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50-499: Bone Regency was home to the Bone Kingdom , an adat -based Bugis kingdom which was founded by ManurungngE Rimatajang in 1330. It later entered an alliance with the Wajo and Soppeng kingdoms for mutual defense. This alliance became known as LaMumpatue Ri Timurung . In 1605, during the reign of the tenth king of Bone Latenri Tuppu Matinro Ri Sidenreng, Islam entered Bone and caused

100-405: A 2010 census, Bone Regency had 717,268 residents, consisting of 341,335 males and 375,933 females. This gave a sex ratio of 90.80 for the regency, or 91 males for every 100 females. It displayed a population growth rate of 0.67% per annum for the 2000-2010 period. At the 2020 census, Bone Regency had 801,775 residents, consisting of 391,682 males and 410,093 females. The mid 2023 official estimate

150-413: A blue shield with a harrow , anchor, unsheathed kris , rice, cotton plant, and - at the bottom of the shield - the words Kabupaten Bone in red text on a white banner. The harrow and rice stand for the agricultural history of the area. The anchor signifies Bone's nautical prowess, while its symmetry and location in the middle of the shield represent rationality. The kris and red text signify bravery, while

200-699: A change in local culture, including a renaming of various aspects of the regal system. Bone State later enjoyed a period of prosperity in the middle of the 17th century. In May 1950, the people held demonstrations in Watampone against the royalty and Bone's membership in the State of East Indonesia . This caused the sultan to step down and join Indonesia. Bone is located on the east coast of South Sulawesi. It has 174 kilometres (108 mi) of coastline and covers an area of 4,559 square kilometres (1,760 sq mi). It includes

250-418: A distinct genus. The milkfish can grow to 1.80 m (5 ft 11 in), but are most often no more than 1 m (39 in) in length. They can reach a weight of about 14 kg (31 lb). and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked caudal fin . The head

300-531: A fine of P80,000, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of the fishing license. The milkfish is an important seafood in Southeast Asia and some Pacific Islands. Because it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called "boneless bangús " in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Despite the notoriety however, many people in

350-460: A handful of settlements around the modern capital Watampone to a small kingdom roughly one-third the size of Kabupaten Bone (the present regency). In the early 16th century the kingdom expanded northwards, fighting with Luwu for control of the mouth of the River Cenrana, a major east coast trade exit. In 1582 Bone entered an alliance with the Wajo and Soppeng kingdoms for mutual defence against

400-581: A lower level of oxygen in the pond to which it was transferred. Milkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific. In the city of Dagupan , Philippines they host an annual Bangus Festival. The festival was initially a bangus harvest or ‘ Gilon ’ conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez. Now, the festival has become an extravagant event including street dance competitions. The street dance competition named Gilon-gilon ed Dalan

450-618: A military defeat during the South Sulawesi expeditions of 1905 , the Bone State lost its independence to the Dutch. Bone, along with Gowa, became under direct administration. In the late 1920s, the Dutch restored many royal rulers as a way to suppress the tide of nationalist sentiment. Bone was no exception; in 1931, Mappanyuki , a scion of both the houses of Gowa and Bone, was restored to his family's ancestral position in Watampone. In May 1950,

500-460: A milkfish museum in Anping District and city of Kaohsiung holds an annual milkfish festival. Milkfish is an oily fish , and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids . Milkfish aquaculture first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific. Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking ponds by collecting wild fry. This led to

550-426: A threatened species. Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by industrial pollutants , land runoff , and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from San Jose, North Samar , Philippines

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600-680: A total of 88,499 hectares (884.99 km) of rice fields. Bone is surrounded by Wajo to the north, Sinjai to the south, Soppeng , Maros , Pangkkajene , and Barru to the west, and the Gulf of Bone to the east, where it has a sea border with Sulawesi Tenggara . The climate of Bone is tropical , with the wet season from April to September and the dry season from October to March. The temperature ranges from 26 to 34 °C (79 to 93 °F), with air humidity averaging 95% - 99%. The average annual rainfall varies from less than 1,750 millimetres (69 in) to 3,000 millimetres (120 in). According to

650-408: A variety of foods including phytoplankton , zooplankton , filamentous green algae , and small invertebrates . Similarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and nektonic items such as clupeid juveniles. Adults tend to school around coasts and islands with coral reefs . The young fry live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during

700-465: A wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions. In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability. In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms. Milkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide. Indonesia and

750-451: Is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic planktivores . Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments. Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically herbivorous , detritivorous , or omnivorous , depending on

800-640: Is handled by five harbours, a larger one located in East Taneteriattang named Bajoe and four smaller ones. Bone state Bone (also Boni , or Bone Saoraja ) was a sultanate in the south-west peninsula of what is now Sulawesi (formerly Celebes), a province of modern-day Indonesia . It came under Dutch rule in 1905, and was succeeded by the Bone Regency . Covering an area of 2,600 square kilometres (1,000 sq mi) , Bone's chief town Boni , lay 130 kilometres (81 mi) northeast of

850-590: Is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning. Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets. Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, rotifers , green algae , and brine shrimp , as well as the target species. They can either be intensive or semi-intensive. Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$ 6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $ 27.40 for intensive methods. However,

900-525: Is natural (known as lab-lab ) or a combination of phytoplankton and macroalgae . Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order. Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with seine nets or gill nets . Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock

950-491: Is occurring. In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for tuna long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries. On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources , which was later on called the "golden bangus ". However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of

1000-424: Is removed. Possible parasites include nematodes , copepods , protozoa , and helminths . Many of these are treatable with chemicals and antibiotics . Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed

1050-403: Is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below). Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of

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1100-558: Is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near Semarang in Central Java, and Sidoarjo near Surabaya in East Java. Milkfish is the most popular fish in Taiwanese cuisine ; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for congee , pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is

1150-780: The Indian Ocean and across the Pacific Ocean , from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. In 1877, the California Fish and Game Commission introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of Solano County, California . The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected

1200-553: The Indo-Pacific . It is the sole living species in the family Chanidae , and the only living member of the genus Chanos . The repeating scientific name ( tautonym ) is from Greek khanos ( χάνος ‘mouth’). They are grouped in the order Gonorhynchiformes and are most closely related to the Ostariophysi —freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches. The species has many common names. The Hawaiian name for

1250-619: The Paleogene of the Tethys and North Seas , dating as far back as the earliest Eocene . The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during

1300-500: The Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, Megalops cyprinoides , Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus , and Elops machnata . Chanos can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays. Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish

1350-674: The Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific. The following fossil species of Chanos are known: The extinct Caeus leopoldi from the Early Cretaceous ( Albian ) of Italy is also sometimes placed in Chanos as Chanos leopoldi , which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being

1400-480: The Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw using kalamansi juice or vinegar to make kinilaw na bangus . Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include bandeng duri lunak (soft-boned milkfish, ikan bandeng is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or bandeng presto , which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and bandeng asap or smoked milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish

1450-633: The Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017. The fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of their rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh. Fry are raised in either sea cages, large saline ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan). Milkfish reach sexual maturity at 1.5 kg (3.3 lb), which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach 6 kg (13 lb), (eight years), 3–4 million eggs are produced each breeding cycle. This

1500-498: The Philippines, it is prohibited to fish for adult milkfish, also known as sabalo , over 60cm. The government enacted this law in 1975 in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish. However, sabalo are incidentally caught in fish corrals and are products of bycatch from fisheries. The ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 and violations are punishable by imprisonment for 6 months to 8 yr, and/or

1550-477: The city of Makassar , home to the Bugis people. Bone was an adat -based Bugis kingdom whose origins can be traced back to the early 15th century. Its chronicle (as yet unpublished) provides detailed information on its rulers, starting from La Umasa, who ruled in the early 15th century, through to La Tenrtatta, who died in 1699. Under La Umasa and his nephew La Saliu (Kerrépelua) who succeeded him, Bone expanded from

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1600-671: The cotton plant represents the Bone people's struggle for independence. The white banner stands for purity and holiness. The majority of Bone residents are farmers, commercial gardeners, and fishermen. In the area near the Gulf of Boni, seaweed, crabs, shrimp, and milkfish are the main source of income. Seaweed production averages 3,821.5 tonnes per annum, while catches of shrimp, crabs, and milkfish average 4,318 tonnes, 2,061 tonnes, and 4.964 tonnes per annum each. Catches of other fish, mainly tuna, average 73,763.5 tonnes per annum. Bone's sea transportation

1650-452: The east coast of the district. (e) except the desa (village) of Kading (post code 90225). (f) all 8 are kelurahan (Bulu Tempe, Jeppee, Macanang, Macege, Majang, Mattiro Walie, Polewali and Watang Palakka). (g) all 8 are kelurahan (Biru, Bukaka, Manurunge, Masumpu, Pappolo, Ta, Walanae and Watampone). (h) all 8 are kelurahan (Bajoe, Cellu, Lonrae, Pallette, Panyula, Tibojong, Toro and Waetuo). The coat of arms of Bone consists of

1700-496: The experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive. Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L. Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries. The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L. The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture. Most food

1750-890: The fish is awa , and in Tahitian it is ava . It is called bangús ( Tagalog: [bɐˈŋus] ) in the Philippines , where it is popularly known as the national fish , although the National Commission for Culture and the Arts has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law. In the Nauruan language , it is referred to as ibiya . Milkfish is also called bandeng or bolu in Indonesia . The following are common names for milkfish by country: Chanos chanos occurs in

1800-534: The juvenile stage to mangrove swamps, estuaries , and sometimes lakes , and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet. Milkfish are good osmoregulators and extremely euryhaline . The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in

1850-527: The middle of the 17th century. Bone became the most powerful state of South Sulawesi under Arung (ruler of) Palakka , La Tenritatta (1634 or 1635 – 1696) who sided with the Dutch admiral Cornelis Speelman against the Makasar kingdom of Gowa-Tallo, which led to the defeat and capture of Makassar in 1669. From this year until 1814 when the British temporarily gained power of the region, Bone was by treaty and in practice

1900-433: The native ecosystem. Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers. Chanos is the only surviving genus of the ancient family Chanidae , which has existed since the Early Cretaceous . The only surviving species is the widespread C. chanos . Several fossil species of Chanos are known from

1950-487: The official estimates as at mid-2023. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages within each district (totaling 328 rural desa and 44 urban kelurahan ), and its postal code(s). Notes: (a) including one kelurahan . (b) except for the desa (villages) of Biru (postcode 92714), Cenrana (postcode 92754) and Palakka (postcode 92761). (c) including two kelurahan . (d) including several small islands off

2000-648: The outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers. Traditional post-harvest processing include smoking , drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin. Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950. In 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$ 616 million. A trend toward value-added products

2050-454: The overlord of South Sulawesi, with the exception of Dutch-controlled areas on the west and south coast, including the important port-city of Makassar. When the Dutch returned to Makassar in 1816 they attempted to reduce Bone's status from equal to vassal, a move strongly resisted by Bone's rulers. Over the course of the 19th century, the power of Bone was reduced as a result of several wars waged against it in 1824 , 1859 , and 1905. Following

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2100-477: The people held demonstrations in Watampone against the royalty and Bone's membership in the State of East Indonesia . This caused the sultan to join Indonesia. Rulers of Bone used the title Arung Mangkaue' ri Bone (the king who resides in Bone), shortened to Arumpone, MangkauE, or ArungE' ri Bone. Milkfish The milkfish ( Chanos chanos ) is a widespread species of ray-finned fish found throughout

2150-449: The predominant food types in the habitat. Juvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as coral lagoons , estuaries , marsh flats , tidal creeks , and tide pools . Milkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders. Juvenile milkfish eat

2200-518: The rising power of Gowa - Tallo . This alliance became known as Tellumpocco'e ( lit. the Three Summits) or LaMumpatue Ri Timurung ( lit. The burying of the stones at Timurung). In 1611, during the reign of the tenth king of Bone We Tenrituppu MatinroE ri Sidenreng, Bone was invaded by the Sultanate of Gowa and pressured to convert to Islam. Bone State later enjoyed a period of prosperity in

2250-519: The species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods. Milkfish are not currently

2300-421: Was 820,510 inhabitants (comprising 400,508 males and 420,002 females). The majority of residents of Bone Regency are Muslim, with numerous mosques and places for studying Islam . There are also some churches in Watampone. Bone Regency in 2020 (as in 2010) comprised 27 administrative Districts ( Kecamatan ), tabulated below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and 2020 census, together with

2350-417: Was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration

2400-400: Was established to celebrate the bangus harvest. The festival also honors the city’s patron Saint John, who was originally a fisherman and figured prominently in biblical stories of bountiful fish harvests. The Dagupan province is considered the country’s top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens. Two ‘species’ of milkfish are cultured in the city—the more popular of the two is

2450-471: Was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies. Pollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in Butuan , Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had microplastics in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans. In

2500-531: Was reported. Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are pelagic and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It

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