Misplaced Pages

#771228

63-472: The area is an important migration route from Botswana to Angola for African elephant and some other game species. It is an unusual Protected Area as about 5,500 people live in the park. The Namibian government involves park residents and neighbours in planning and managing the park. The area was first proclaimed as Caprivi Nature Park in 1963. It became the Caprivi Game Reserve in 1966 and upgraded to

126-641: A 60% loss. In 2012, a large upsurge in ivory poaching was reported, with about 70% of the product flowing to China. China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced that it would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015. Conflicts between elephants and a growing human population are a major issue in elephant conservation. Human encroachment into natural areas where bush elephants occur or their increasing presence in adjacent areas has spurred research into methods of safely driving groups of elephants away from humans. Playback of

189-1051: A crucial trans-boundary link for wildlife movement between Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia. Typical trees include Zambezi teak ( Baikiaea plurijuga ), wild seringa ( Burkea africana ), African teak ( Pterocarpus angolensis ), manketti ( Schinziophyton rautanenii ), false mopane ( Guibourtia coleosperma ), camelthorn tree ( Acacia erioloba ), jackalberry ( Diospyros mespiliformis ) and makalani palm ( Hyphaene petersiana ). Several rare large mammal and bird species are found in Bwabwata. Elephants regularly move between Namibia, Angola, Botswana and Zambia. Other species found are Cape buffalo , hippopotamus , roan antelope , sable antelope , tsessebe , zebra , wildebeest , common reedbuck , red lechwe , sitatunga and crocodile . Main predators are lion , leopard , cheetah and spotted hyena . The Mahango Area and Kavango River in western Bwabwata are listed as an internationally Important Bird Area supporting globally threatened species and

252-433: A female and her herd for about a month before moving on in search of another mate. Less than a third of the population of female elephants will be in estrus at any given time and the gestation period of an elephant is long, so it makes more evolutionary sense for a male to search for as many females as possible rather than stay with one group. Both species are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and poaching for

315-418: A highly intelligent species that is thought to be equal to cetaceans and primates . The African elephant’s cognitive complexity includes behaviors indicative of empathy, problem-solving, and cooperative group behaviors. These traits underscore the evolutionary convergence of intelligence across species, similar to that seen in primates and cetaceans. African elephants are at their most fertile between

378-500: A loud, low way to attract males from far away. Male elephants can also smell the hormones of a female ready for breeding. This leads males to compete with each other to mate, which results in the females mating with older, healthier males. Females choose to a point who they mate with, since they are the ones who try to get males to compete to guard them. However, females are not guarded in the early and late stages of estrus, which may permit mating by younger males not in musth. Males over

441-776: A north-south direction and connects Namibia to Botswana. At either end of the Park are small settlements – Kongola in the east and Divundu in the west. The park is largely unfenced, but the southern boundary with Botswana has three veterinary standard fences. These prevent the spread of cattle diseases, such as Foot-and-mouth disease . Bwabwata is located in the Tree and Shrub Savanna biome. Vegetation types include North-eastern Kalahari Woodland, Caprivi Mopane Woodland, Riverine Woodlands and Islands, Okavango Valley, Caprivi Floodplains. The landscape consists of low vegetated sand dunes with old drainage lines ( Omiramba ) in between. Bwabwata forms

504-453: A physical and behavioral condition that is characterized by elevated testosterone, aggression and more sexual activity. Musth also serves a purpose of calling attention to the females that they are of good quality, and it cannot be mimicked as certain calls or noises may be. Males sire few offspring in periods when they are not in musth. During the middle of estrus, female elephants look for males in musth to guard them. The females will yell, in

567-474: A population of a species categorized by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered , Endangered or Vulnerable . In general, the regular presence of a Critical or Endangered species, irrespective of population size, at a site may be sufficient for a site to qualify as an IBA. For Vulnerable species, the presence of more than threshold numbers at a site is necessary to trigger selection. The site forms one of

630-676: A result of the trade ban, African elephant populations recovered in Southern African range countries. The African Elephant Specialist Group has set up a Human-Elephant Conflict Task Force with the aim to develop conflict mitigation strategies. In 2005, the West African Elephant Memorandum of Understanding was signed by 12 West African countries. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals provided financial support for four years to implement

693-429: A set selected to ensure that all restricted-range species of an Endemic Bird Area (EBA) or a Secondary Area (SA) are present in significant numbers in at least one site and preferably more. The site forms one of a set selected to ensure adequate representation of all species restricted to a given biome, both across the biome as a whole and for all of its species in each range state. The assessment by expert individuals

SECTION 10

#1732856202772

756-468: A specific time; however, they are less likely to reproduce in times of drought than when water is plentiful. The gestation period of an elephant is 22 months and fertile females usually give birth every 3–6 years, so if they live to around 50 years of age, they may produce 7 offspring. Females are a scarce and mobile resource for the males so there is intense competition to gain access to estrous females. Post sexual maturity, males begin to experience musth ,

819-508: Is Loxodonta cookei , with remains of the species known from around 7–5 million years ago, from remains found in Chad, Kenya, Uganda, and South Africa. Analysis of nuclear DNA sequences indicates that the genetic divergence between African bush and forest elephants dates 2.6 – 5.6 million years ago. The African forest elephant was found to have a high degree of genetic diversity , likely reflecting periodic fragmentation of their habitat during

882-790: Is 40 km north to south and 190 km from west to east. Bwabwata is situated in the Caprivi and Kavango regions, extending along the Caprivi Strip. It is bounded by the Okavango River to the west and the Kwando River to the east. Angola lies to the north and Botswana to the south. The main road between the towns of Rundu and Katima Mulilo , the Trans-Caprivi Highway ( B8 ), runs through Bwabwata, linking Namibia to Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe . A minor road (C48) dissects Mahango in

945-409: Is an area identified using an internationally agreed set of criteria as being globally important for the conservation of bird populations. IBA was developed and sites are identified by BirdLife International . There are over 13,000 IBAs worldwide. These sites are small enough to be entirely conserved and differ in their character, habitat or ornithological importance from the surrounding habitat. In

1008-501: Is an avian diversity hotspot. Species include black-winged pratincole , slaty egret , wattled crane , African skimmer , African pygmy-goose , coppery-tailed coucal , white-backed night heron , rufous-bellied heron , Allen's gallinule , Dickinson's kestrel , black-faced babbler , swamp boubou , collared palm thrush , Meves's starling , southern ground hornbill , barred owlet , Bennett's woodpecker , wood owl , various warblers and cisticolas . A long-term data analysis for

1071-593: Is completely lacking. In 1985, following a specific request from the European Economic Community , Birdlife International drew up a list of sites to be protected as a matter of priority. In 1989, a repertoire of IBAs of Europe was released. At first the official name of this type of site was Important Bird Area , hence the acronym IBA, then at the BirdLife World Congress held in Canada in 2014 it

1134-456: Is covered with sparse, bristled dark-brown to black hair. Short tactile hair grows on the trunk, which has two finger-like processes at the tip, whereas Asian elephants only have one. Their large ears help to reduce body heat. Flapping them creates air currents and exposes the ears' inner sides where large blood vessels increase heat loss during hot weather. The trunk is a prehensile elongation of its upper lip and nose. This highly sensitive organ

1197-677: Is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve , and is thought to be manipulated by about 40,000–60,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it to lift about 3% of their own body weight. They use it for smelling, touching, feeding, drinking, dusting, producing sounds, loading, defending and attacking. Elephants sometimes swim underwater and use their trunks as snorkels . Both male and female African elephants have tusks that grow from deciduous teeth called tushes, which are replaced by tusks when calves are about one year old. Tusks are composed of dentin , which forms small diamond-shaped structures in

1260-542: Is larger than that of any other terrestrial animal. The elephant's brain is similar to a human brain in terms of structure and complexity; the elephant's cortex has as many neurons as that of a human brain, suggesting convergent evolution . Elephants exhibit a wide variety of behaviours, including those associated with grief , learning , mimicry , art , play , a sense of humor , altruism , use of tools , compassion , cooperation , self-awareness , memory and possibly language . All of these behaviors point to

1323-620: Is led by an older cow known as the matriarch . African forest elephant groups are less cohesive than African bush elephant groups, probably because of the lack of predators. When separate family units bond, they form kinship or bond groups. After puberty , male elephants tend to form close alliances with other males. While females are the most active members of African elephant groups, both male and female elephants are capable of distinguishing between hundreds of different low-frequency infrasonic calls to communicate with and identify each other. Elephants use some vocalisations that are beyond

SECTION 20

#1732856202772

1386-471: Is the largest terrestrial animal . Cows are 2.2–2.6 m (7.2–8.5 ft) tall at the shoulder and weigh 2,160–3,232 kg (4,762–7,125 lb), while bulls are 3.2–4 m (10–13 ft) tall and weigh 4,700–6,048 kg (10,362–13,334 lb). Its back is concave-shaped, while the back of the African forest elephant is nearly straight. The largest recorded individual stood 3.96 metres (13.0 ft) at

1449-715: Is the third largest terrestrial animal. African elephants are distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa , where they inhabit Sahelian scrubland and arid regions, tropical rainforests , mopane and miombo woodlands . African forest elephant populations occur only in Central and West Africa. Elephants are the animals with the lowest sleep times, especially African elephants. Research has found their average sleep to be only 2 hours in 24-hour cycles. Both African elephant species live in family units comprising several adult cows, their daughters and their subadult sons. Each family unit

1512-491: Is zoned into core areas for conservation and farming. Three areas are designated for special protection and controlled tourism – Kwando (1,345 square kilometres (519 sq mi)), Buffalo (629 square kilometres (243 sq mi)), and Mahango (245 square kilometres (95 sq mi)). A large Multiple Use Area (4,055 square kilometres (1,566 sq mi)) is zoned for community-based tourism, trophy hunting, human settlement and farming. Park residents are mostly from

1575-814: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora listed the African elephant on CITES Appendix I . This listing banned international trade of African elephants and their body parts by countries that signed the CITES agreement. Hunting elephants is banned in the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal. After the ban came into force in 1990, retail sales of ivory carvings in South Africa have plummeted by more than 95% within 10 years. As

1638-687: The Federal Republic of Germany through KfW has helped develop management and tourism plans and constructed new park offices and staff housing in Namibia’s north-eastern parks, including Bwabwata. The Project has helped introduce park-friendly land-uses in the surrounding areas and collaborative management structures. Management priorities include the conservation of important habitats, safeguarding corridors for regional wildlife migration; providing income for rural residents and developing tourism. African elephant African elephants are members of

1701-549: The IUCN Red List ; as of 2021, the bush elephant is considered endangered while the forest elephant is considered critically endangered . They are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, along with poaching for the illegal ivory trade in several range countries. Loxodonta is one of two extant genera in the family Elephantidae . The name refers to the lozenge-shaped enamel of their molar teeth. Fossil remains of Loxodonta species have been found in Africa , spanning from

1764-689: The Sahel in the north to the Highveld in the south. Decrease of suitable habitat was the major cause for the decline of elephant populations until the 1950s. Hunting African elephants for the ivory trade accelerated the decline from the 1970s onwards. The carrying capacity of remaining suitable habitats was estimated at 8,985,000 elephants at most by 1987. In the 1970s and 1980s, the price of ivory rose, and poaching for ivory increased, particularly in Central African range countries where access to elephant habitats

1827-516: The changes in the Pleistocene . Gene flow between the two African elephant species was examined at 21 locations. The analysis revealed that several African bush elephants carried mitochondrial DNA of African forest elephants, indicating they hybridised in the savanna-forest transition zone in ancient times. However, despite the hybridisation at the contact zone between the two species, there appears to have been little effective gene flow between

1890-455: The genus Loxodonta comprising two living elephant species , the African bush elephant ( L. africana ) and the smaller African forest elephant ( L. cyclotis ). Both are social herbivores with grey skin . However, they differ in the size and colour of their tusks as well as the shape and size of their ears and skulls . Both species are at a pertinent risk of extinction according to

1953-470: The 1980s, it was difficult to carry out systematic surveys in several East African range countries due to civil wars . In 1987, it was estimated that the African elephant population had declined to 760,000 individuals. In 1989, only 608,000 African elephants were estimated to have survived. In 1989, the Kenyan Wildlife Service burned a stockpile of tusks in protest against the ivory trade. When

Bwabwata National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

2016-469: The 5,500 park residents. Mahango Game Reserve, to the west of the Park, was proclaimed in 1989. The Caprivi Game Park, Mahango Game Reserve and an unproclaimed area along the Cuando River were united to become Bwabwata National Park in 2007. On 29 November 2013, LAM Mozambique Airlines Flight 470 was deliberately crashed by the co-pilot in the park killing all 33 passengers and crew on board. The park

2079-464: The African bush elephant and the African forest elephant. In 1907, Richard Lydekker proposed six African elephant subspecies based on the different sizes and shapes of their ears. They are all considered synonymous with the African bush elephant. A third species, the West African elephant, has also been proposed but needs confirmation. It is thought that this lineage has been isolated from

2142-410: The African elephant also allows for the digestion of various plant parts, including fibrous stems, bark and roots. African elephants are highly intelligent. They have a very large and highly convoluted neocortex , a trait they share with humans , apes and some dolphin species. They are among the world's most intelligent species. With a mass of just over 5 kg (11 lb), the elephant brain

2205-529: The Caprivi Game Park in 1968. The South African Defence Force occupied it during Namibia’s war of liberation . Conservation officials were not permitted to enter or manage the park due to military operations. The Defence Force left the area shortly before Namibia obtained Independence from South Africa in 1990. The Namibian Government commissioned a study to assess the fauna and flora and developed plans to accommodate both biodiversity protection and

2268-680: The Khwe San bushmen minority group. Most residents live in Omega village in the central part of the park and several smaller settlements. Residents have formed the Kyaramacan Association to represent them. Kyaramacan manages income from tourism (the Nǁgoabaca campsite and a small lodge), from trophy hunting and the sale of devil’s claw ( Harpagophytum procumbens ), a plant sold internationally to reduce pain and fever. The Namibian Government, through

2331-568: The Late Miocene (from around 7–6 million years ago) onwards. The name Loxodonta comes from the Ancient Greek words λοξός ( loxós, "slanting", "crosswise") and ὀδούς ( odoús , "tooth"), referring to the lozenge -shaped enamel of the molar teeth , which differs significantly from the rounded shape of the Asian elephant 's molar enamel. The first scientific description of the African elephant

2394-518: The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, works with local communities to manage Bwabwata National Park. A technical committee, consisting of representatives from other Government departments, conservancies, community forests and non-governmental organisations, advises the Minister of Environment and Tourism. Community game guards work with the Ministry of Environment and Tourism staff to prevent poaching. Among

2457-637: The Park. Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe have agreed to manage trans-boundary conservation through the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KaZa TFCA). Bwabwata is situated in the centre of the KaZa TFCA and forms a corridor for elephant movement from Botswana into Angola and Zambia. To accommodate Bwabwata’s resident people, the Namibian Government has adopted integrated park management. The park

2520-533: The United States the program is administered by the National Audubon Society . Often IBAs form part of a country's existing protected area network, and so are protected under national legislation. Legal recognition and protection of IBAs that are not within existing protected areas varies within different countries. Some countries have a National IBA Conservation Strategy, whereas in others protection

2583-837: The West African Elephant Conservation Strategy, which forms the central component of this intergovernmental treaty. In 2019, the export of wild African elephants to zoos around the world was banned, with an exception added by the EU to allow export in "exceptional cases where … it is considered that a transfer to ex-situ locations will provide demonstrable in-situ conservation benefits for African elephants". Previously, export had been allowed in Southern Africa with Zimbabwe capturing and exporting more than 100 baby elephants to Chinese zoos since 2012. Important Bird Area An Important Bird and Biodiversity Area ( IBA )

Bwabwata National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

2646-412: The age of 25 compete strongly for females in estrus, and are more successful the larger and more aggressive they are. Bigger males tend to sire bigger offspring. Wild males begin breeding in their thirties when they are at a size and weight that is competitive with other adult males. Male reproductive success is maximal in mid-adulthood and then begins to decline. However, this can depend on the ranking of

2709-589: The ages of 25 and 45. Calves are born after a gestation period of up to nearly two years. The calves are cared for by their mother and other young females in the group, known as allomothering . African elephants show sexual dimorphism in weight and shoulder height by age 20, due to the rapid early growth of males. By age 25, males are double the weight of females; however, both sexes continue to grow throughout their lives. Female African elephants are able to start reproducing at around 10 to 12 years of age, and are in estrus for about 2 to 7 days. They do not mate at

2772-615: The elephant loses the last of its molars and will likely die of starvation which is a common cause of death. African elephants have 24 teeth in total, six on each quadrant of the jaw. The enamel plates of the molars are fewer in number than in Asian elephants. The enamel of the molar teeth wears into a distinctive lozenge/loxodont ( <> ) shape characteristic to all members of the genus Loxodonta . While some extinct species of Loxodonta retained permanent premolar teeth, these have been lost in both living species. The African bush elephant

2835-452: The elephant's lifetime. The dental formula of elephants is 1.0.3.3 0.0.3.3  × 2 = 26 . Elephants have four molars ; each weighs about 5 kg (11 lb) and measures about 30 cm (12 in) long. As the front pair wears down and drops out in pieces, the back pair moves forward, and two new molars emerge in the back of the mouth. Elephants replace their teeth four to six times in their lifetimes. At around 40 to 60 years of age,

2898-440: The hearing range of humans, to communicate across large distances. Elephant mating rituals include the gentle entwining of trunks. Bulls were believed to be solitary animals, becoming independent once reaching maturity. New research suggests that bulls maintain ecological knowledge for the herd, facilitating survival when searching for food and water, which also benefits the young bulls who associate with them. Bulls only return to

2961-423: The herd to breed or to socialize; they do not provide prenatal care to their offspring, but rather play a fatherly role to younger bulls to show dominance. While feeding, the African elephant uses its trunk to pluck leaves and its tusks to tear at branches, which can cause enormous damage to foliage. Fermentation of the food takes place in the hindgut , enabling large food intakes. The large size and hindgut of

3024-422: The illegal ivory trade is a threat in several range countries as well. The African bush elephant is listed as Endangered and the African forest elephant as Critically Endangered on the respective IUCN Red Lists . Based on vegetation types that provide suitable habitat for African elephants, it was estimated that in the early 19th century a maximum of 26,913,000 African elephants might have been present from

3087-594: The international ivory trade reopened in 2006, the demand and price for ivory increased in Asia. In Chad's Zakouma National Park , more than 3,200 elephants were killed between 2005 and 2010. The park did not have sufficient guards to combat poaching and their weapons were outdated. Well organized networks facilitated smuggling the ivory through Sudan. The government of Tanzania estimated that more than 85,000 elephants were lost to poaching in Tanzania between 2009 and 2014, representing

3150-547: The main road need a permit and must drive only on designated roads. Several sandy roads, suitable for all-wheel drive vehicles, are found near the Kwando and Okavango rivers. Bwabwata has three community-operated campsites within the park, namely Nǁgoabaca, Nambwa and Bum Hill. Local communities, organised into communal area conservancies, earn revenue from these campsites. Several lodges are situated outside Bwabwata on its borders. Tour operators offer game drives, boat trips and walks in

3213-438: The male within their group, as higher-ranking males maintain a higher rate of reproduction. Most observed matings are by males in musth over 35 years of age. Twenty-two long observations showed that age and musth are extremely important factors; "… older males had markedly elevated paternity success compared with younger males, suggesting the possibility of sexual selection for longevity in this species." Males usually stay with

SECTION 50

#1732856202772

3276-473: The measures to manage the ecology of the park, is fire management. Past efforts of fire management have found to be ineffective. Bwabwata is one of five national parks in north-eastern Namibia. It is managed as a unit with Mangetti, Khaudum National Park , Mudumu National Park and Nkasa Rupara (formerly Mamili National Park ). Since 2006, the NamParks Project (formerly BMM Parks Project), co-funded by

3339-408: The nuclear genome of P. antiquus deriving from L. cyclotis. This ancestry is closer to modern west African populations than to central African populations of forest elephants. Analysis of Chinese Palaeoloxodon mitogenomes suggests that this forest elephant ancestry was widely shared among Palaeoloxodon species. African elephants have grey folded skin up to 30 mm (1.2 in) thick that

3402-525: The others for 2.4 million years. Between the late 18th and 21st centuries, the following extinct African elephants were described on the basis of fossil remains: Relationships of living and extinct elephants based on DNA, after Palkopoulou et al. 2018. Loxodonta (African elephants) [REDACTED] † Palaeoloxodon (straight-tusked elephants) [REDACTED] Elephas (Asian elephants) [REDACTED] † Mammuthus (mammoths) [REDACTED] The oldest species of Loxodonta known

3465-403: The period 1996-2019 has revealed biodiversity losses due to woody encroachment . Fires occur almost annually and are mainly caused by humans and lightning. Although fires are a natural phenomenon in these savannas, too frequent or infrequent fires may negatively affect vegetation and fauna. A managed burning programme aims to reduce the frequency and intensity of fires. Visitors travelling off

3528-597: The recorded sounds of angry Western honey bees has been found to be remarkably effective at prompting elephants to flee an area. Farmers have tried scaring elephants away by more aggressive means such as fire or the use of chili peppers along fences to protect their crops. In 1986, the African Elephant Database was initiated with the aim to monitor the status of African elephant populations. This database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people and data on poaching. In 1989,

3591-484: The shoulder, and is estimated to have weighed 10,400 kg (22,900 lb). The tallest recorded individual stood 4.21 m (13.8 ft) at the shoulder and weighed 8,000 kg (18,000 lb). The African forest elephant is smaller with a weight of up to 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) and a shoulder height of 1.8–2.4 m (5 ft 11 in – 7 ft 10 in) in females and 2.4–3 m (7 ft 10 in – 9 ft 10 in) in males. It

3654-410: The tusk's center that become larger at its periphery. Tusks are primarily used to dig for roots and strip the bark from trees for food, for fighting each other during the mating season, and for defending themselves against predators. The tusks weigh from 23 to 45 kg (51–99 lb) and can be from 1.5 to 2.4 m (5–8 ft) long. They are curved forward and continue to grow throughout

3717-485: The two species since their initial split. DNA from the European straight-tusked elephant ( Palaeoloxodon antiquus ) indicates that the extinct elephant genus Palaeoloxodon is more closely related to African elephants than to Asian elephants or mammoths. Analysis of the genome of P. antiquus also shows that Palaeloxodon extensively hybridised with African forest elephants, with the mitochondrial genome and over 30% of

3780-408: Was decided to adopt the name Important Bird and Biodiversity Area , without changing the acronym. IBAs are determined by an internationally agreed set of criteria. Specific IBA thresholds are set by regional and national governing organizations. To be listed as an IBA, a site must satisfy at least one of the following rating criteria: The site qualifies if it is known, estimated or thought to hold

3843-438: Was facilitated by logging and petroleum mining industries. Between 1976 and 1980, about 830 t (820 long tons; 910 short tons) raw ivory was exported from Africa to Hong Kong and Japan , equivalent to tusks of about 222,000 African elephants. The first continental elephant census was carried out in 1976. At the time, 1.34 million elephants were estimated to range over 7,300,000 km (2,800,000 sq mi). In

SECTION 60

#1732856202772

3906-534: Was proposed by Paul Matschie in 1900, who described three African elephant zoological specimens from Cameroon whose skulls differed in shape from those of elephant skulls collected elsewhere in Africa. In 1936, Glover Morrill Allen considered this elephant to be a distinct species and called it the 'forest elephant'; later authors considered it to be a subspecies . Morphological and genetic analyses have since provided evidence for species-level differences between

3969-536: Was written in 1797 by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , who proposed the scientific name Elephas africanus . Loxodonte was proposed as a generic name for the African elephant by Frédéric Cuvier in 1825. An anonymous author used the Latinized spelling Loxodonta in 1827. This author was recognized as authority by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in 1999. Elephas ( Loxodonta ) cyclotis

#771228