings. These rituals usually involve women honoring their husbands through offerings of wine, or possibly praying for their husbands before they leave to fight. The geographer Strabo states that

2884-617: Is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire . Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil ( Old Latium ) on which resided the tribe of the Latins or Latians. It was located on the left bank (east and south) of the River Tiber , extending northward to the River Anio (a left-bank tributary of

2987-588: Is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why. They could have wanted its fertile soil , or to alleviate overpopulation . This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the Volturno River and other resources . Once Greek hegemony in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land. They conquered cities like Cumae , only failing to take Naples . In

3090-529: The Adriatic . After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of Hellenistic or Italian pottery dramatically increased. Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were trademarks or signatures from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks. One example of

3193-554: The Battle of the Caudine Forks both sides agreed to an armistice . Fighting resumed in 326 BC. The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium. Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed Bovianum and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia. In 298 BC, the Third Samnite War broke out due to tension over the Lucanians , who had asked Rome for protection. On another front, treaties between

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3296-595: The Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people. The Samnites had an economy focused upon livestock and agriculture . Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance . Aside from relying on agriculture, the Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, bronze , iron, olives, wool, pottery, and terracottas . Their trade networks extended across Campania, Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . Samnite society

3399-503: The Battle of the Cranita Hills , but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War , but most stayed loyal to Rome. After the Romans refused to grant the Samnites citizenship , they, along with other Italic peoples, rebelled against the Romans. This war, known as the Social War , lasted almost four years and resulted in

3502-679: The Colline Gates . After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed. As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as dictator of Rome he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were Latinized and assimilated into

3605-601: The Greeks for an alliance with the Samnites, or to include the Italic peoples within their worldview, and possibly to highlight similarities between the Samnites and Spartans. Archaeological evidence shows that Samnite civilization likely developed from a preexisting Italian culture. After the Etruscans abandoned Campania in the 5th century , the Samnites conquered the region. Cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were conquered. It

3708-572: The Old Latin language, ancestor of Latin and the Romance languages . Latium has played an important role in history owing to its status as the host of the capital city of Rome , at one time the cultural and political center of the Roman Empire . Consequently, Latium is home to celebrated works of art and architecture . The earliest known Latium was the country of the Latini , a tribe whose recognised center

3811-651: The Sabines , they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini , Caudini , Caraceni , and Pentri . Ancient Greek historians considered the Umbri as the ancestors of the Samnites. Their migration was in a southward direction, according to the rite of ver sacrum . Although allied together against the Gauls in 354 BC, they later became enemies of the Romans and fought them in

3914-502: The Ver Sacrum , all things produced in a particular year would be exiled or offered to the gods. The description of these practices may have been fabricated by Livy for propaganda purposes. Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life. Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury

4017-640: The Vereiia . The Vereiia evolved into a community service group after the Roman conquest. During the Samnite Wars, the army evolved to resemble the armies of Ancient Greek city states . This new system used phalanxes , hoplites , maniples , and cohorts made of 400 men, creating an army flexible enough to fight in mountainous terrain. Low class soldiers began to be conscripted into the army, increasing its size to several thousand soldiers, although these recruits were less skilled and poorly trained. Livy mentions

4120-464: The kombennio possibly existed. The Kombennio was a democratic organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as making laws and enforcing them. Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the Pentrian capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest. Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society

4223-455: The prefectures had little authority over the Samnites. Roman historians believed that Samnite society was highly militaristic. They feared Samnite cavalry and infantry , and nicknamed them Belliger Samnis , which translates to "Warrior Samnites". It is unclear if this portrayal is accurate as most Roman historical accounts of the Samnites were written after this civilization had disappeared. Much of this work could also be propaganda. In

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4326-426: The weight of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's dimensions . The Samnites also produced amphorae , terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss . Protective coating, also called varnish , was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from Rhodes , and pottery was commonly purchased from Greece . Pottery was also rarely imported from North Africa or areas by

4429-642: The -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of the reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as

4532-665: The 3rd century BC we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 BC it shared the fate of Capua. In 174 BC it is mentioned that its walls were being repaired by the censors . In 59 BC a colony was established here by Caesar . Attribution: [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Calatia ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 968. 41°02′38″N 14°21′45″E  /  41.0439°N 14.3625°E  / 41.0439; 14.3625 This Campanian location article

4635-485: The Campanians, the latter civilization formed an alliance with the Romans. Igniting war between them and the Samnites in 343 BC. This account of the war's cause is not universally accepted by modern historians. Livy may be writing propaganda or trying to compare this war to other conflicts. After three Samnite defeats and a Roman invasion, the Samnites agreed to sign a peace treaty . There are two accounts of

4738-518: The Lake of Ariccia. So, by virtue of her proximity to the sanctuary of Jupiter, the village of Alba Longa held a position of religious primacy among the Latin villages. Originally, thirty villages were entitled to participate in the league, known as the Alban colonies. Only a few of the individual names of these villages are recorded. The ritual of this league was the "Latin festival" ( feriae Latinae ), at which, on

4841-523: The Latin peoples. By the mid-7th century BC, Rome had secured itself as a maritime power and secured its salt supply; the Via Salaria (lit. "salt road") was paved from Rome down to Ostia on the northern bank of the river Tiber - the closest salt-field in Western Italy. At the same time, archaeologists detect, there was an urban transformation of the area. Roman huts were being replaced by houses, and

4944-559: The Latins". The modern descendant, the Italian Regione of Lazio , also called Latium in Latin , and occasionally in modern English , is somewhat larger still, though less than twice the size of Latium vetus et adiectum, including a large area of ancient Southern Etruria and Sabina. The ancient language of the Latins, the tribespeople who occupied Latium, was the immediate predecessor of

5047-456: The Latins. Although Alba Longa enjoyed a position of religious primacy, the Alban presidency never held any significant political power over Latium, e.g. it was never the capital of a Latin state. It is probable that the extent of the Latin League's jurisdiction was somewhat unsettled and thus fluctuated; yet it remained for its existence not an accidental aggregate of various communities, but

5150-556: The Mount of Alba, upon a day annually appointed by the chief magistrate for the purpose, an ox was sacrificed by the assembled Latin stock to the "Latin god" ( Jupiter Latiaris ). Each community taking part in the ceremony had to contribute to the sacrificial feast. However; the sacred grove of Aricia, the Nemus Dianae , on the Lake of Aricia , was always among the most popular place of pilgrimage for

5253-626: The Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the Safin people . " This became the word for the Samnite people, Safineis . as well as other words in Greek such as Saini , Saineis , Samnītēs, Sabellī, and Saunìtai . These terms likely originated in the 5th century BC and derive from saunion , the Greek word for javelin . At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it

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5356-655: The Roman world. Several of their gentes would go on to achieve high distinction, including the Cassii , the Herennii , Pontii and the Vibii . Most of Samnium consisted of rugged and mountainous terrain lacking in natural resources . This resulted in a mixed economy focused on using the small amounts of fertile land to practice highly developed forms of subsistence agriculture , mixed farming , animal husbandry , sheep farming , pastoralism , and smallholdings . The prosperity of

5459-473: The Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the Battle of Aquilonia . Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War . After Pyrrhus left for Sicily , the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at

5562-565: The Romans subsequently held religious and state ceremonies. The last pagan temple to be built stood until the Middle Ages when its stone and location were reused for various monasteries and finally a hotel. During World War II , the Wehrmacht turned it into a radio station, which was captured after an infantry battle by American troops in 1944, and it currently is a controversial telecommunications station surrounded by antennae considered unsightly by

5665-446: The Samnite agricultural industry likely resulted in conflicts between them and other civilizations, and possibly one of the causes of the Samnite Wars. The prominence of pastoralism and livestock in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain. Horses , poultry , cattle , goats , pigs , and sheep were all common and important kinds of livestock. These animals were valued because they could serve as

5768-451: The Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet. Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a Samnite gladiator for that of a Samnite soldier. Superstition dominated Samnite culture. They believed magic could influence reality and practiced augury . Vaguely defined spirits called numina were also prominent in Samnite mythology. It

5871-533: The Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more political power . This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The touto and pagus began to function as miniature Republics, while the vicus remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while

5974-544: The Samnites began to mint less money . Wool and leather were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used incised lines, dots, oval stamps, gem impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns . Common patterns included pyramids , stars , or dotted or incised cross motifs . Motifs could have been shaped like leaves , flowers , pomegranates , or mythological figures . One loom weight from

6077-1065: The Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else. The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized prostitution . Young women of all social standings would engage in sexual activities as a rite of passage . It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a profession . The first art style used by the Samnites in Pompeii developed when Greek painters traveled to Italy to paint for local aristocrats . It borrows elements from Greek, Etruscan , and other Italic art . For example, hierarchy of scale , clothing demonstrating status, captions , episodic narratives , and depictions of history were all borrowed from other cultures. Samnite art featured polychrome murals and paintings . The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across tesserae . There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or miculatum , and woven-style, or oppus tessellatum , . Miculatum consisted of inserting marble and terracotta trays into

6180-553: The Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their sex , and marry them. Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on athletic capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners. Samnite society may have enforced

6283-426: The Samnites. Spearheads were made from two bronze or iron parts. The upper part was the spearhead proper, and a lower part, which used a tube to hold up the end of a wooden shaft. To fasten the shaft to the spearhead, nails were driven through a hole in the shaft. Tubes were used to fit the spear into a bronze chape , which would protect the wooden shaft. Projectile weaponry was so essential to Samnite tactics that if

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6386-712: The Tiber) and southeastward to the Pomptina Palus ( Pontine Marshes , now the Pontine Fields) as far south as the Circeian promontory . The right bank of the Tiber was occupied by the Etruscan city of Veii , and the other borders were occupied by Italic tribes. Subsequently, Rome defeated Veii and then its Italic neighbours, expanding its dominions over Southern Etruria and to the south, in

6489-549: The adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for mercenaries . Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's workshops . Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied

6592-408: The alliance to pass legislation , leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a bill could become a law. Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The Frentani was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of

6695-432: The bottom of the Samnite social hierarchy . They were grouped into cantons called pagi , which were run by an elected official known as a meddiss . The pagi were organized into toutos , which were the Samnite tribes. Each touto was led by an annually elected official with supreme executive and judicial powers called the meddíss túvtiks. Political entities similar to councils, assemblies, or senates such as

6798-523: The cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the Vestini and wars against Fregellae and Paleopolis . Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Conflict may have also emerged because the Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. After the Roman defeat at

6901-526: The coast, were all more or less ancient centers of Latin colonization, not to speak of many other less famous and in some cases almost forgotten. All these villages were politically sovereign, and each of them was self-governing. The closeness of descent and their common language not only pervaded all of them, but manifested itself in an important religious and political institution—the Latin League. The Latins were tied together by religious associations, including worship of Venus, Jupiter Latiaris, and of Diana at

7004-636: The dead adequately. Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an afterlife . Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion. They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government. Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards. There were two major roles for Samnite women: domestic and ceremonial. Women would weave , which likely played an important role in

7107-493: The dead or marriage. Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or jewelry . Young adult women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and fibulae similar to those worn by boys, possibly meaning that femininity was tied to youth in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that

7210-407: The early periods of Samnite history, the military consisted of trained warriors led by local leaders. Access to the military (and military equipment) was dependent on one's wealth and status , while poorer and lower status individuals were relegated to work such as agriculture. Samnite soldiers would have been trained in the triangular forum in Pompeii from an early age as part of a group known as

7313-617: The ecclesiastical power. However, between 1353 and 1367, the papacy regained control of Latium and the rest of the Papal States . From the middle of the 16th century, the papacy politically unified Latium with the Papal States , so that these territories became provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate; governors in Viterbo , in Marittima and Campagna , and in Frosinone administered them for

7416-699: The economy. They also likely exercised a small amount of political power through the symposium , which was a kind of ancient Greek or Etruscan banquet. Other responsibilities included teaching young girls how to dance , childrearing , and possibly managing the household . Relationships between Samnite wives and husbands are unclear. Libation scenes might suggest that a wife was supposed to be dutiful and loyal to her husband . Women may have been expected to be disciplined —in Horace's Odes he complains about women lacking these traits. He possibly based his expectations of women on Samnite customs. Another possibility

7519-512: The ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, Volscians , Epirot Greeks , and other Latin communities. The Samnites and Romans first came into contact after the Roman conquest of the Volscians. In 354 BC, they agreed to set their border at the Liris River . Livy , a Roman historian who serves as a source on the Samnite Wars, states that when the Samnites attacked

7622-420: The foremost families were compelled to move to Rome: Alba Longa, the mother city, was dissolved into Rome, the daughter. According to Livy , Alba Longa was razed to the ground - spare the temples - by King Tullus of Rome. The Latin festival would still be held on the Alban mount, but by Roman magistrates. Having destroyed Alba Longa, Rome was in command of the Latin festival and thus held presidency over

7725-443: The future . Samnite priests would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked the border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity. The Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh evolved into

7828-593: The helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. Feathers and horns were a common feature of Samnite crests and plumes . Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the fit of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the ankle and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights." Projectiles such as spears and javelins were commonly used by

7931-507: The idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country). The Etruscans , from their home region of Etruria , exerted a strong cultural and political influence on Latium from about the 8th century BC onward. However, they were unable to assert political hegemony over the region, which was controlled by small, autonomous city-states in a manner roughly analogous to the state of affairs that prevailed in Ancient Greece . Indeed,

8034-400: The lives of men and women. For example, both have healthy teeth , implying that they had healthy diets with low amounts of carbohydrates . The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death. Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that

8137-491: The long wars against the barbarian Longobards weakened the region, which was seized by the Roman Bishop who already had several properties in those territories. The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between lords and the Roman bishop until the middle of the 16th century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority in

8240-472: The male identity was tied to maturity . The skeletons of men and women also show differences in trauma . Male skeletons found near Pontecagnano Faiano have a cranial trauma rate of 12.9%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at Alfedena has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not. However,

8343-574: The materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as Taranto . Currency at this time generally depicted places like Allifae , Nola , Philistia , or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. Coins may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production,

8446-598: The papacy. After the short-lived Roman Republic (18th century) , the region's annexation to France by Napoleon Bonaparte in February 1798, Latium became again part of the Papal States in October, 1799. On 20 September 1870, the capture of Rome , during the reign of Pope Pius IX , and France's defeat at Sedan , completed Italian unification , and Latium was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy . Latium, often referred to by

8549-515: The people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of Molise . It could also be an adjective used to describe a group of people. It appears on graves near Abruzzo from the 5th century, as well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea . The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War . Safin would go through a series of changes culminating in Safinim ,

8652-736: The person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of preventative healthcare ; it may have been done to protect them in childbirth . Analysis of skeletons has shown that both genders have fractures , lesions , and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly. This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons. Other skeletons showcase similarities between

8755-475: The population within view. The selection of Jupiter as a state god and the descent of the name Latini to the name of the Latin language are sufficient to identify the Latins as a tribe of Indo-European descent. Virgil , a major poet of the early Roman Empire , under Augustus , derived Latium from the word for "hidden" (English latent) because in a myth Saturn , ruler of the golden age in Latium, hid (latuisset) from Jupiter there. A major modern etymology

8858-475: The positive expression of the relationship of the Latin stock. The Latin League may not have at all times included all Latin communities, but it never granted the privilege of membership to any that were not Latin. Very early in its existence, Rome acquired the presidency of the league, and Alba Longa appeared as a rival for which it was destroyed in the mid-7th century BC; the league, as it was, had been dissolved and

8961-691: The provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to reduce the power of the Colonna family . Other popes tried to do the same. During the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France (1309–1377), the feudal lords' power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome. Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords' increasing power, and with Cola di Rienzo , they tried to present themselves as antagonists of

9064-402: The region cannot have been one of the villages, but must have been a place of common assembly, containing the seat of justice and the common sanctuary of the district, where members of the clans met for purposes of administration and amusement, and where they obtained a safer shelter for themselves in case of war: in ordinary circumstances such a place was not at all or but scantily inhabited. Such

9167-447: The region's cultural and geographic proximity to the cities of Magna Graecia had a strong impact upon its early history. By the 10th century BC, archaeology records a slow development in agriculture from the entire area of Latium with the establishment of numerous villages. The Latins cultivated grains (spelt and barley), grapes ( Vitis vinifera ), olives, apples, and fig trees. The various Latini populi (lit. "Latin peoples") lived in

9270-466: The shield's edge. Alongside aspides , the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used scuta . It is also possible that the Samnite scutum influenced the Roman shield; however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying scuta ; however, it is either as trophies taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic ancient Greek art . Livy states that

9373-425: The strips, giving them the appearance of silver . When making the belts, a thermal treatment was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the material . Samnite helmets were based on Greek military equipment —they used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by fastening horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. Rivets could also be used to pin crests to

9476-415: The town of Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing the lyre . Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with Greek words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated

9579-434: The tribes and cities functioned independently from one another. Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called numina and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by sacrificing live animals and using votive offerings . Superstition was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that magical chants could influence reality, that magical amulets could protect people, and that augurs could see

9682-420: The very ancient Latin districts of Lanuvium, Aricia, and Tusculum. Here too are found some primitive works of masonry, which usually mark the beginnings of civilization. The district-strongholds there later gave rise to the considerable towns of Tibur and Praeneste . Labici too, Gabii , Nomentum in the plain between the Alban and Sabine hills and the Tiber, Rome on the Tiber, Laurentum and Lavinium on

9785-693: The word Safen , which later became Safin . The word Safin may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom. Etymologically, this name is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines , who were Umbrians . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh -, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . Some archaeologists believe Safin refers to all

9888-531: Was a fastened bronze or leather girdle covered in bronze. Men wore rings , amulets with snake heads, and collars . Collars were usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants and engraved with incised decorations. Collars would be given to the man in boyhood , and never removed. Bearskins were also common clothing. Latium Latium ( / ˈ l eɪ ʃ i ə m / LAY -shee-əm , US also /- ʃ ə m / -⁠shəm ; Latin: [ˈɫati.ũː] )

9991-556: Was a large, dormant volcano, Mons Albanus ("the Alban Mount", today's Colli Albani ), 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the southeast of Rome, 64 kilometres (40 mi) in circumference. In its center is a crater lake, Lacus Albanus ( Lago Albano ), oval in shape, a few km long and wide. At the top of the second-highest peak ( Monte Cavo ) was a temple to Jupiter Latiaris, where the Latini held state functions before their subjection to Rome, and

10094-401: Was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that

10197-400: Was due, in part, to Rome's generous policy of asylum: Roman kindness was unique in its readiness to grant citizenship to outsiders, citizenship was even granted to former slaves. The children of freedmen provided an important source for Roman armies, and given Rome a definite edge in manpower over other cities of the time. The emperor Augustus officially united all of present-day Italy into

10300-407: Was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits, which evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses. Few of these Samnite deities are known. It is known that gods such as Vulcan , Diana , and Mefitis were all worshipped, with Mars being the most prominent in the Samnite religion. To honor their gods, votive offerings and animals would be sacrificed. In a practice known as

10403-636: Was most drastic in Larinum . The city began as a major grain producer with a mill and a threshing floor , and later developed into the hub for all economic activity in the Biferno Valley . The Samnites exported goods such as cereals , cabbages , olives , olive oil , wine , bronze , iron , textiles , legumes , and vines . They also imported materials such as bronze bowls and bucchero from places like Campania, Etruria , Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . These trade networks resulted in

10506-517: Was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the Papii , Statii , Egnatii , and Staii . Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily militaristic , with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance. In order for

10609-399: Was stratified into cantons. Each city was a vicus . Many vici were grouped into a pagus , and many pagi were grouped into a touto . There were four Samnite touto , one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a senate . It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally

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