119-500: The Boeing Pad Abort Test (also abbreviated to Boe-PAT ) was a test of the Boeing CST-100 Starliner and its abort motors, conducted by Boeing as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Program. It was the first flight of Starliner and one of the last milestones ahead of OFT . The mission's main objective was to demonstrate that Starliner could safely pull a crew away from the pad in the event of an emergency prior to liftoff. After
238-548: A US$ 4.2 billion to complete and certify the Starliner, while SpaceX received a US$ 2.6 billion to complete and certify Crew Dragon . To receive the full contract amount, each company would need to successfully complete an abort test , an uncrewed orbital flight test, a crewed orbital flight test, and six crewed missions to the ISS. However, NASA would not need to pay for any failed tests and was only required to purchase two crewed missions to
357-753: A crew of up to seven, though NASA plans to fly no more than four. It can remain docked to the ISS for up to seven months and is launched on an Atlas V N22 rocket from Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 41 in Florida. In 2014, NASA awarded Boeing a US$ 4.2 billion fixed-price contract to build Starliner, while SpaceX received $ 2.6 billion to develop Crew Dragon . By October 2024, Boeing's effort had exceeded its budget by at least $ 1.85 billion. Originally planned to be operational in 2017, Starliner has been repeatedly delayed by problems in management and engineering. The first uncrewed Orbital Flight Test in December 2019
476-401: A dry mass of about 303,000 pounds (137,000 kilograms); when fully fueled at launch, it had a total mass of 4,881,000 pounds (2,214,000 kilograms). The S-IC was powered by five Rocketdyne F-1 engines arrayed in a quincunx . The center engine was held in a fixed position, while the four outer engines could be hydraulically turned with gimbals to steer the rocket. In flight, the center engine
595-643: A joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin, secured $ 6.7 million to develop the Emergency Detection System to allow its Atlas V rocket to be human-rated to launch Starliner. At the time, Boeing expressed optimism that the Starliner could be operational as early as 2015, contingent upon timely approvals and funding. In October 2011, NASA announced that the Orbiter Processing Facility -3 at Kennedy Space Center would be leased to Boeing for manufacture and test of Starliner, through
714-506: A low Earth orbit (LEO) payload capacity originally estimated at 261,000 pounds (118,000 kg), but was designed to send at least 90,000 pounds (41,000 kg) to the Moon. Later upgrades increased that capacity; on the final three Apollo lunar missions, it sent up to 95,901 lb (43,500 kg) to the Moon. At a height of 363 feet (111 m), the Saturn V stood 58 feet (18 m) taller than
833-458: A lunar orbit rendezvous provided the simplest landing on the Moon with the most cost–efficient launch vehicle, and the best chance to accomplish the lunar landing within the decade. Other NASA officials became convinced, and LOR was then officially selected as the mission configuration for the Apollo program and announced by NASA administrator James E. Webb on November 7, 1962. Arthur Rudolph became
952-529: A money-losing program and in October The Wall Street Journal reported that Boeing was exploring a sale of some of its space division programs, including Starliner. Various validation tests began on test articles in 2011 and continued on actual spacecraft starting in 2019. In September 2011, Boeing announced the completion of a set of ground drop tests to validate the design of the airbag cushioning system. The airbags are located underneath
1071-479: A new service module, which provides propulsion and power-generation capacity for the spacecraft. Starliner features wireless Internet and tablet technology for crew interfaces. Starliner uses the NASA Docking System . Boeing modified the Starliner design prior to OFT-2, adding a hinged re-entry cover below its expendable nosecone for additional protection of the docking port during atmospheric entry . This
1190-406: A partial failure. After launch, the spacecraft captured an " mission elapsed time " from its Atlas V launch vehicle that was 11 hours off. Consequently, when the spacecraft separated from the rocket, instead of briefly firing its reaction control thrusters to enter orbit, its computers commanded them to fire for far longer, consuming so much fuel that the spacecraft no longer had enough to dock with
1309-702: A partnership with Space Florida . Over the next three years, NASA would hold three more rounds of development funding, awarding Boeing $ 92.3 million under CCDev 2 in 2011, $ 460 million under the Commercial Crew integrated Capability (CCiCap) program in 2012, and $ 9.9 million under the Certification Products Contract (CPC) in 2013. NASA was expected to announce its selection for the lucrative Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract in September 2014. Boeing had lobbied NASA for
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#17328555653841428-504: A proposed replacement for the first stage was the AJ-260x . This solid rocket motor would have simplified the design by removing the five-engine configuration and, in turn, reduced launch costs. The S-II was built by North American Aviation at Seal Beach, California . Using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, it had five Rocketdyne J-2 engines in a similar arrangement to the S-IC, and also used
1547-504: A reusable capsule and an expendable service module and is designed for missions to low Earth orbit . The capsule accommodates seven passengers, or a mix of crew and cargo. For NASA missions to the ISS it will carry four passengers and a small amount of cargo. The Starliner capsule uses a weldless, spun-formed structure and is reusable up to 10 times with a six-month turnaround time. Boeing plans to alternate between two reusable crew modules for all planned Starliner missions. Each flight uses
1666-426: A rocket varies with air density and the square of relative velocity . Although velocity continues to increase, air density decreases so quickly with altitude that dynamic pressure falls below max q. The propellant in just the S-IC made up about three-quarters of Saturn V's entire launch mass, and it was consumed at 13,000 kilograms per second (1,700,000 lb/min). Newton's second law of motion states that force
1785-568: A second time for translunar injection (TLI). The Saturn V's instrument unit was built by IBM and was placed on top of the rocket's third stage. It was constructed at the Space Systems Center in Huntsville, Alabama . This computer controlled the operations of the rocket from just before liftoff until the S-IVB was discarded. It included guidance and telemetry systems for the rocket. By measuring
1904-494: A second. Once the rocket had lifted off, it could not safely settle back down onto the pad if the engines failed. The astronauts considered this one of the tensest moments in riding the Saturn V, for if the rocket did fail to lift off after release they had a low chance of survival given the large amounts of propellant. To improve safety, the Saturn Emergency Detection System (EDS) inhibited engine shutdown for
2023-558: A single rocket launching two spacecraft: a mother ship , and a smaller, two-man landing module which would rendezvous back with the main spacecraft in lunar orbit. The lander would be discarded and the mother ship would return home. At first, NASA dismissed LOR as a riskier option, as a space rendezvous had yet to be performed in Earth orbit, much less in lunar orbit. Several NASA officials, including Langley Research Center engineer John Houbolt and NASA Administrator George Low , argued that
2142-550: A sole-source contract, arguing that it needed the program's full budget for the successful development of Starliner. Within NASA, there was considerable support for this approach, with many decision-makers expressing confidence in Boeing's capabilities and safety record. In fact, NASA officials had even drafted a justification for selecting Boeing as the sole provider. While William H. Gerstenmaier , NASA's human exploration lead, had considered
2261-450: A successful launch, only two of three main parachutes deployed. Despite this, NASA and Boeing deemed the test a success, as Starliner was designed to function on two parachutes if necessary. In September 2011, Boeing announced the completion of a set of ground drop tests to validate the design of the airbag cushioning system. In May 2019, all major hotfire tests, were completed using full-up flight-capable service module hardware. This cleared
2380-450: A time with a delay to reduce peak acceleration further. After S-IC separation, the S-II second stage burned for 6 minutes and propelled the craft to 109 miles (175 km) and 15,647 mph (25,181 km/h), close to orbital velocity . For the first two uncrewed launches, eight solid-fuel ullage motors ignited for four seconds to accelerate the S-II stage, followed by the ignition of
2499-427: A total of just 20 minutes. Although Apollo 6 experienced three engine failures, and Apollo 13 experienced one engine shutdown, the onboard computers were able to compensate by burning the remaining engines longer to achieve parking orbit. In the event of an abort requiring the destruction of the rocket, the range safety officer would remotely shut down the engines and after several seconds send another command for
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#17328555653842618-591: Is a spacecraft designed to transport crew to and from the International Space Station (ISS) and other low-Earth-orbit destinations. Developed by Boeing under NASA 's Commercial Crew Program (CCP), it consists of a reusable crew capsule and an expendable service module . Slightly larger than the Apollo command module or SpaceX Crew Dragon , but smaller than the Orion capsule , the Starliner can accommodate
2737-404: Is equal to mass multiplied by acceleration, or equivalently that acceleration is equal to force divided by mass, so as the mass decreased (and the force increased somewhat), acceleration rose. Including gravity, launch acceleration was only 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 g , i.e., the astronauts felt 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 g while the rocket accelerated vertically at 1 ⁄ 4 g . As
2856-641: The Launch Escape System rocket (150,000 pounds-force (667 kN) sea level thrust) mounted atop the Apollo command module. The Apollo LES fired for a much shorter time than the Mercury-Redstone (3.2 seconds vs. 143.5 seconds). The Saturn V was principally designed by the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama , although numerous major systems, including propulsion systems, were designed by subcontractors. The rocket used
2975-862: The Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico . After rounding Florida , the stages were transported up the Intra-Coastal Waterway to the Vehicle Assembly Building (originally called the Vertical Assembly Building). This was essentially the same route which would be used later to ship Space Shuttle external tanks . The S-II was constructed in California and traveled to Florida via the Panama Canal . The third stage and Instrument Unit
3094-700: The Statue of Liberty from the ground to the torch, and 48 feet (15 m) taller than the Elizabeth Tower , which houses Big Ben at the Palace of Westminster . In contrast, the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle used on Freedom 7 , the first crewed American spaceflight, was approximately 11 feet (3.4 m) longer than the S-IVB stage and delivered less sea level thrust (78,000 pounds-force (350 kN)) than
3213-986: The White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, the Willcox Playa in Arizona and the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. Edwards Air Force Base in California serves as a contingency landing location. All of the landing sites are in the Western United States, allowing the service module to be jettisoned for a destructive reentry over the Pacific Ocean. Boeing says that between all five landing sites, there will be around 450 landing opportunities each year. Following
3332-593: The chief of the astronaut office that he would not fly on Starliner. Hurley and Behnken would later go on to command the Crew Dragon's historic Demo-2 mission, the first crewed flight of the spacecraft. Williams would fly into space on the Boeing Crew Flight Test, but would return to Earth on a Crew Dragon, after thrusters malfunctioned on the Starliner. Despite being initially awarded significantly more funding, Boeing has faced substantial budget overruns for
3451-557: The instrument unit . All three stages used liquid oxygen (LOX) as the oxidizer . The first stage used RP-1 for fuel, while the second and third stages used liquid hydrogen (LH2). LH2 has a higher specific energy (energy per unit mass) than RP-1, which makes it more suitable for higher-energy orbits, such as the trans-lunar injection required for Apollo missions. Conversely, RP-1 offers higher energy density (energy per unit volume) and higher thrust than LH2, which makes it more suitable for reducing aerodynamic drag and gravity losses in
3570-601: The Army's rocket design division. Between 1945 and 1958, his work was restricted to conveying the ideas and methods behind the V-2 to American engineers, though he wrote books and articles in popular magazines. This approach changed in 1957, when the Soviets launched Sputnik 1 atop an R-7 ICBM, which could carry a thermonuclear warhead to the U.S. The Army and government began putting more effort towards sending Americans into space before
3689-491: The C-4, which would use four F-1 engines in its first stage, an enlarged C-3 second stage, and the S-IVB , a stage with a single J-2 engine, as its third stage. The C-4 would only need to carry out two launches to carry out an EOR lunar mission. On January 10, 1962, NASA announced plans to build the C-5. The three-stage rocket would consist of the S-IC first stage, with five F-1 engines;
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3808-408: The C-5. Rather than undergoing testing for each major component, the C-5 would be tested in an "all-up" fashion, meaning that the first test flight of the rocket would include complete versions of all three stages. By testing all components at once, far fewer test flights would be required before a crewed launch. The C-5 was confirmed as NASA's choice for the Apollo program in early 1962, and was named
3927-482: The ISS from each company. Following the initial guaranteed missions, the companies would compete for launch contracts on an ongoing basis. In November 2015, NASA announced that it had dropped Boeing from consideration in the multibillion-dollar Commercial Resupply Services competition to fly cargo to the International Space Station. The CST-100 (Crew Space Transportation-100) name was first used when
4046-476: The ISS. As the capsule was prepared for re-entry, another software error was discovered; it could have caused a catastrophic collision between the service module and crew capsule. The spacecraft landed at White Sands Missile Range , New Mexico , two days after launch. After its landing, NASA astronaut Sunita Williams named the spacecraft Calypso after the research vessel RV Calypso used by oceanographic researcher Jacques Cousteau . After
4165-502: The International Space Station for approximately a week, and conducting additional tests while ground crews reviewed data from the launch and docking. Following a review and approval of this data, the capsule would have undocked and returned to Earth for a landing in the American Southwest about eight days later. However, the capsule's thrusters malfunctioned as Starliner docked with the ISS, and despite months of testing, NASA felt it
4284-621: The Jupiter vehicles. Between 1960 and 1962, the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) designed a series of Saturn rockets that could be deployed for Earth orbit and lunar missions. NASA planned to use the Saturn C-3 as part of the Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR) method for a lunar mission, with at least two or three launches needed for a single landing on the Moon. However, the MSFC planned an even bigger rocket,
4403-617: The Moon from Apollo 8 (December 1968) to Apollo 17 (December 1972). In September 1945, the U.S. government brought the German rocket technologist Wernher von Braun and over 1,500 German rocket engineers and technicians to the United States in Operation Paperclip , a program authorized by President Truman . Von Braun, who had helped create the German V-2 rocket, was assigned to
4522-577: The OFT-2 uncrewed test flight being scheduled for March 2021 and the crewed flight targeted for a launch the following summer. The launch date of OFT-2 moved again with the earliest estimated launch date set for August 2021. During the August 2021 launch window some issues were detected with 13 propulsion-system valves in the spacecraft prior to launch. The spacecraft had already been mated to its launch rocket, United Launch Alliance's (ULA) Atlas V , and taken to
4641-573: The OMAC thrusters. Boeing designed the capsule to make ground landings instead of a splashdown , a first for a crewed capsule mission launched from the United States. After reentering the atmosphere, three parachutes will be deployed, slowing the capsule to approximately 4 miles per hour (350 ft/min; 1.8 m/s). Before reaching the ground, six airbags will deploy to cushion the landing. There are four primary landing locations, including two sites inside
4760-474: The RCS thrusters. This stress testing revealed performance degradation in the thrusters, leading the spacecraft software to consider five of them damaged and unusable, and five separate helium leaks were detected in the service module. The five failed thrusters were all aft-facing, resulting in a loss of six degrees of freedom attitude control until four of them were restored. The astronauts were able to safely dock
4879-589: The S-IC from the rest of the vehicle at an altitude of about 42 miles (67 km). The first stage continued on a ballistic trajectory to an altitude of about 68 miles (109 km) and then fell in the Atlantic Ocean about 350 miles (560 km) downrange. The engine shutdown procedure was changed for the launch of Skylab to avoid damage to the Apollo Telescope Mount . Rather than shutting down all four outboard engines at once, they were shut down two at
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4998-471: The S-IC, the S-II was transported from its manufacturing plant to Cape Kennedy by sea. The S-IVB stage was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company at Huntington Beach, California . It had one Rocketdyne J-2 engine and used the same fuel as the S-II. The S-IVB used a common bulkhead to separate the two tanks. It was 58.6 feet (17.86 m) tall with a diameter of 21.7 feet (6.604 m) and
5117-453: The S-II second stage, with five J-2 engines; and the S-IVB third stage, with a single J-2 engine. The C-5 would undergo component testing even before the first model was constructed. The S-IVB third stage would be used as the second stage for the C-1B, which would serve both to demonstrate proof of concept and feasibility for the C-5, but would also provide flight data critical to the development of
5236-416: The Saturn V launched Apollo 11 , putting the first men on the Moon. The size and payload capacity of the Saturn V dwarfed those of all other previous rockets successfully flown at that time. With the Apollo spacecraft on top, it stood 363 feet (111 m) tall, and, ignoring the fins, was 33 feet (10 m) in diameter. Fully fueled, the Saturn V weighed 6.5 million pounds (2,900,000 kg) and had
5355-455: The Saturn V remains the only launch vehicle to have carried humans beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). The Saturn V holds the record for the largest payload capacity to low Earth orbit, 311,152 lb (141,136 kg), which included unburned propellant needed to send the Apollo command and service module and Lunar Module to the Moon. The largest production model of the Saturn family of rockets ,
5474-594: The Saturn V shared characteristics with the one carried by the Saturn IB. The Saturn V was primarily constructed of aluminum . It was also made of titanium , polyurethane , cork and asbestos . Blueprints and other plans of the rocket are available on microfilm at the Marshall Space Flight Center. The Saturn V consisted of three stages—the S-IC first stage, S-II second stage, and S-IVB third stage—and
5593-466: The Saturn V was designed under the direction of Wernher von Braun at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama ; the lead contractors for construction of the rocket were Boeing , North American Aviation , Douglas Aircraft Company , and IBM . Fifteen flight-capable vehicles were built, not counting three used for ground testing. A total of thirteen missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center , nine of which carried 24 astronauts to
5712-521: The Saturn ;V. The C-1 became the Saturn I and C-1B became Saturn IB. Von Braun headed a team at the MSFC to build a vehicle capable of launching a crewed spacecraft to the Moon. During these revisions, the team rejected the single engine of the V-2's design and moved to a multiple-engine design. The Saturn V's final design had several key features. F-1 engines were chosen for the first stage, while new liquid hydrogen propulsion system called J-2 for
5831-575: The Soviets. They turned to von Braun's team, who had created the Jupiter series of rockets . The Juno I rocket launched the first American satellite in January 1958. Von Braun considered the Jupiter series of rockets to be a prototype of the upcoming Saturn series of rockets , and referred to it as "an infant Saturn". Named after the sixth planet from the Sun , the design of the various Saturn rockets evolved from
5950-460: The Space Shuttle program drew to a close, NASA sought to foster the development of new spaceflight capabilities. Departing from the traditional model of government-owned and operated spacecraft, NASA proposed a revolutionary approach: companies would own and operate spacecraft, while NASA would act as a customer, purchasing flights as needed. To incentivize innovation, NASA offered funding to support
6069-463: The Starliner development schedule. The uncrewed Boeing Orbital Flight Test (OFT) launched on December 20, 2019, bearing an Anthropomorphic Test Device nicknamed "Rosie the Rocketeer" and clothed in Boeing's blue IVA spacesuit as well as a Plush toy of Jedediah Kerman from Kerbal Space Program . It landed two days later, having nearly ended in catastrophic failure. The mission was ultimately declared
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#17328555653846188-463: The Starliner program, exceeding $ 1.85 billion as of October 2024 . In November 2019, NASA's Office of Inspector General released a report revealing that a change to Boeing's contract had occurred in 2016, stating: "For Boeing's third through sixth crewed missions, we found that NASA agreed to pay an additional $ 287.2 million above Boeing's fixed prices to mitigate a perceived 18-month gap in ISS flights anticipated in 2019 and to ensure
6307-617: The Starliner proposal as stronger, he was hesitant to award a sole-source contract. The multi-year Commercial Crew Program had been designed to foster competition and redundancy, and Gerstenmaier believed that selecting just one company would undermine these goals. Through his efforts, he successfully convinced NASA to delay the CCtCap announcement and secure additional funding to support two competing efforts. On September 16, 2014, NASA announced that both Boeing and SpaceX would be awarded CCtCap contracts to develop crewed spacecraft. Boeing received
6426-468: The United States at that time. Two main reasons for the cancellation of the last three Apollo missions were the heavy investments in Saturn V and the ever-increasing costs of the Vietnam War to the U.S. in money and resources. In the time frame from 1969 to 1971 the cost of launching a Saturn V Apollo mission was between $ 185,000,000 to $ 189,000,000, of which $ 110 million were used for the production of
6545-520: The acceleration and vehicle attitude , it could calculate the position and velocity of the rocket and correct for any deviations. After the construction and ground testing of each stage was completed, they were each shipped to the Kennedy Space Center. The first two stages were so massive that the only way to transport them was by barge. The S-IC, constructed in New Orleans, was transported down
6664-465: The addition of the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters. A couple of RCS thrusters used to maneuver Starliner also failed during docking due to low chamber pressure. Some thermal systems used to cool the spacecraft showed extra cold temperatures, requiring engineers to manage it during the docking. On May 22, 2022, the capsule docked with the International Space Station. On May 25, 2022,
6783-478: The airbags used to cushion the capsule's landing. The crew module for the OFT-2 mission began acceptance testing in August 2020, which is designed to validate the spacecraft's systems before it is mated with its service module, according to NASA. On November 10, 2020, NASA's Commercial Crew Program manager Steve Stich said that the second orbital flight test would be delayed until first quarter 2021 due to software issues. The uncrewed test continued to slip, with
6902-514: The astronauts and the engineers at the two companies. While the SpaceX engineers were receptive to feedback, enthusiastic about collaborating, and attentive to suggestions, Hurley found the Boeing engineers to be indifferent, arrogant, and overconfident. He also said the Boeing team failed to inform the astronauts about the propellant leak that occurred during the Pad Abort Test . Ultimately, Hurley told
7021-505: The award of the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract in 2014, NASA assigned a team of four experienced astronauts, Bob Behnken , Eric Boe , Doug Hurley and Sunita Williams , to serve as consultants to engineers at both Boeing and SpaceX. These astronauts were also slated to be the test pilots on the inaugural missions. Hurley recounted a stark contrast in the working relationships between
7140-399: The capsule and service module, a 5.8 ft (1.78 m) structure called an aeroskirt is integrated into the launch vehicle adapter of Atlas V. The aeroskirt provides aerodynamic stability and dampens the shock waves that come from the front of the rocket. The spacecraft's propulsion system is produced by Aerojet Rocketdyne and consists of 64 engines: The RCS and OMAC thrusters on
7259-511: The capsule returned from space and landed successfully. During reentry one of the navigation systems dropped communication with the GPS satellites, but Steve Stich, program manager for NASA's Commercial Crew Program, said this is not unexpected during reentry. The Starliner's crewed flight test was originally planned as the capsule's final test before entering regular service. This test would have involved launching two astronauts into orbit, docking with
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#17328555653847378-433: The capsule to the ISS. Saturn V The Saturn V is a retired American super heavy-lift launch vehicle developed by NASA under the Apollo program for human exploration of the Moon . The rocket was human-rated , had three stages , and was powered by liquid fuel . Flown from 1967 to 1973, it was used for nine crewed flights to the Moon, and to launch Skylab , the first American space station . As of 2024,
7497-574: The capsule was revealed to the public in June 2010. The letters "CST" stand for Crew Space Transportation, while "100" likely refers to the Kármán line , which is generally considered the boundary of space at 100 kilometers (62 mi) above Earth. The design draws upon Boeing's experience with NASA's Apollo, Space Shuttle, and ISS programs, as well as the Orbital Express project. The spacecraft consists of
7616-438: The contractor continued as a second commercial crew provider", and NASA and Boeing committed to six missions instead of the last four being optional. In August 2024, after the setbacks experienced during the Crew Flight Test, NASA Administrator Bill Nelson stated that Boeing CEO Kelly Ortberg committed to continuing the Starliner program. However, financial analysts expressed skepticism that Boeing would continue to invest in
7735-403: The development of these new vehicles. However, unlike previous cost-plus contracts , these new contracts would be fixed-price , placing the financial risk of cost overruns on the companies themselves. Boeing has an extensive history of developing vehicles for space exploration, having built the first stage ( S-IC ) of the Saturn V rockets, assembling the Lunar Roving Vehicles , and serving as
7854-418: The early stages of launch. If the first stage had used LH2, the volume required would have been more than three times greater, which would have been aerodynamically infeasible at the time. The upper stages also used small solid-propellant ullage motors that helped to separate the stages during the launch, and to ensure that the liquid propellants were in a proper position to be drawn into the pumps. The S-IC
7973-405: The entire service module and anticipated OFT-2 to occur in May 2022. The OFT-2 mission launched on May 19, 2022. It again carried Rosie the Rocketeer test dummy suited in the blue Boeing inflight spacesuit. Two Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) thrusters failed during the orbital insertion burn, but the spacecraft was able to compensate using the remaining OMAC thrusters with
8092-407: The entire stack was moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to the launch pad using the Crawler Transporter (CT). Built by the Marion Power Shovel Company (and later used for transporting the smaller and lighter Space Shuttle, as well as the Space Launch System ), the CT ran on four double-tracked treads, each with 57 "shoes". Each shoe weighed 2,000 pounds (910 kg). This transporter
8211-417: The first 30 seconds of flight. If all three stages were to explode simultaneously on the launch pad, an unlikely event, the Saturn V had a total explosive yield of 543 tons of TNT or 0.543 kilotons (2,271,912,000,000 J or 155,143 lbs of weight loss), which is 0.222 kt for the first stage, 0.263 kt for the second stage and 0.068 kt for the third stage. (See Saturn V Instrument Unit ) Contrary to popular myth ,
8330-411: The first OFT did not achieve its objectives, Boeing officials said on April 6, 2020 that the Starliner crew capsule would fly a second uncrewed demonstration mission, Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2 (OFT-2), before flying astronauts. NASA said that it had accepted a recommendation from Boeing to fly a second unpiloted mission. The Washington Post reported that the second orbital flight test, with much
8449-457: The first stage ignition sequence started. The center engine ignited first, followed by opposing outboard pairs at 300-millisecond intervals to reduce the structural loads on the rocket. When thrust had been confirmed by the onboard computers, the rocket was "soft-released" in two stages: first, the hold-down arms released the rocket, and second, as the rocket began to accelerate upwards, it was slowed by tapered metal pins pulled through holes for half
8568-426: The five J-2 engines. For the first seven crewed Apollo missions, only four ullage motors were used on the S-II, and they were eliminated for the final four launches. About 30 seconds after first stage separation, the interstage ring dropped from the second stage. This was done with an inertially fixed attitude—orientation around its center of gravity —so that the interstage, only 3 feet 3 inches (1 m) from
8687-471: The four outer engines for control. The S-II was 81.6 feet (24.87 m) tall with a diameter of 33 feet (10 m), identical to the S-IC, and thus was the largest cryogenic stage until the launch of the Space Shuttle in 1981. The S-II had a dry mass of about 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg); when fully fueled, it weighed 1,060,000 pounds (480,000 kg). The second stage accelerated the Saturn V through
8806-602: The heat shield of the Starliner, which is designed to be separated from the capsule while under parachute descent at about 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude. The airbags, manufactured by ILC Dover, are deployed by filling with a mixture of compressed nitrogen and oxygen gas, not with the pyro-explosive mixture sometimes used in automotive airbags . The tests were carried out in the Mojave Desert of southeast California, at ground speeds between 10 and 30 mph (16 and 48 km/h) in order to simulate crosswind conditions at
8925-456: The incident quiet, even withholding information from the astronauts involved in the project. In October 2018, the first unpiloted orbital mission was delayed to April 2019, and the first crew launch was rescheduled to August 2019. In March 2019, Reuters reported that these test flights had been delayed by at least three months, and in April 2019 Boeing announced that the unpiloted orbital mission
9044-507: The launchpad. Attempts to fix the problem while on the launchpad failed, and the rocket was returned to the ULA's VIF (Vertical Integration Facility). Attempts to fix the problem at the VIF also failed, and Boeing decided to return the spacecraft to the factory, thus cancelling the launch at that launch window. There was a commercial dispute between Boeing and Aerojet Rocketdyne over responsibility for fixing
9163-490: The mass of the spacecraft, address aerodynamics issues anticipated during launch and ascent on the Atlas ;V rocket, and meet new NASA-imposed software requirements. The Orbital Flight Test was scheduled for spring 2019. The booster for this Orbital Flight Test, an Atlas V N22 rocket, was assembled at United Launch Alliance 's (ULA) facility at Decatur, Alabama by the end of 2017. The first crewed flight ( Boe-CFT )
9282-430: The mission, Boeing vice president John Mulholland acknowledged that the company had not conducted integrated end-to-end tests for the entire mission, but had instead performed tests of smaller segments. This approach contributed to the software errors that led to the near-catastrophic failures during the flight test. Mulholland insisted that Boeing cut no corners, and that end-to-end tests were not omitted to save money. NASA
9401-456: The most fuel-efficient trajectory toward its target orbit. If the instrument unit failed, the crew could switch control of the Saturn to the command module's computer, take manual control, or abort the flight. About 90 seconds before the second stage cutoff, the center engine shut down to reduce longitudinal pogo oscillations. At around this time, the LOX flow rate decreased, changing the mix ratio of
9520-500: The noise produced was not able to melt concrete . It took about 12 seconds for the rocket to clear the tower. During this time, it yawed 1.25 degrees away from the tower to ensure adequate clearance despite adverse winds; this yaw, although small, can be seen in launch photos taken from the east or west. At an altitude of 430 feet (130 m) the rocket rolled to the correct flight azimuth and then gradually pitched down until 38 seconds after second stage ignition. This pitch program
9639-500: The outboard J-2 engines, would fall cleanly without hitting them, as the interstage could have potentially damaged two of the J-2 engines if it was attached to the S-IC. Shortly after interstage separation the Launch Escape System was also jettisoned. About 38 seconds after the second stage ignition, the Saturn V switched from a preprogrammed trajectory to a "closed loop" or Iterative Guidance Mode. The instrument unit now computed in real time
9758-433: The planning process, NASA considered three methods for the Moon mission: Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR), direct ascent , and lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR). A direct ascent configuration would require an extremely large rocket to send a three-man spacecraft to land directly on the lunar surface. An EOR would launch the direct-landing spacecraft in two smaller parts which would combine in Earth orbit. A LOR mission would involve
9877-541: The powerful F-1 and J-2 rocket engines ; during testing at Stennis Space Center, the force developed by the engines shattered the windows of nearby houses. Designers decided early on to attempt to use as much technology from the Saturn I program as possible for the Saturn V. Consequently, the S-IVB -500 third stage of the Saturn V was based on the S-IVB-200 second stage of the Saturn IB . The instrument unit that controlled
9996-689: The prime contractor for the US Orbital Segment of the ISS since 1993. With its proven track record and deep expertise, Boeing was seen as well-positioned to compete for the commercial spaceflight contracts. In 2010, Boeing unveiled its entry into NASA's Commercial Crew Program competition: the CST-100. The company received initial funding of $ 18 million in the first round of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev 1) program to support Starliner's development. Additionally, United Launch Alliance,
10115-462: The problem. The valves had been corroded by intrusion of moisture, which interacted with the propellant, but the source of the moisture was not apparent. By late September 2021, Boeing had not determined the root cause of the problem, and the flight was delayed indefinitely. Through October 2021, NASA and Boeing continued to make progress and were "working toward launch opportunities in the first half of 2022", In December 2021, Boeing decided to replace
10234-496: The project director of the Saturn V rocket program in August 1963. He developed the requirements for the rocket system and the mission plan for the Apollo program. The first Saturn V launch lifted off from Kennedy Space Center and performed flawlessly on November 9, 1967, Rudolph's birthday. He was then assigned as the special assistant to the director of MSFC in May 1968 and subsequently retired from NASA on January 1, 1969. On July 16, 1969,
10353-435: The propellant system left four of eight valves open, leading to the release of over 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) of toxic monomethylhydrazine propellant, resulting in a fireball that engulfed the equipment. The incident was reportedly exacerbated by animosity with the propulsion system subcontractor, Aerojet Rocketdyne, who Boeing refused to pay for design changes. While it informed NASA of the incident, Boeing attempted to keep
10472-511: The rocket rapidly lost mass, total acceleration including gravity increased to nearly 4 g at T+135 seconds. At this point, the inboard (center) engine was shut down to prevent acceleration from increasing beyond 4 g . When oxidizer or fuel depletion was sensed in the suction assemblies, the remaining four outboard engines were shut down. First stage separation occurred a little less than one second after this to allow for F-1 thrust tail-off. Eight small solid fuel separation motors backed
10591-448: The rocket. Subsequently, a helium leak in the service module further delayed the mission. Another attempt on June 1 was scrubbed due to a ground computer hardware fault. Starliner successfully launched on June 5 at 14:52 UTC (10:52 am EDT). Once in orbit and on approach to the ISS during this flight test, both the automated systems and astronauts taking manual control during the docking sequence were instructed to repeatedly fire
10710-400: The same height and mass and contained the same electrical connections as the actual stages. NASA stacked (assembled) the Saturn V on a Mobile Launcher , which consisted of a Launch Umbilical Tower with nine swing arms (including the crew access arm), a "hammerhead" crane, and a water suppression system which was activated prior to engine ignition during a launch. After assembly was completed,
10829-497: The same objectives as the first, was expected to launch from Cape Canaveral "sometime in October or November 2020". Boeing said that it would fund the unplanned crew capsule test flight "at no cost to the taxpayer". Boeing told investors earlier in 2020 that it was taking a US$ 410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. Boeing officials said on August 25, 2020 that they set
10948-463: The second and third stage. NASA had finalized its plans to proceed with von Braun's Saturn designs, and the Apollo space program gained speed. The stages were designed by von Braun's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, and outside contractors were chosen for the construction: Boeing ( S-IC ), North American Aviation ( S-II ), Douglas Aircraft ( S-IVB ), and IBM ( instrument unit ). Early in
11067-416: The service module are grouped into four "doghouses" equally spaced around the perimeter of the service module, each containing five OMAC thrusters (three aft-facing and two forward-facing ), and seven RCS thrusters: two aft-facing, two forward-facing, and one each in the radial and two tangential directions. The latter three are in a plane which is very close to the spacecraft's center of mass. To translate
11186-513: The shaped explosive charges attached to the outer surfaces of the rocket to detonate. These would make cuts in fuel and oxidizer tanks to disperse the fuel quickly and to minimize mixing. The pause between these two actions would give time for the crew to escape via the Launch Escape Tower or (in the later stages of the flight) the propulsion system of the Service module. A third command, "safe",
11305-507: The spacecraft, thrusters are used in balanced pairs so that the center of force goes through the spacecraft's center of mass. To rotate the spacecraft, thrusters are used in unbalanced pairs so there is no net force and the net torque is centered within the spacecraft. The RCS thrusters are used for rotation (attitude control) and very fine docking maneuvers, while the OMAC thrusters are used for significant orbital adjustments. The RCS thrusters are also used to compensate for slight imbalances in
11424-416: The stage for the first Starliner demonstration mission with astronauts in mid-2021. Boeing modified the design of the Starliner docking system prior to OFT-2 to add a re-entry cover for additional protection during the capsule's fiery descent through the atmosphere. This re-entry cover is hinged, like the SpaceX design. Teams also installed the OFT-2 spacecraft's propellant heater, thermal-protection tiles, and
11543-467: The test a success, and the malfunction of one parachute didn't affect the Starliner development schedule. The malfunction was found to be human error. A pin meant to connect the pilot chute to the main chute was not properly connected. Therefore the pilot chute was not able to successfully deploy the main chute. Pre-flight inspections did not catch this error due to a protective covering. Boeing CST-100 Starliner The Boeing Starliner (or CST-100 )
11662-516: The time of landing. Bigelow Aerospace built the mobile test rig and conducted the tests. In April 2012, Boeing dropped a mock-up of its Starliner over the Nevada desert at the Delamar Dry Lake , Nevada , successfully testing the craft's three main landing parachutes from 11,200 ft (3,400 m). Boeing reported in May 2016 that its test schedule would slip by eight months in order to reduce
11781-455: The top of the LOX tank and bottom of the LH2 tank. It consisted of two aluminum sheets separated by a honeycomb structure made of phenolic resin . This bulkhead had to be able to insulate against the 126 °F (70 °C) temperature difference between the two tanks. The use of a common bulkhead saved 7,900 pounds (3.6 t) by both eliminating one bulkhead and reducing the stage's length. Like
11900-460: The two launch pads). From 1964 until 1973, $ 6.417 billion (equivalent to $ 40.9 billion in 2023) was appropriated for the Research and Development and flights of the Saturn V, with the maximum being in 1966 with $ 1.2 billion (equivalent to $ 8.61 billion in 2023). That same year, NASA received its largest total budget of $ 4.5 billion, about 0.5 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of
12019-439: The two propellants and ensuring that there would be as little propellant as possible left in the tanks at the end of second stage flight. This was done at a predetermined delta-v . Five level sensors in the bottom of each S-II propellant tank were armed during S-II flight, allowing any two to trigger S-II cutoff and staging when they were uncovered. One second after the second stage cut off it separated and several seconds later
12138-422: The upper atmosphere with 1,100,000 pounds-force (4,900 kN) of thrust in a vacuum. When loaded with fuel, more than 90 percent of the mass of the stage was propellant; however, the ultra-lightweight design had led to two failures in structural testing. Instead of having an intertank structure to separate the two fuel tanks as was done in the S-IC, the S-II used a common bulkhead that was constructed from both
12257-610: The vehicle (equivalent to $ 1.18 billion–$ 1.2 billion in 2023). The Saturn V carried all Apollo lunar missions, which were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Florida . After the rocket cleared the launch tower, flight control transferred to Mission Control at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas . An average mission used the rocket for
12376-404: The way for the pad abort test and the subsequent uncrewed and crewed flights. A pad abort test took place on November 4, 2019. The capsule accelerated away from its pad, but then one of the three parachutes failed to deploy, and the capsule landed with only two parachutes. Landing was, however, deemed safe, and the test a success. Boeing did not expect the malfunction of one parachute to affect
12495-422: The way for the pad abort test and the subsequent uncrewed and crewed flights. The pad abort test took place on 4 November 2019. The abort motors fired nominally, followed by a clean service module separation. One of the three parachutes failed to deploy, and the capsule landed with only two parachutes. The airbag cushion helped break the harder-than-expected fall, and the landing was deemed to be safe. NASA declared
12614-471: Was also designed with high mass efficiency, though not quite as aggressively as the S-II. The S-IVB had a dry mass of about 23,000 pounds (10,000 kg) and, when fully fueled, weighed about 262,000 pounds (119,000 kg). The S-IVB was the only rocket stage of the Saturn V small enough to be transported by the cargo plane Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy . For lunar missions it was fired twice: first for Earth orbit insertion after second stage cutoff, and
12733-399: Was also faulted for not pressing Boeing to conduct an end-to-end test. The subsequent NASA–Boeing investigation into the flight made scores of recommendations for Boeing and NASA. Boeing declared these to be proprietary, so the only ones publicly known are the ones that officials deliberately disclosed. In 2020, company officials said they were addressing 80 of the recommendations. Because
12852-566: Was also required to keep the rocket level as it traveled the 3 miles (4.8 km) to the launch site, especially at the 3 percent grade encountered at the launch pad. The CT also carried the Mobile Service Structure (MSS), which allowed technicians access to the rocket until eight hours before launch, when it was moved to the "halfway" point on the Crawlerway (the junction between the VAB and
12971-555: Was built by the Boeing Company at the Michoud Assembly Facility , New Orleans , where the Space Shuttle external tanks would later be built by Lockheed Martin . Most of its mass at launch was propellant: RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer . The stage was 138 feet (42 m) tall and 33 feet (10 m) in diameter. It provided 7,750,000 lbf (34,500 kN) of thrust at sea level. The S-IC stage had
13090-544: Was carried by the Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy and Super Guppy , but could also have been carried by barge if warranted. Upon arrival at the Vertical Assembly Building, each stage was inspected in a horizontal position before being oriented vertically. NASA also constructed large spool-shaped structures that could be used in place of stages if a particular stage was delayed. These spools had
13209-524: Was deemed a partial failure, leading to a second Orbital Flight Test in May 2022. During the Crew Flight Test , launched in June 2024, the Starliner's thrusters malfunctioned on approach to the ISS and NASA concluded that it was too risky to return its astronauts to Earth aboard the spacecraft, which landed uncrewed in September 2024. Starliner costs more per flight than Crew Dragon, drawing criticism from NASA's inspector general and other observers. As
13328-442: Was not able to understand why the thrusters malfunctioned and decided that it was too risky to return its astronauts to Earth aboard Starliner, so it returned uncrewed. Originally planned for 2017, the launch faced numerous delays, including issues with the parachute harness and flammable tape on wiring. These delays pushed the launch back to mid-2024. A launch attempt on May 6, 2024, was scrubbed due to an oxygen valve problem on
13447-516: Was scheduled for August 2019. In May 2019, all major hot-fire testing, including simulations of low-altitude abort-thruster testing, was completed using a full up-to-service module test article that was "flight-like," meaning that the service module test rig used in the hot-fire testing included fuel and helium tanks, reaction control system, orbital maneuvering, and attitude-control thrusters, launch abort engines and all necessary fuel lines and avionics that will be used for crewed missions. This cleared
13566-410: Was scheduled for summer 2019, pending test results from Boe-OFT . It was planned to last 14 days and carry one NASA astronaut and one Boeing test pilot to the ISS. On April 5, 2018, NASA announced that the first planned two-person flight, originally slated for November 2018, was likely to occur in 2019 or 2020. A serious incident occurred during a hot-fire test in June 2018. A design flaw in
13685-400: Was set according to the prevailing winds during the launch month. The four outboard engines also tilted toward the outside so that in the event of a premature outboard engine shutdown the remaining engines would thrust through the rocket's center of mass . The Saturn V reached 400 feet per second (120 m/s) at over 1 mile (1,600 m) in altitude. Much of the early portion of the flight
13804-451: Was spent gaining altitude, with the required velocity coming later. The Saturn V broke the sound barrier at just over 1 minute at an altitude of between 3.45 and 4.6 miles (5.55 and 7.40 km). At this point, shock collars, or condensation clouds, would form around the bottom of the command module and around the top of the second stage. At about 80 seconds, the rocket experienced maximum dynamic pressure (max q). The dynamic pressure on
13923-488: Was tested on the OFT-2 mission. By contrast, the reusable SpaceX Dragon 2 nosecone is hinged and protects its docking port during both launch and reentry. The capsule uses the Boeing Lightweight Ablator for its re-entry heat shield . Solar cells provided by Boeing subsidiary Spectrolab are installed onto the aft face of the service module, providing 2.9 kW of electricity. In addition to
14042-427: Was turned off about 26 seconds earlier than the outboard engines to limit acceleration. During launch, the S-IC fired its engines for 168 seconds (ignition occurred about 8.9 seconds before liftoff) and at engine cutoff, the vehicle was at an altitude of about 42 miles (67 km), was downrange about 58 miles (93 km), and was moving around 7,500 feet per second (2,300 m/s). While not put into production,
14161-453: Was used after the S-IVB stage reached orbit to irreversibly deactivate the self-destruct system. The system was also held inactive as long as the rocket was still on the launch pad. The first stage burned for about 2 minutes and 41 seconds, lifting the rocket to an altitude of 42 miles (68 km) and a speed of 6,164 miles per hour (2,756 m/s) and burning 4,700,000 pounds (2,100,000 kg) of propellant. At 8.9 seconds before launch,
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