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115-635: The Indo-Pacific is a vast biogeographic region of Earth . In a narrow sense, sometimes known as the Indo-West Pacific or Indo-Pacific Asia , it comprises the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean , the western and central Pacific Ocean , and the seas connecting the two. It does not include the temperate and polar regions of the Indian and Pacific oceans, nor the Tropical Eastern Pacific , along

230-608: A "symbiotic link" with the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue , or "Quad", an informal grouping between Australia , Japan, India , and the United States . It has been argued that the concept may lead to a change in popular "mental maps" of how the world is understood in strategic terms. According to the political scientist Amitav Acharya, the "Indo-Pacific" was a concept built by strategists. The Indo-Pacific started to gain ground in international relations literature as

345-455: A close partnership between the United States and India is central to peace and stability in the region. In marking 70 years of diplomatic relations between India and the United States, the leaders resolved to expand and deepen the strategic partnership between the countries and advance common objectives. Above all, these objectives include combatting terrorist threats, promoting stability across

460-476: A combination of historical factors such as: speciation , extinction , continental drift , and glaciation . Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in sea level , river routes, habitat, and river capture . Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of landmass areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies. Over periods of ecological changes, biogeography includes

575-585: A culturally similar, non-Oceanian subset of the Austronesian peoples . This concept was based on observations by European explorers of the influence of the Srivijaya Empire, which was centered on the island of Sumatra . However, this usage has sparked some controversy in Indonesia, as it raises questions about the broader cultural and historical identities of the region. Together, these classifications highlight

690-501: A diverse cultural heritage, with thousands of ethnic groups and languages . Its strategic location and natural resources have made it a historically significant trade hub and a key player in regional and global affairs. Historically, the Indonesian archipelago was influenced by various cultures and empires, including Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Islamic sultanates, and European colonial powers, before gaining independence in 1945 as

805-630: A geopolitical challenge by the U.S. toward China. In its widest sense, the term geopolitically covers all nations and islands surrounding either the Indian Ocean or the Pacific Ocean, encompassing mainland African and Asian nations who border these oceans, such as India and South Africa , Indian Ocean territories such as the Kerguelen Islands and Seychelles , the Malay Archipelago (which

920-421: A global scale. GIS can show certain processes on the earth's surface like whale locations, sea surface temperatures , and bathymetry. Current scientists also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography through the fossilized reefs. Two global information systems are either dedicated to, or have strong focus on, biogeography (in the form of the spatial location of observations of organisms), namely

1035-419: A great impact on Charles Darwin , who was inspired to consider species adaptations and evolution after learning about botanical geography. De Candolle was the first to describe the differences between the small-scale and large-scale distribution patterns of organisms around the globe. Several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography. Charles Lyell developed

1150-413: A number of methods have been developed to produce arguably more complete "predictive" or "modelled" distributions for species based on their associated environmental or other preferences (such as availability of food or other habitat requirements); this approach is known as either Environmental niche modelling (ENM) or Species distribution modelling (SDM). Depending on the reliability of the source data and

1265-987: A result of tectonic uplift (or subsidence ), natural damming created by a landslide , or headward or lateral erosion of the watershed between adjacent basins. Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to geography , biology , soil science , geology , climatology , ecology and evolution . Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include: The study of comparative biogeography can follow two main lines of investigation: There are many types of biogeographic units used in biogeographic regionalisation schemes, as there are many criteria ( species composition , physiognomy , ecological aspects) and hierarchization schemes: biogeographic realms (ecozones), bioregions ( sensu stricto ), ecoregions , zoogeographical regions , floristic regions , vegetation types, biomes , etc. The terms biogeographic unit, biogeographic area can be used for these categories, regardless of rank. In 2008, an International Code of Area Nomenclature

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1380-474: A shared cultural heritage that shaped the region's identity over centuries. The term " Malay Archipelago " ( Indonesian : Kepulauan Melayu ) is sometimes used interchangeably with the Indonesian Archipelago, highlighting the cultural and linguistic connections among Malay-speaking peoples across these islands. This term was derived from the archaic European concept of a ' Malay race ,' referring to

1495-517: A significant role in shaping the cultural and political landscape of the archipelago. One of the earliest and most powerful of these kingdoms was the Srivijaya Empire, which emerged in the 7th century in Sumatra . Srivijaya dominated trade in Southeast Asia for several centuries, controlling the strategic Malacca and Sunda Straits and facilitating the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism throughout

1610-584: A significant subgroup, divided into the Greater Sunda Islands —including Sumatra, Java, Borneo ( Kalimantan ), and Sulawesi—known for their size, population density, and economic significance, and the Lesser Sunda Islands , extending eastward from Bali and characterized by smaller islands such as Lombok , Sumbawa , Flores , and Timor , each with distinct cultural and ecological attributes. The term " Nusantara ”, originating from Old Javanese ,

1725-581: A vibrant maritime trade network and contributed to the spread of Islam throughout the region. The European colonial era began in the early 16th century with the arrival of Portuguese explorers, who sought to control the lucrative spice trade. The Portuguese established a foothold in the Maluku Islands, but their influence was soon challenged by the Dutch and the British . The Dutch East India Company (VOC) emerged as

1840-488: A whole suite of predictor variables for biogeographic analysis, including satellite imaging and processing of the Earth. Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite-imaging gives "repetitive, spatially contiguous, and time specific observations of vegetation". These observations are on

1955-441: A wide range of species but also provide crucial resources and livelihoods for millions of Indonesians. The Indonesian archipelago is characterized by significant ethnic diversity, comprising approximately 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups . The majority of Indonesians are descended from Austronesian peoples , whose languages trace back to Proto-Austronesian , likely originating in present-day Taiwan . Another prominent group

2070-634: Is a vast and diverse collection of over 17,000 to 18,000 islands located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans in Southeast Asia and Oceania . It is the world's largest archipelago , with five main islands— Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei ), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea ). The Indonesian archipelago is known for its rich biodiversity, unique wildlife, and varied ecosystems, ranging from tropical rainforests to active volcanoes. The archipelago boasts

2185-512: Is also "symbiotically linked" with the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue —an informal grouping of like-minded democracies in the region, comprising Australia , India , Japan , and the United States . Since 2011, the term "Indo-Pacific" is being used increasingly in geopolitical discourse. In 2013, Indonesian Foreign Minister Marty Natalegawa proposed an "Indo-Pacific Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation" to restore trust, manage unresolved territory disputes, and help countries deal with change in

2300-424: Is an alternate view than that of Linnaeus. Buffon's law eventually became a principle of biogeography by explaining how similar environments were habitats for comparable types of organisms. Buffon also studied fossils which led him to believe that the Earth was over tens of thousands of years old, and that humans had not lived there long in comparison to the age of the Earth. Following the period of exploration came

2415-435: Is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors , as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments . Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology , evolutionary biology , taxonomy , geology , physical geography , palaeontology , and climatology . Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from

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2530-450: Is commonly used in Indonesia to denote the Indonesian archipelago. This term emphasizes unity as a maritime nation with diverse cultures and landscapes spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania. It is closely associated with the historical era of Majapahit in Java, a period marked by extensive maritime dominance in the region. Majapahit's influence extended through trade networks, maritime routes, and

2645-528: Is home to approximately 28,000 species of flowering plants, including around 2,500 species of orchids. Some of the most notable plants include the Rafflesia arnoldii , which produces the world’s largest flower, and the titan arum, known for its enormous inflorescence and distinctive odor. The fauna of Indonesia is equally diverse and includes many endemic species. The archipelago hosts around 1,531 bird species, 515 of which are endemic. Notable avian residents include

2760-404: Is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, the geographic distribution of some fossils (including the mesosaurs ) on various continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on

2875-473: Is on how the environment and humans affect the distribution of species as well as other manifestations of Life such as species or genetic diversity. Biogeography is being applied to biodiversity conservation and planning, projecting global environmental changes on species and biomes, projecting the spread of infectious diseases, invasive species, and for supporting planning for the establishment of crops. Technological evolving and advances have allowed for generating

2990-487: Is one of the most biodiverse regions on the planet, and it is among the 17 Megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . This vast area spans both the Asian and Australian biogeographic zones, resulting in a unique and rich array of flora, fauna, and marine life. Indonesian archipelago diverse ecosystems, ranging from lush rainforests to mangroves and savannas, support a variety of plant life. The archipelago

3105-713: Is sometimes extended even further to include Chile's Desventuradas Islands and Juan Fernández Islands . The Western Indo-Pacific covers the western and central portion of the Indian Ocean, including Africa's east coast, the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the Persian Gulf , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Andaman Sea , as well as the coastal waters surrounding Madagascar , Seychelles ,

3220-618: Is the Melanesians , who primarily reside in eastern Indonesia , including the Maluku Islands , Western New Guinea , and the eastern part of the Lesser Sunda Islands. The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, making up 40.2% of the population and holding considerable political influence. They are predominantly located in the central and eastern parts of Java , with significant numbers spread across various provinces. Following

3335-736: Is within the bounds of both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific), Japan , Russia and other Far East nations bordering the Pacific, Australia and all the Pacific Islands east of them, as well as Pacific nations of the Americas such as Canada or Mexico . ASEAN countries (defined as those in Southeast Asia and the Malay Archipelago) are considered to be geographically at the centre of the political Indo-Pacific. The WWF and Nature Conservancy divide

3450-607: The Age of Enlightenment in Europe, which attempted to explain the patterns of biodiversity observed by Buffon and Linnaeus. At the birth of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography", developed the concept of physique generale to demonstrate the unity of science and how species fit together. As one of the first to contribute empirical data to the science of biogeography through his travel as an explorer, he observed differences in climate and vegetation. The Earth

3565-660: The Budi Utomo , Sarekat Islam , and the Indonesian National Party (PNI) founded by Sukarno . The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on August 17, 1945, by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta , marked a pivotal moment in the archipelago's history. However, the path to full sovereignty was fraught with conflict, as the Dutch sought to re-establish control after World War II. The ensuing Indonesian National Revolution involved diplomatic negotiations and armed struggle, culminating in

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3680-857: The Comoros , the Mascarene Islands , Maldives , and the Chagos Archipelago . Some seashore and coastal plants are found throughout most of the region, including the trees Pisonia grandis , Calophyllum inophyllum , Heliotropium arboreum , Pandanus tectorius , Cordia subcordata , Guettarda speciosa , and the shrubs Scaevola taccada , Suriana maritima , and Pemphis acidula . These plants have adapted to grow on coral sand, and have seeds adapted to crossing salt water, including distribution by birds or which can survive floating in salt water. The trees coconut ( Coco nucifera ), candlenut ( Aleurites moluccanus ), and Morinda citrifolia originated in

3795-548: The Coral Triangle , which contains 76% of all known coral species in the world. The Eastern Indo-Pacific surrounds the mostly volcanic islands of the central Pacific Ocean, extending from the Marshall Islands in the west through central and southeastern Polynesia to Hawaii , to the west coast of Chile . The World Wide Fund for Nature believe the region ends at Chile's Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez , although it

3910-589: The Dutch East Indies . The colonial period brought significant social, economic, and infrastructural changes, but it was also marked by resistance and uprisings from local populations. Notable revolts include the Java War (1825-1830) led by Prince Diponegoro and the Aceh War (1873-1904). The struggle for independence intensified in the early 20th century, with the rise of nationalist movements and organizations such as

4025-667: The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF: 2.57 billion species occurrence records reported as at August 2023) and, for marine species only, the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS, originally the Ocean Biogeographic Information System : 116 million species occurrence records reported as at August 2023), while at a national scale, similar compilations of species occurrence records also exist such as

4140-662: The Great Sumatran fault contributing to seismic activity and tsunamis, exemplified by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . The archipelago is rich in mineral resources, including oil , natural gas , coal , gold , tin , copper , and nickel . Unique geological formations also create karst landscapes, such as the Gunung Sewu and Maros-Pangkep areas, with cave systems and hills. Varied geology also leads to features like underground rivers in karst areas and crater lakes in volcanic regions, such as Lake Toba . The Indonesian Archipelago

4255-639: The 13th century brought about significant cultural and religious changes. Islamic traders from the Middle East, India, and China played a crucial role in spreading the religion, leading to the establishment of powerful Islamic sultanates across the archipelago. The Sultanate of Demak in Java, the Sultanate of Aceh in Sumatra, and the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands became important centers of Islamic learning and culture. These sultanates fostered

4370-507: The 13th century marked another golden age in Indonesian history. Under the leadership of powerful rulers such as King Hayam Wuruk and his prime minister Gajah Mada , Majapahit extended its influence over much of modern-day Indonesia, as well as parts of Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. The Majapahit Empire is often remembered for its cultural achievements, administrative sophistication, and military prowess. The arrival of Islam in

4485-744: The 2017 National Security Strategy , the 2018 Nuclear Posture Review , and the 2018 National Defense Strategy . According to Felix Heiduk and Gudrun Wacker at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs , the concept of a "Free and Open Indo-Pacific" is aimed at containing China and the "Indo-Pacific" is "primarily understood as a U.S.-led containment strategy directed against China" in Beijing. Australian scholar Rory Medcalf has argued that "The Indo-Pacific...does not exclude or contain China, though it does dilute China’s influence." It has been argued that

4600-476: The 36 volume Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière , in which he argued that varying geographical regions would have different forms of life. This was inspired by his observations comparing the Old and New World, as he determined distinct variations of species from the two regions. Buffon believed there was a single species creation event, and that different regions of the world were homes for varying species, which

4715-505: The Amazon basin, Orinoco basin, and Guianas ) with an exceptionally low (flat) topographic relief, the many waterways have had a highly reticulated history over geological time . In such a context, stream capture is an important factor affecting the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms. Stream capture occurs when an upstream portion of one river drainage is diverted to the downstream portion of an adjacent basin. This can happen as

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4830-764: The Central Indo-Pacific, and were spread further across the region by human settlers. The Indo-West Pacific has been a hub of economic activity since ancient times. The entrance of the European colonial powers, such as the Dutch and British East India Companies and the Portuguese, and the launch of a trans-Pacific transport of slaves , migrants, and goods, created a deeper Indo-Pacific economic integration. The "Indo-Pacific" has been an economic idea since its early formulation in Weimar Germany . According to Hansong Li,

4945-513: The German geographer Karl Haushofer , son of the economist Max Haushofer, believed that capital , along with urbanisation and population growth , are key vectors that determine the 'manometers' of the oceanic region. Haushofer also explained why industrialisation broke out in Europe rather than the Indo-Pacific by a spatial theory of demography. In the 21st century, with the rising involvement of

5060-588: The Gómez Farias Region, Tamaulipas, Mexico , which has been described as "ground-breaking" and "a classic treatise in historical biogeography". Martin applied several disciplines including ecology , botany , climatology , geology , and Pleistocene dispersal routes to examine the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the threshold of temperate – tropical (nearctic and neotropical) regions, including semiarid lowlands at 70 meters elevation and

5175-549: The Indian Ocean was much narrower than it is today, and that South America was closer to the Antarctic, one would be hard pressed to explain the presence of many "ancient" lineages of perching birds in Africa, as well as the mainly South American distribution of the suboscines . Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal , and provides unique information on

5290-532: The Indo-Pacific as relatively unstructured biogeographic realm - possibly the world's largest. Below are briefly described the 3 MEOW realms of the Indo-Pacific: The Central Indo-Pacific includes the numerous seas and straits connecting the Indian and Pacific oceans, including the seas surrounding the Indonesian archipelago (with the exception of Sumatra 's northwest coast, which is part of

5405-640: The Indo-Pacific into 3 realms (or subrealms), and each of these into 25 marine provinces and 77 ecoregions ( Marine Ecoregions of the World ; MEOW) based on data-driven expert opinion. Other schemes for subdivision of the Indo-Pacific have included: 5 provinces, based on endemism in fishes; 3 regions split into 10 provinces based on dissimilarity of fish assemblages, 11 provinces based on range boundaries in corals, 12 divisions split into 124 ecoregions based on biogeographic clustering from coral distributions and finally 8 realms from distributions of 65,000 marine species. All but

5520-579: The Indo-Pacific region, increasing free and fair trade, and strengthening energy linkages". However, President Trump's November 2017 articulation on Indo-Pacific was widely seen as something that would usher in a new (US–China) Cold War. This led to the Indian Prime Minister spelling out the Indian vision of Indo-Pacific as an enabler for "a common pursuit of progress and prosperity... not directed against any country... (albeit based on) our principled commitment to rule of law". According to Dr. Cenk Tamer,

5635-603: The Javanese, the Sundanese are the next largest group at 15.4%, with other notable groups including the Malay , Batak , Madurese , Betawi , Minangkabau , and Bugis . The linguistic landscape of Indonesia is equally diverse, with over 700 indigenous languages spoken across the archipelago. Despite this diversity, Indonesian also known as “Bahasa Indonesia” serves as the national language and unifying lingua franca. Religious diversity

5750-448: The Origin of Species were devoted to geographical distribution. The first discoveries that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, as Europeans explored the world and described the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century most views on the world were shaped around religion and for many natural theologists, the bible. Carl Linnaeus , in

5865-523: The Pacific coast of the Americas , which is also a distinct marine realm . The term is especially useful in marine biology , ichthyology , and similar fields, since many marine habitats are continuously connected from Madagascar to Japan and Oceania , and a number of species occur over that range, but are not found in the Atlantic Ocean . The region has an exceptionally high species richness , with

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5980-414: The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Together, all the countries included within the framework represent 40% of the world GDP. The IPEF contains four pillars: Historical precedent for the Indo-Pacific as a politically contested space comes from ancient times; in the European colonial era, commercial interests led to conquest by powers such as the Dutch and British East India Companies throughout

6095-478: The Theory of Continental Drift in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined in one large landmass, Pangea , and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth's surface. The evidence for this theory

6210-603: The Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils. This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct. Since he noted that Earth's climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly. Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting

6325-631: The U.K. National Biodiversity Network , the Atlas of Living Australia , and many others. In the case of the oceans, in 2017 Costello et al. analyzed the distribution of 65,000 species of marine animals and plants as then documented in OBIS, and used the results to distinguish 30 distinct marine realms, split between continental-shelf and offshore deep-sea areas. Since it is self evident that compilations of species occurrence records cannot cover with any completeness, areas that have received either limited or no sampling,

6440-454: The U.S. seeks to create an "anti-China axis" in the Asia-Pacific region through the conceptualization of the Indo-Pacific because it sees India as a key part in containing China. This was reiterated by President Biden , who declared a "secure and prosperous Indo-Pacific." Tamer calls the Indo-Pacific a concept that started to gain ground in international relations as a geopolitical challenge by

6555-460: The U.S. toward China. The term was also used in 2019 by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in its statement ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP), though the bloc also still uses the longstanding term "Asia-Pacific" which is preferred by China and Russia. Its use by ASEAN is arguably an attempt by the bloc at balance-of-power hedging between competing visions for the region between

6670-522: The US and China. However, it is also clear that ASEAN does not share the exact same understanding of the term as the US, and its AOIP statement specifically states that it envisions continuing to play a "central and strategic role" in the region. The Australian Citizens Party , a minor party associated with the US-led Rouche movement , criticises the "Indo-Pacific" vision as a reenactment of Nazi strategy, given

6785-561: The United States in the new growth areas of Asia, the idea of the Indo-Pacific Economic Corridor (IPEC) emerged during the U.S.–India Strategic Dialogue of 2013. The Secretary of State John Kerry referred to the potential of the Indo-Pacific Economic Corridor in transforming the prospects for development and investments as well as for trade and transit between the economies of South and Southeast Asia Indo-Pacific economic corridor. K. Yhome in his scholarly study has mapped out

6900-540: The Western Atlantic. The term first appeared in academic use in oceanography and geopolitics . Scholarship has shown that the "Indo-Pacific" concept circulated in Weimar Germany , and spread to interwar Japan. German political oceanographers envisioned an "Indo-Pacific" comprising anticolonial India and republican China, as German allies, against "Euro-America". Since the late 2010s, the term "Indo-Pacific" has been increasingly used in geopolitical discourse. It has

7015-662: The Western Indo-Pacific), the South China Sea , the Philippine Sea , the north coast of Australia , and the seas surrounding New Guinea , western and central Micronesia , New Caledonia , the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu , Fiji , and Tonga . The Central Indo-Pacific, due in part to its central location at the meeting of two oceans, has the greatest richness and diversity of marine organisms, specifically located within

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7130-414: The anticipated effects of climate change can also be used to show potential changes in species distributions that may occur in the future based on such scenarios. Paleobiogeography goes one step further to include paleogeographic data and considerations of plate tectonics . Using molecular analyses and corroborated by fossils , it has been possible to demonstrate that perching birds evolved first in

7245-421: The biotic and abiotic features of the Earth in his book, Cosmos . Augustin de Candolle contributed to the field of biogeography as he observed species competition and the several differences that influenced the discovery of the diversity of life. He was a Swiss botanist and created the first Laws of Botanical Nomenclature in his work, Prodromus. He discussed plant distribution and his theories eventually had

7360-475: The concept of the Indo-Pacific may lead to a change in popular "mental maps" of how the world is understood in strategic terms. The term's profile was raised when it found mention in the joint statement issued by the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and United States President Donald Trump after the former's state visit to the White House on 26 June 2017. "As responsible stewards in the Indo-Pacific region, President Trump and Prime Minister Modi agreed that

7475-471: The concept's link to Karl Haushofer. Former Prime Minister of Australia Paul Keating , in a televised address at the National Press Club , criticised the notion of the "Indo-Pacific" as a construct of the United States in its diplomatic war with China: The United States says, well, that's all very interesting. But look, if you behave yourself, you Chinese. You can be a stakeholder in our system. And look, you wouldn't have to be Xi Jinping or anybody, to take

7590-405: The convergence of several major tectonic plates: the Eurasian , Indo-Australian , Philippine Sea , and Pacific Plates . This interaction has created one of the most geologically active areas on Earth, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire . Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. The western archipelago, including Sumatra and Java , features a volcanic arc from

7705-412: The critically endangered Javan Hawk-Eagle and the beautiful Birds of Paradise. Mammalian diversity is also significant, with species such as the Sumatran tiger , orangutan , and the Borneo pygmy elephant . Indonesia is also home to the Komodo dragon , the largest living lizard on Earth, found exclusively on a few islands within the archipelago. Indonesia's marine biodiversity is among the richest in

7820-475: The development of biogeography as a science. The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Francisco Jose de Caldas (1768–1816), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913) and other biologists and explorers. The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through

7935-420: The development of the fields of conservation biology and landscape ecology . Classic biogeography has been expanded by the development of molecular systematics , creating a new discipline known as phylogeography . This development allowed scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island endemics . For example, while classic biogeographers were able to speculate about

8050-408: The dominant colonial power, establishing a network of trading posts and fortresses across the archipelago. By the 17th century, the VOC had effectively monopolized the spice trade and exerted considerable political influence over the local sultanates. In the 19th century, following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Dutch government took direct control of the archipelago, consolidating its territories into

8165-437: The environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution. Charles Darwin was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the Galapagos Islands . Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and

8280-444: The equator between 6°N and 11°S latitude and 95°E to 141°E longitude. Comprising over 17,000 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, it is the world's largest archipelagic state . The Indonesian archipelago has a total land area of 1,904,569 square kilometers (735,358 sq mi), including 93,000 square kilometres (35,908 sq mi) of inland seas such as straits , bays , and other bodies of water. The surrounding sea areas increase

8395-597: The factors affecting organism distribution, and to predict future trends in organism distribution. Often mathematical models and GIS are employed to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect to them. Biogeography is most keenly observed on the world's islands . These habitats are often much more manageable areas of study because they are more condensed than larger ecosystems on the mainland. Islands are also ideal locations because they allow scientists to look at habitats that new invasive species have only recently colonized and can observe how they disperse throughout

8510-611: The famous Flores Man or Homo floresiensis, sheds light on the ancient inhabitants of these islands. Indonesia is also home to some of the world's oldest known cave paintings, discovered particularly in the caves of Sulawesi and Kalimantan . These paintings, which depict hand stencils and images of animals, are over 45,500 years old, offering valuable insights into the artistic expressions of ancient human inhabitants. Recent discoveries, such as those in Sulawesi's Leang Karampuang caves, dated to approximately 51,200 years ago, establish them as

8625-453: The formation of regional biotas. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian teleost fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of

8740-477: The former Lifemapper project at the University of Kansas (now continued as a part of BiotaPhy ) and AquaMaps , which as at 2023 contain modelled distributions for around 200,000 terrestrial, and 33,000 species of teleosts , marine mammals and invertebrates, respectively. One advantage of ENM/SDM is that in addition to showing current (or even past) modelled distributions, insertion of changed parameters such as

8855-409: The generally recognized territory of the Indonesian archipelago (land and sea) to about 5 million km². The exclusive economic zone is 6,159,032 km² (2,378,016 sq mi), bringing the total area to approximately 7.9 million km². The archipelago is composed of several major island groups, including the Greater Sunda Islands , Lesser Sunda Islands , Maluku Islands , and Western New Guinea . Among these,

8970-582: The geographical distribution of organisms around the globe. Alfred Russel Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. His research was essential to the further development of biogeography, and he was later nicknamed the "father of Biogeography". Wallace conducted fieldwork researching the habits, breeding and migration tendencies, and feeding behavior of thousands of species. He studied butterfly and bird distributions in comparison to

9085-459: The global spice trade. The term "Indonesian Archipelago", deriving from the Greek words "Indos" (India) and "nesos" (island), refers to Indonesia , the world's largest archipelago, comprising not only major islands like Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, and Papua, but also thousands of smaller islands across the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Within this archipelago, the " Sunda Islands " form

9200-411: The importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet. Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions. In 1958 paleontologist Paul S. Martin published A Biogeography of Reptiles and Amphibians in

9315-556: The island and change it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex mainland habitats. Islands are very diverse in their biomes , ranging from the tropical to arctic climates. This diversity in habitat allows for a wide range of species study in different parts of the world. One scientist who recognized the importance of these geographic locations was Charles Darwin , who remarked in his journal "The Zoology of Archipelagoes will be well worth examination". Two chapters in On

9430-441: The island of Java. These findings represent some of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Southeast Asia, highlighting the archipelago's significance in the study of human evolution. Archaeological evidence further reveals the existence of early societies in various parts of the archipelago, such as Flores , Sulawesi , and Papua , dating back of thousands of years. The discovery of early human remains on Flores, including

9545-485: The largest islands are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), Sulawesi , and the western half of New Guinea . These islands vary greatly in size, with Sumatra covering 473,481 square kilometers, Java 138,794 square kilometers, and the Indonesian portion of Borneo, known as Kalimantan, spanning 743,330 square kilometers. The Indonesian archipelago is complex and dynamic, shaped by millions of years of tectonic activity and volcanic processes. It sits at

9660-455: The last of these schemes were tested against one another by an international consortium of marine scientists using genetic data from 56 Indo-Pacific species, with the reasoning that genetic data should reflect the evolutionary processes that structure the Indo-Pacific. While there was no clear winning scheme, and all schemes were supported by data from at least one species, the genetic data in general favored schemes with few subdivisions, supporting

9775-572: The maritime domination of Britain, the United States, and Western Europe. The Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe referred to the "confluence" of the Indian and Pacific Oceans in his speech to the Indian Parliament in August 2007 as "the dynamic coupling as seas of freedom and of prosperity" in the "broader Asia". The focus of Japanese Prime Minister's August 2007 speech in the Indian Parliament

9890-479: The mid-18th century, improved our classifications of organisms through the exploration of undiscovered territories by his students and disciples. When he noticed that species were not as perpetual as he believed, he developed the Mountain Explanation to explain the distribution of biodiversity; when Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals dispersed throughout different elevations on

10005-515: The most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like squamates , overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross. See also Oceanic dispersal . Biogeography now incorporates many different fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, general biology, and modelling. A biogeographer's main focus

10120-499: The mountain. This showed different species in different climates proving species were not constant. Linnaeus' findings set a basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution. He argued that the structure of an animal was very closely related to its physical surroundings. This

10235-683: The nature of the models employed (including the scales for which data are available), maps generated from such models may then provide better representations of the "real" biogeographic distributions of either individual species, groups of species, or biodiversity as a whole, however it should also be borne in mind that historic or recent human activities (such as hunting of great whales , or other human-induced exterminations) may have altered present-day species distributions from their potential "full" ecological footprint. Examples of predictive maps produced by niche modelling methods based on either GBIF (terrestrial) or OBIS (marine, plus some freshwater) data are

10350-476: The northernmost cloud forest in the western hemisphere at over 2200 meters. The publication of The Theory of Island Biogeography by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967 showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted in terms of such factors as habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate. This added to the long-standing interest in island biogeography . The application of island biogeography theory to habitat fragments spurred

10465-551: The oldest known paintings globally. By the first millennium CE, the Indonesian archipelago had become a crucial maritime trade route connecting the East and West. Early trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between the islands and neighboring regions, including Mainland China , Indian subcontinent , and the Middle East . This period saw the rise of influential Hinduism and Buddhist kingdoms, which played

10580-571: The origins of species in the Hawaiian Islands , phylogeography allows them to test theories of relatedness between these populations and putative source populations on various continents, notably in Asia and North America . Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology. In recent years, one of

10695-495: The physiological and ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial scales and evolutionary time frames. The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term, evolutionary periods of time for broader classifications of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with Carl Linnaeus , contributed to

10810-614: The potential for various emerging trans-regional corridors in Asia along with the challenges of linking IPEC into the larger web of regional economic integration initiatives taking shape in the region in 2017. On 23 May 2022, the president of the United States, Joe Biden, launched the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF). This agreement includes a dozen of initial partners including: Australia, Brunei, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand,

10925-448: The presence or absence of geographical barriers. His observations led him to conclude that the number of organisms present in a community was dependent on the amount of food resources in the particular habitat. Wallace believed species were dynamic by responding to biotic and abiotic factors. He and Philip Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution as they used Darwin's conclusion to explain how biogeography

11040-407: The recognition of Indonesian independence by the Dutch in 1949. The Indonesian archipelago is a vast and diverse island chain located in Southeast Asia , stretching from the edge of Maritime Southeast Asia to the fringes of Oceania . This expansive archipelago spans approximately 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south, straddling

11155-420: The region of Australia or the adjacent Antarctic (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate). From there, they spread to the other Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia – the part of Laurasia then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late Paleogene , before achieving a global distribution in the early Neogene . Not knowing that at the time of dispersal,

11270-696: The region. The German geopolitician Karl Haushofer first used "Indo-Pacific" in the 1920s in multiple works on geography and geopolitics : Geopolitics of the Pacific Ocean (1924), Building Blocks of Geopolitics (1928), Geopolitics of Pan-Ideas (1931), and German Cultural Politics in the Indo-Pacific Space (1939). Haushofer legitimated the integration of the two oceans by evidence in marine biology , oceanography , ethnography , and historical philology . He envisioned an "Indo-Pacific" comprising anticolonial forces in India and China, as Germany's ally against

11385-583: The region. In 2013, U.S. officials have begun using the term "Indo-Asia Pacific". In 2019, the United States Department of State published a document formalizing the concept of a " Free and Open Indo-Pacific ", to be sustained among members of "the Quad", a partnership of four Indo-Pacific democracies led by the United States, in concert with Australia, India, and Japan. "Indo-Pacific" has also featured prominently in top-level U.S. strategic documents such as

11500-596: The region. The wealth and influence of Srivijaya were reflected in its capital, Palembang , which became a major center of learning and culture. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Sailendra dynasty rose to prominence in Central Java , leaving behind the magnificent Borobudur temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The subsequent rise of the Hindu Majapahit Empire in

11615-461: The rich diversity and historical significance of the Indonesian Archipelago, showcasing a dynamic blend of cultures and natural environments. The history of Indonesian archipelago is a rich and complex tapestry of human migration, cultural exchange, trade, and colonization that has shaped the region over millennia. Human presence in the region dates back over 2 million years, with the discovery of Homo erectus remains, famously known as Java Man , on

11730-484: The state of " Indonesia ". The archipelago comprises around 6,000 inhabited islands, with the remainder being uninhabited. These islands vary in size and significance, from densely populated and culturally influential Java to small, remote islets. Notable islands include Bali , Sumatra, and Komodo Island , each known for specific attributes such as tourism, natural resources, and unique wildlife. The Maluku , or Spice Islands, are historically significant for their role in

11845-428: The study of plant and animal species in: their past and/or present living refugium habitat ; their interim living sites; and/or their survival locales. As writer David Quammen put it, "...biogeography does more than ask Which species? and Where . It also asks Why? and, what is sometimes more crucial, Why not? ." Modern biogeography often employs the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to understand

11960-727: The subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate, resulting in volcanoes like Mount Merapi and Mount Kerinci . The central and eastern regions, such as Sulawesi and the Maluku, are shaped by interactions of multiple plates, creating diverse geological features and island arcs. Indonesia has around 150 active volcanoes , with volcanic activity contributing to fertile soils, especially in Java . Frequent earthquakes result from constant tectonic movement, with fault lines such as

12075-503: The term Indo-Pacific acquired salience within the Indian government and has since been used often by India's apex political leadership. From about 2011 onwards, the term has been used frequently by strategic analysts and high-level government/military leadership in Australia, Japan and the United States to denote said region. However, a formal/official documented articulation of the term first appeared in Australia's Defence White Paper, 2013. It

12190-416: The theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin's theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about

12305-401: The view of your Chinese Nationalist say, "Well, hang on, let me get this right. We are already one and a quarter times bigger than you, will soon be twice as big as you, and we may be two and a half times as big as you. But we can be a stakeholder in your system, is that it?" I mean, it’d make a cat laugh. Biogeography Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms

12420-447: The well-known insular faunas ( Galapagos finches , Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake cichlids ), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent adaptive radiations . For freshwater organisms, landscapes are divided naturally into discrete drainage basins by watersheds , episodically isolated and reunited by erosional processes. In regions like the Amazon Basin (or more generally Greater Amazonia,

12535-459: The world's highest species richness being found in at its heart in the Coral Triangle , and a remarkable gradient of decreasing species richness radiating outward in all directions. The region includes over 3,000 species of fish, compared with around 1,200 in the next richest marine region, the Western Atlantic , and around 500 species of reef building corals, compared with about 50 species in

12650-440: The world, making it a critical hotspot for marine conservation. The coral reefs in the Coral Triangle , which includes parts of Indonesia, are teeming with life, hosting over 500 species of coral and more than 2,000 species of reef fish. The waters around Indonesia also support populations of large marine animals such as whale sharks , manta rays , and various species of sea turtles . The vibrant marine ecosystems not only support

12765-400: Was divided into regions which he defined as tropical, temperate, and arctic and within these regions there were similar forms of vegetation. This ultimately enabled him to create the isotherm, which allowed scientists to see patterns of life within different climates. He contributed his observations to findings of botanical geography by previous scientists, and sketched this description of both

12880-529: Was important to a George Louis Buffon's rival theory of distribution. Closely after Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon observed shifts in climate and how species spread across the globe as a result. He was the first to see different groups of organisms in different regions of the world. Buffon saw similarities between some regions which led him to believe that at one point continents were connected and then water separated them and caused differences in species. His hypotheses were described in his work,

12995-700: Was on security of sea lanes linking the two oceans. In the academic discourse relating to such maritime security issue in the Indo-Pacific, the first articulation was carried by a paper published in January 2007 by the Institute of Defense Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi. It was a result of consultations between IDSA and the Japan Institute of International Affairs (JIIA) held in New Delhi in October 2006. From 2010 onwards,

13110-717: Was proposed for biogeography. It achieved limited success; some studies commented favorably on it, but others were much more critical, and it "has not yet gained a significant following". Similarly, a set of rules for paleobiogeography has achieved limited success. In 2000, Westermann suggested that the difficulties in getting formal nomenclatural rules established in this field might be related to "the curious fact that neither paleo- nor neobiogeographers are organized in any formal groupings or societies, nationally (so far as I know) or internationally — an exception among active disciplines." Indonesian archipelago The Indonesian archipelago ( Indonesian : Kepulauan Indonesia )

13225-496: Was similar to a record of species inheritance. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line , and the sharp difference that existed between North and South America prior to their relatively recent faunal interchange , can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be seen as a purely descriptive one. Moving on to the 20th century, Alfred Wegener introduced

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