211-464: Bhima ( Sanskrit : भीम , IAST : Bhīma ), also known as Bhimasena ( Sanskrit : भीमसेन , IAST : Bhīmasena ), is a divine hero and one of the most prominent figures in the Hindu epic Mahabharata , renowned for his incredible strength, fierce loyalty, and key role in the epic's narrative. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti —the wife of King Pandu —through
422-524: A "doctrine of liberation" taught by Hinduism, while Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) stated that the Bhagavad Gita teaches a universalist religion and the "essence of Hinduism" along with the "essence of all religions", rather than a private religion. Vivekananda 's (1863–1902) works contained numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja. Through
633-415: A celestial bow named Vayavya, gifted to him by his divine father, Vayu, and also possessed the massive conch named Paundra. Additionally, he wielded a colossal mace, said to have the strength of a hundred thousand maces, which had been presented to him by Mayasura . Before hostilities broke out, Krishna sought a final compromise to avoid war. During these peace talks, Bhima expressed his opinion that peace
844-457: A couplet, thus the entire text consists of 1,400 lines. Each shloka has two-quarter verses with exactly eight syllables. Each of these quarters is further arranged into two metrical feet of four syllables each. The metered verse does not rhyme. While the shloka is the principal meter in the Gita, it does deploy other elements of Sanskrit prosody (which refers to one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic statues). At dramatic moments, it uses
1055-524: A dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead." Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita ( / ˈ b ʌ ɡ ə v ə d ˈ ɡ iː t ɑː / ; Sanskrit : भगवद्गीता, IPA: [ˌbʱɐɡɐʋɐd ˈɡiːtɑː] , romanized : bhagavad-gītā , lit. 'god's Song'), often referred to as
1266-607: A desire to kill him for his transgression. However, Yudhishthira intervened, advocating for a less violent resolution. Consequently, Bhima and his brothers humiliated Jayadratha by shaving his head, leaving him with a mark of disgrace before releasing him. During their time in the forest, the Pandavas also encountered various sages and divine beings, from whom they received blessings and spiritual knowledge. These interactions not only provided them with guidance but also augmented their abilities to face future challenges. One significant episode
1477-406: A different state, Jimuta proved to be invincible. Much to the delight of King Virata and his subjects, Bhima challenged Jimuta and knocked him out in no time. This greatly enhanced the reputation of the Pandavas in unfamiliar territory. A significant incident during this period was Bhima's encounter with Kichaka, the brother-in-law of King Virata. Kichaka developed an infatuation with Draupadi, who
1688-447: A display of combat skill, Bhima threw Dronacharya off his chariot eight times (Chapter 128, Verse 18). Bhima engaged Karna in battle and succeeded in defeating him (Chapter 122). In a separate battle, Bhima killed Dussala, another warrior (Chapter 129). He later faced Karna once again (Chapter 131). In subsequent engagements, Bhima killed Durjaya (Chapter 133, Verse 13) and Durmukha (Chapter 134, Verse 20). He continued his campaign against
1899-494: A few parts can be put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain dating of the Mahabharata . The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved. According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita suggests that it was composed in an era when the ethics of war were being questioned and renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular. Such an era emerged after
2110-433: A focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship; for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna (~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had
2321-797: A formidable army.". In the Mahabharata , Bhima is referred to by several synonyms, including: Bhima is a significant character in the Mahabharata , one of the Sanskrit epics from the Indian subcontinent . It mainly narrates the events and aftermath of the Kurukshetra War , a war of succession between two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas . The work is written in Classical Sanskrit and
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#17328486627702532-486: A harmony" between these three paths. It does this in a framework addressing the question of what constitutes the virtuous path that is necessary for spiritual liberation or release from the cycles of rebirth ( moksha ), incorporating various religious traditions, including philosophical ideas from the Upanishads samkhya yoga philosophy , and bhakti , incorporating bhakti into Vedanta . As such, it neutralizes
2743-581: A language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages ( prākṛta - ). The term prakrta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin Southworth . The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to
2954-643: A limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit
3165-413: A moment of distress, Bhima consoled Yudhishthira , who was facing a crisis of confidence (Chapter 126, Verse 32). Bhima confronted Drona again and was able to defeat him (Chapter 127, Verse 42). Following this battle, he killed a group of warriors, including Kundabhedi, Sushena, Dirghalochana, Vrindaraka, Abhaya, Raudrakarma, Durvimocana, Vinda, Anuvinda, Suvarma, and Sudarshana (Chapter 127, Verse 60). In
3376-454: A natural part of the earliest Vedic language, and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters. The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other. This
3587-479: A negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder, On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be
3798-546: A pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given
4009-420: A princess could choose her husband from among assembled suitors. During their hiding, they heard of it and went to Panchala to attend it in disguise. During the svayamvara, numerous princes and warriors failed to fulfil the challenge set by King Drupada. However, Arjuna, disguised as a Brahmin , succeeded in the archery challenge, winning Draupadi's hand. The Pandavas, who were in exile and disguised as Brahmins at
4220-573: A refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars, the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of Pāṇini . The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, Kālidāsa , wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit. The two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and
4431-534: A restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded". The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond
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#17328486627704642-486: A significant role in the events leading up to the war and was a key combatant throughout the eighteen days of conflict, which are documented in four books of the Mahabharata- Bhisma Parva , Drona Parva , Karna Parva and Shalya Parva . Before the war commenced, discussions were held among the Pandavas and their allies regarding the strategy and leadership of the army. Bhima suggested that Shikhandi , who had
4853-439: A similar phonetic structure to Tamil. Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit. Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from
5064-567: A son, Ghatotkacha , a powerful warrior who would later play a significant role in the Kurukshetra War. Despite his immense physical strength, Bhima was deeply loyal and protective towards his family, particularly towards Draupadi , the common wife of the Pandavas. When Draupadi was humiliated in the Kaurava court, Bhima swore vengeance. He vowed to drink Dushasana 's blood and smash Duryodhana's thigh, and years later, he fulfilled these vows during
5275-484: A strong sense of justice and duty, which guided his actions throughout the epic. After the war, Bhima aided his brother Yudhishthira in ruling the kingdom and stood by his brother when he later renounced the throne. Bhima accompanied Yudhishthira and the other Pandavas on their final journey to the Himalayas , where he eventually succumbed to his flaw of gluttony . His character endures in Indian and Javanese cultures as
5486-465: A symbol of immense power, righteous anger, and unwavering loyalty. The word Bhīma in Sanskrit means "terrifying," "formidable," or "fearsome," describing someone who inspires awe or fear through their sheer strength or power. In the Mahabharata , Bhima is renowned for his vast size, immense physical strength and fierce nature. The suffix sena is often appended to his name, forming Bhīmasena , which can be literally interpreted as "one who possesses
5697-501: A warrior. Krishna persuades him to commence in battle, arguing that while following one's dharma, one should not consider oneself to be the agent of action, but attribute all of one's actions to God ( bhakti ). The Gita posits the existence of an individual self ( jivatman ) and the higher Godself (Krishna, Atman/Brahman) in every being; the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue has been interpreted as a metaphor for an everlasting dialogue between
5908-482: A worthy adversary in combat. Both Bhima and Jarasandha were renowned wrestlers, and their duel extended over several days, with neither willing to concede. Despite gaining the upper hand, Bhima found himself unable to kill Jarasandha. Seeking guidance, Bhima looked toward Krishna, who symbolically picked up a twig, split it into two halves, and threw the pieces in opposite directions. Bhima, interpreting this gesture, followed suit by bisecting Jarasandha's body and scattering
6119-494: Is "intrinsically superior or inferior", rather they "converge in one and lead to the same goal". The Bhagavad Gita contains 18 chapters and 700 verses found in the Bhishma Parva of the epic Mahabharata. Because of differences in recensions , the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25–42 or as chapters 6.23–40. The number of verses in each chapter vary in some manuscripts of
6330-692: Is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages . It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late Bronze Age . Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism , the language of classical Hindu philosophy , and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism . It was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in
6541-619: Is a Brahmanical text that uses Shramanic and Yogic terminology to propagate the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or dharma , in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma. According to Hiltebeitel, the Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of the consolidation of Hinduism, merging Bhakti traditions with Mimamsa , Vedanta , and other knowledge based traditions. The Gita discusses and synthesizes sramana- and yoga-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism, attempting "to forge
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6752-465: Is a composite work of revisions, editing and interpolations over many centuries. The oldest parts in the surviving version of the text may date to near 400 BCE. The Mahabharata manuscripts exist in numerous versions, wherein the specifics and details of major characters and episodes vary, often significantly. Except for the sections containing the Bhagavad Gita which is remarkably consistent between
6963-460: Is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent , particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent. Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand
7174-596: Is also the traditional compiler of the Vedas and the Puranas , texts dated to be from different millennia. According to Alexus McLeod, a scholar of Philosophy and Asian Studies, it is "impossible to link the Bhagavad Gita to a single author", and it may be the work of many authors. This view is shared by the Indologist Arthur Basham , who states that there were three or more authors or compilers of Bhagavad Gita. This
7385-429: Is distressed and in sorrow. The issue is stated Arvind Sharma , "Is it morally proper to kill?" This and other moral dilemmas in the first chapter are set in a context where the Hindu epic and Krishna have already extolled ahimsa (non-violence) to be the highest and divine virtue of a human being. The war feels evil to Arjuna and he questions the morality of war. He wonders if it is noble to renounce and leave before
7596-399: Is evidenced by the discontinuous intermixing of philosophical verses with theistic or passionately theistic verses, according to Basham. J. A. B. van Buitenen , an Indologist known for his translations and scholarship on Mahabharata , finds that the Gita is so contextually and philosophically well-knit within the Mahabharata that it was not an independent text that "somehow wandered into
7807-508: Is found in the sixth book of the Mahabharata manuscripts – the Bhisma-parvan . Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is 6.3.23 to 6.3.40. The Bhagavad Gita is often preserved and studied on its own, as an independent text with its chapters renumbered from 1 to 18. The Bhagavad Gita manuscripts exist in numerous Indic scripts. These include writing systems that are currently in use, as well as early scripts such as
8018-452: Is found in the writing of Bharata Muni , the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar". Sanskrit belongs to
8229-461: Is increasingly recognized by scholars that the extraordinary prominence of the Bhagavad Gita is a feature of modernity despite disagreement over the date at which it became dominant." According to Eric Sharpe, this change started in the 1880s, and became prominent after 1900. According to Arvind Sharma, the Bhagavad Gita was always an important scripture but became prominent in the 1920s. With its translation and study by Western scholars beginning in
8440-420: Is modern, advocated by Swami Vivekananda from the 1890s in his books on Jnana Yoga , Karma Yoga , Bhakti Yoga and Raja Yoga , emphasizing Raja Yoga as the crowning achievement of yoga. Vivekananda, who was strongly inspired by the Gita, viewed all spiritual paths as equal. Yet, Vivekananda also noted that "The reconciliation of the different paths of Dharma, and work without desire or attachment — these are
8651-418: Is not distorted. While Hinduism is known for its diversity and the synthesis derived from it, the Bhagavad Gita holds a unique pan-Hindu influence. Gerald James Larson – an Indologist and scholar of classical Hindu philosophy , states that "if there is any one text that comes near to embodying the totality of what it is to be a Hindu , it would be the Bhagavad Gita." Yet, according to Robinson, "it
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8862-631: Is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita or Shrimad Bhagavadgita (श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता or भगवद्गीता) where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high degree of respect. The Bhagavad Gita is not to be confused with the Bhagavata Puran , which is one of the eighteen major Puranas dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu . The work is also known as the Iswara Gita ,
9073-469: Is opened by setting the stage of the Kurukshetra battlefield. Two massive armies representing different loyalties and ideologies face a catastrophic war. With Arjuna is Krishna, not as a participant in the war, but only as his charioteer and counsel. Arjuna requests Krishna to move the chariot between the two armies so he can see those "eager for this war". He sees family and friends on the enemy side. Arjuna
9284-463: Is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different. The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in
9495-422: Is supported by a few versions of chapter 6.43 of the Mahabharata . According to Gita exegesis scholar Robert Minor, these versions state that the Gita is a text where "Kesava [Krishna] spoke 574 slokas, Arjuna 84, Sanjaya 41, and Dhritarashtra 1". An authentic manuscript of the Gita with 745 verses has not been found. Adi Shankara, in his 8th-century commentary, explicitly states that the Gita has 700 verses, which
9706-479: Is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases. The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Yet,
9917-580: Is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh) . Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. The structure and capabilities of
10128-526: The Bhagavata Purana , the Panchatantra and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside
10339-557: The Ananta Gita , the Hari Gita , the Vyasa Gita , or the Gita. The text is generally dated to the second or first century BCE, though some scholars accept dates as early as the 5th century BCE. According to Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the Mahabharata , or a text that
10550-568: The Dalai Lama , the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet. The Sanskrit language created
10761-627: The Ganges River while unconscious. However, this plan inadvertently led to Bhima's encounter with the Nagas (divine serpents) in their underwater realm. As Bhima descended into the river's depths, he reached the Naga realm, where the serpents bit him. Their venom neutralised the poison in his body, effectively reviving him. In this realm, Bhima met Aryaka, a Naga chieftain and his maternal relative. Recognising Bhima's divine heritage, Aryaka introduced him to Vasuki ,
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#173284866277010972-514: The Gita ( IAST : gītā ), is a Hindu scripture , dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Epic Mahabharata . It is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought, including the Vedic concept of dharma (duty, rightful action); samkhya -based yoga and jnana (insight, knowledge); and bhakti (devotion). It holds a unique pan-Hindu influence as
11183-613: The Indo-European family of languages . It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-European : Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin ( c. 600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages ), Gothic (archaic Germanic language , c. 350 CE ), Old Norse ( c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan ( c. late 2nd millennium BCE ) and Younger Avestan ( c. 900 BCE). The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in
11394-669: The Kiratas near the Indra mountain, as well as the Submas and Prasuhmas. On his way to Magadha , he subdued the kings Danda and Dandadhara. Jarasandha , ruler of the Magadha empire and an enemy of the Pandavas' main ally Krishna , posed a significant obstacle to Yudhishthira when the latter sought to perform the Rajasuya Yajna. As a formidable and powerful warrior, his elimination was deemed essential for
11605-481: The Kurukshetra War , Bhima confronted Duryodhana in a direct duel. The clash between the two warriors set the stage for the fierce rivalry that would continue throughout the battle (Chapter 45, Verse 19). During this early phase, Bhima's war cry was described as so powerful that it caused the world to shudder (Chapter 44, Verse 8). Bhima then engaged in combat with the forces of the Kalingas . In this engagement, he killed
11816-448: The Mahabharata , and therefore the Gita, must have been well known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it. This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date) of the Gita be sometime before the 1st century CE. He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra texts, the Brahma sutras , and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth-century BCE. In
12027-744: The Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha 's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages. The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to Pāṇini , along with Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work. Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became
12238-532: The Rigveda , a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across northern Pakistan and into northwestern India. Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the ancient Dravidian languages influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax. Sanskrit can also more narrowly refer to Classical Sanskrit ,
12449-526: The Rāmāyaṇa , however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit. In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language. The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to
12660-472: The Upanishads and samkhya yoga philosophy . While praising the benefits of yoga to release man's inner essence from the bounds of desire and the wheel of rebirth , the Gita propagates the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or dharma , in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma . Facing the perils of war, Arjuna hesitates to perform his duty ( dharma ) as
12871-406: The sandhi rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature. Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of
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#173284866277013082-457: The tristubh meter found in the Vedas, where each line of the couplet has two-quarter verses with exactly eleven syllables. The Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna right before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra War in the Hindu epic Mahabharata . Two massive armies have gathered to destroy each other. The Pandava prince Arjuna asks his charioteer Krishna to drive to the centre of
13293-500: The verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta - ('made, formed, work'). It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred". According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined
13504-414: The 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared, perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock. The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century. As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and
13715-460: The 2nd or 3rd century CE. Kashi Nath Upadhyaya dates it a bit earlier, but after the rise of Buddhism, by which it was influenced. He states that the Gita was always a part of the Mahabharata , and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita. based on the estimated dates of Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c. 100 CE), Upadhyaya states that
13926-521: The 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia, parts of the East Asia and the Central Asia. It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to
14137-411: The Bhagavad Gita as containing the essence of Hinduism and taking the Gita's emphasis on duty and action as a clue for their activism for Indian nationalism and independence. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–1894) challenged orientalist literature on Hinduism and offered his interpretations of the Gita, states Ajit Ray. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) interpreted the karma yoga teachings in Gita as
14348-425: The Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language? They speculated on
14559-521: The Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence". Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with
14770-513: The Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language. Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of
14981-421: The Gita discovered on the Indian subcontinent. However, variant readings are relatively few in contrast to the numerous versions of the Mahabharata it is found embedded in. The original Bhagavad Gita has no chapter titles. Some Sanskrit editions that separate the Gita from the epic as an independent text, as well as translators, however, add chapter titles. For example, Swami Chidbhavananda describes each of
15192-410: The Gita is set in the context of a wartime epic, the narrative is structured to apply to all situations; it wrestles with questions about "who we are, how we should live our lives, and how should we act in the world". According to Huston Smith, it delves into questions about the "purpose of life, crisis of self-identity, human Self, human temperaments, and ways for the spiritual quest". The Gita posits
15403-496: The Gita rejects the shramanic path of non-action, emphasizing instead "the renunciation of the fruits of action". According to Gavin Flood, the teachings in the Gita differ from other Indian religions that encouraged extreme austerity and self-torture of various forms ( karsayanta ). The Gita disapproves of these, stating that not only is it against tradition but against Krishna himself, because "Krishna dwells within all beings, in torturing
15614-501: The Indian tradition, the Bhagavad Gita, as well as the epic Mahabharata of which it is a part, is attributed to the sage Vyasa , whose full name was Krishna Dvaipayana, also called Veda-Vyasa. Another Hindu legend states that Vyasa narrated it when the lord Ganesha broke one of his tusks and wrote down the Mahabharata along with the Bhagavad Gita. Scholars consider Vyasa to be a mythical or symbolic author, in part because Vyasa
15825-469: The Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit . The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda , a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that
16036-507: The Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both are Iranian languages . Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages. Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of
16247-602: The Kalinga prince Shakradeva (Chapter 54, Verse 24). Continuing his assault on the Kalinga army, Bhima also killed another key warrior, Bhanuman (Chapter 54, Verse 39). In the same battle, Bhima targeted the chariot of King Shrutayus, slaying warriors named Satyadeva and Shalya (distinct from another warrior also named Shalya ), who were guarding the chariot wheels (Chapter 54, Verse 76). Following these encounters, Bhima proceeded to kill Ketuman (Chapter 54, Verse 77). In addition to fighting individual warriors, Bhima turned his attention to
16458-456: The Kaurava army in a single battle (Chapter 113). Dhritarashtra , the Kaurava patriarch, acknowledged Bhima's prowess in the Drona Parva (Chapter 10). Bhima fought with Vivinsati in a combat engagement (Chapter 14, Verse 27). He then entered into a club fight with Shalya , defeating him (Chapter 15, Verse 8). Following this, Bhima fought with Durmarshana (Chapter 25, Verse 5). In this phase of
16669-650: The Kaurava army, in combat on multiple occasions (Chapter 63, Verse 1). This battle was marked by intensity, with Bhima attempting to overpower Bhishma, though Bhishma remained undefeated. Bhima then targeted the Kaurava brothers in a specific engagement, where he killed eight sons of Dhritarashtra . The names of those killed in this battle were Senapati, Jarasandha, Sushena, Ugra, Virabahu, Bhima, Bhimaratha, and Sulocana (Chapter 64, Verse 32). In another subsequent battle, Bhima fought against Bhishma once more (Chapter 72, Verse 21). He continued to engage Duryodhana, defeating him again in another encounter (Chapter 79, Verse 11). In
16880-475: The Kaurava brothers, killing Durmarshana, Dussaha, Durmada, Durdhara, and Jaya (Chapter 135, Verse 30). Bhima fought Karna repeatedly, destroying many of his bows during their encounters (Chapter 139, Verse 19). In an aggressive maneuver, Bhima attempted to capture Karna by jumping into his chariot (Chapter 139, Verse 74). However, during this engagement, Karna struck Bhima with such force that Bhima fell unconscious (Chapter 139, Verse 91). Subsequently, Bhima killed
17091-411: The Kaurava elephant division. He decimated the division, causing a significant number of casualties and resulting in what was described as rivers of blood flowing on the battlefield (Chapter 54, Verse 103). Later in the war, Bhima once again faced Duryodhana in combat. In this confrontation, he successfully defeated Duryodhana (Chapter 58, Verse 16). Bhima also engaged Bhishma , the commander-in-chief of
17302-533: The Kauravas and Trigartas raided the Matsya kingdom's cattle in an attempt to expose the Pandavas. Bhima, along with his brothers, defended the kingdom, ensuring that their true identities remained hidden until the incognito period concluded. Following the Pandavas' return from their exile, the Kauravas refused to restore their share of the kingdom. This refusal led to the inevitability of the Kurukshetra War . Bhima played
17513-400: The Kurukshetra War. Bhima's fierce devotion to Draupadi was also evident when he killed Kichaka , who had molested her during the Pandavas' year in disguise at the court of King Virata . A master of mace combat , Bhima was considered one of the strongest warriors of his time, with his strength often compared to that of thousands of elephants. Yet, despite his brute force, Bhima also embodied
17724-521: The Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the Mughal Empire . Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression. With the fall of Kashmir around
17935-489: The Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire , reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support
18146-412: The Pandavas intervened and freed Duryodhana from captivity. Although reluctant to assist their adversary, the Pandavas acted in accordance with their dharma, thereby upholding their principles. In another minor incident in the epic, Jatasura , a rakshasa disguised as a Brahmin abducted Yudhishthira, Draupadi and the twin brothers, Nakula, and Sahadeva during their stay at Badarikashrama . His objective
18357-469: The Pandavas rested under a tree, Hidimba, who desired to consume them, dispatched his sister Hidimbi to lure them. However, upon encountering Bhima, Hidimbi was struck by his physical appearance and power, and she proposed marriage to him. When Hidimba discovered her intentions, he became enraged and attacked Bhima. Bhima engaged in combat with Hidimba and, after a fierce battle, killed him. Moved by Hidimbi's plight, Kunti consented to Bhima's marriage to her, on
18568-411: The Pandavas' success. To address this challenge, Krishna, Bhima, and Arjuna, disguised as Brahmins, traveled to Magadha to confront Jarasandha. Upon meeting him, Jarasandha inquired about their true intentions, at which point the trio revealed their identities. Krishna then issued a challenge to Jarasandha for a duel, offering him the choice of any one opponent. Jarasandha selected Bhima, recognizing him as
18779-404: The Pandavas, along with Kunti, to Varanavata, where they were placed in a palace made of lac, known as Lakshagraha , with the intention of burning them alive. However, the Pandavas, forewarned by their uncle Vidura , managed to escape through a secret tunnel they had prepared, marking the beginning of their period of concealment to avoid further problems from the Kauravas. After their escape from
18990-421: The Pandavas. Ghatotkacha carried the Pandavas on his shoulders, allowing them to continue their journey with greater ease. Their journey eventually led them to the ashrama of Nara and Narayana . While resting there, Bhima noticed a fragrant Saugandhika flower, which had been carried to Draupadi by the northeast wind. Draupadi expressed her desire to possess more of these flowers. To fulfil her wish, Bhima set out in
19201-692: The Saugandhika forest. Following this encounter, Bhima ventured into the forest, overcame the Rakshasas known as Krodhavasas guarding it, and successfully collected the flowers, which he later presented to Draupadi. Another notable event during the Pandavas' exile involved the abduction attempt by Jayadratha , the king of Sindhu . While the Pandavas were away hunting, Jayadratha encountered Draupadi alone and abducted her. On learning of this, Bhima, along with his brothers, pursued and confronted Jayadratha. Bhima overpowered Jayadratha's forces, captured him, and expressed
19412-488: The Saṃskṛta language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World , Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of cognate forms (with the addition of Old English for further comparison): The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of
19623-503: The Self in the Self By the Self through meditation; Others by the discipline of Sankhya And still others by the yoga of action. [25] Yet others, not knowing this, Worship, having heard it from others, And they also cross beyond death, Devoted to what they have heard. Bhagavad Gita, chapter XIII, verse 23-25 While the Upanishads refer to yoga as yoking or restraining the mind,
19834-672: The Somadheyas. His campaign in the north included the conquest of Vatsabhumi, Bhargas, Nishadas , and Manimat, along with Southern Mallas and the Bhagauanta mountains. Diplomatically, Bhima subdued the Sarmakas and Varmakas, while in Videha , he easily brought King Janaka under his control. He also conquered the Sakas and various barbarian tribes. His military prowess continued with the defeat of seven kings of
20045-616: The South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire , so did Sanskrit. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar . Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with
20256-447: The Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into
20467-468: The Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit. This suggests that the text was composed after the Pāṇini era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to
20678-451: The Vedic Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language. The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature, are negligible when compared to
20889-539: The ability to challenge Bhishma due to Bhishma's oath not to fight against a woman or someone perceived as a woman, should lead the Pandava forces. However, Yudhishthira and Arjuna decided to appoint Dhrishtadyumna as the commander-in-chief. Bhima's chariot was driven by his charioteer, Vishoka, and bore a flag with a gigantic lion in silver, its eyes made of lapis lazuli . His chariot was yoked to horses described as being as black as bears or black antelopes. Bhima wielded
21100-455: The alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called Saṃskṛta . From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound
21311-516: The attempt to disrobe her in the assembly hall, provoked Bhima's fury. Bhima was the only one from the Pandavas' side to protest against the wrongdoing, with Vidura and Vikarna raising objections from the Kauravas' side. Unable to act due to his bondage through the game, Bhima became extremely upset with Yudhishthira and asked Sahadeva to bring fire so that he could "burn Yudhishthira's hands." When Arjuna pacified, Bhima responded by stating that when elders committed mistakes, verbally insulting them
21522-438: The battlefield so that he can get a good look at both the armies and all those "so eager for war". He sees that some among his enemies are his relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers. He does not want to fight to kill them and is thus filled with doubt and despair on the battlefield. He drops his bow, wonders if he should renounce and just leave the battlefield. He turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice on
21733-421: The blessings of Vayu , the wind god, which bestowed upon him superhuman strength from birth. His rivalry with the Kauravas , especially Duryodhana , defined much of his life, with this tension ultimately erupting in the Kurukshetra War , where Bhima killed all hundred Kaurava brothers. Bhima's life was filled with extraordinary episodes that showcased his unmatched strength and bravery. From childhood, where he
21944-438: The body the ascetic would be torturing him", states Flood. Even a monk should strive for "inner renunciation" rather than external pretensions. It further states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation" or "motiveless action". One must do the right thing because one has determined that it is right, states Gita, without craving for its fruits, without worrying about
22155-578: The burning Lakshagraha, the Pandavas, accompanied by their mother Kunti, traversed the forest to avoid further threats from the Kauravas. During their journey, Kunti and her sons, except Bhima, were overcome with fatigue. Demonstrating his exceptional strength, Bhima carried his mother and brothers on his shoulders through the forest. Their journey led them to the Kamyaka forest, inhabited by the Rakshasa (here, man-eating race) Hidimba and his sister Hidimbi . While
22366-440: The capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi . A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language. However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era
22577-436: The capital of Kuru . During his childhood, Bhima's strength was frequently displayed, often to the dismay of the Kauravas, particularly Duryodhana . Bhima's physical prowess frequently led to his victories in their childhood games, resulting in animosity and jealousy among the Kauravas. This enmity culminated in a plot by Duryodhana, who conspired to eliminate Bhima. In one such plot, Bhima was given poisoned food and thrown into
22788-517: The close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages , vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages , and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on
22999-628: The condition that he would rejoin his family after some time. Bhima and Hidimbi had a son, Ghatotkacha , who later became a significant ally of the Pandavas. Following this episode, the Pandavas proceeded to the village of Ekachakra, where they lived incognito. During their stay, Bhima encountered and killed the Rakshasa Baka , who had been terrorising the villagers by eating them one by one. The Mahabhrata mentions three wives of Bhima- Hidimbi , Draupadi and Valandhara , with whom he had one son each. Bhima's first wife, Hidimbi , also known as Hidimbā,
23210-664: The conquest of Ayodhya , where he defeated King Dirghayaghna. His victories extended to Northern Kosalas, Gopalakaksha, and the Mallas . As he approached the foothills of the Himalayas, he subjugated Bhallata and the Suktimanta mountains. Bhima's next set of conquests involved the kingdom of Kasi , where he vanquished King Suvahu, followed by the defeat of King Kratha of Suparsa. He continued to subdue regions like Matsya , Maladas, and Pasubhumi, before moving on to conquer Madahara, Mahidara, and
23421-609: The context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana . Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ( Prakrits ) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these Apabhramsa , literally 'spoiled'. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo-European languages but which are found in
23632-585: The counsel of his maternal uncle Shakuni , invited Yudhishthira to a game of dice . Despite his misgivings, Yudhishthira accepted the challenge, driven by the codes of Kshatriya honour and hospitality. The game of dice was a turning point in the epic. Shakuni, who played on behalf of Duryodhana, used deceitful means to ensure Yudhishthira's defeat. As the game progressed, Yudhishthira lost his kingdom, wealth, and even his brothers, including Bhima, one by one. Eventually, he wagered Draupadi and lost her as well. The Kauravas' subsequent treatment of Draupadi, especially
23843-421: The course of the war, Bhima defeated Kritavarma (Chapter 82, Verse 60). Later, in his engagement with Bhishma, Bhima killed Bhishma's charioteer (Chapter 88, Verse 12). Following this, Bhima killed eight more sons of Dhritarashtra in another fierce confrontation (Chapter 88, Verse 13). Bhima's clashes also included a direct engagement with Dronacharya . In this battle, Bhima struck Dronacharya with such force that
24054-639: The crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit. Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting
24265-467: The detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as Lipi ('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī . The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and
24476-467: The differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir. The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in
24687-456: The distant major ancient languages of the world. The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region , during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes
24898-604: The early 18th century, the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity in the West . Novel interpretations of the Gita, along with apologetics on it, have been a part of the modern era revisionism and renewal movements within Hinduism. According to Ronald Neufeldt, it was the Theosophical Society that dedicated much attention and energy to the allegorical interpretation of the Gita, along with religious texts from around
25109-483: The early medieval era, it became a language of religion and high culture , and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies. Sanskrit generally connotes several Old Indo-Aryan language varieties. The most archaic of these is the Vedic Sanskrit found in
25320-547: The eighteen chapters as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind". He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection". Sir Edwin Arnold titled this chapter in his 1885 translation as "The Distress of Arjuna". The chapters are: Translators have variously titled the first chapter as Arjuna Vishada-yoga , Prathama Adhyaya , The Distress of Arjuna , The War Within , or Arjuna's Sorrow . The Bhagavad Gita
25531-411: The ensuing altercation with Shishupala, a vocal critic of Krishna and an antagonist to the Pandavas. Later, Duryodhana fell into a water pool, Bhima, along with the twins, laughed at him. The splendour of Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yajna and the prosperity of the Pandavas caused intense jealousy among the Kauravas, particularly Duryodhana . Seeking to usurp the Pandavas' power and wealth, Duryodhana, with
25742-474: The epic". The Gita, states van Buitenen, was conceived and developed by the Mahabharata authors to "bring to a climax and solution the dharmic dilemma of a war". According to Dennis Hudson, there is an overlap between Vedic and Tantric rituals within the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita. He places the Pancaratra Agama in the last three or four centuries of 1st-millennium BCE, and proposes that both
25953-575: The ever-present threat of the Kauravas during their exile. On one occasion, the Kauravas, led by Duryodhana, encamped near the Pandavas' dwelling in Dvaitavana . During this encampment, Duryodhana and his forces clashed with the Gandharva Chitrasena . Duryodhana was captured by the Gandharvas, and upon hearing this, Bhima expressed amusement at his plight. However, at Yudhishthira's behest, Bhima and
26164-457: The existence of two selves in an individual, and its presentation of the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue has been interpreted as a metaphor for an eternal dialogue between the two. The Bhagavad Gita is a synthesis of Vedic and non-Vedic traditions, reconciling renunciation with action by arguing that they are inseparable; while following one's dharma, one should not consider oneself to be the agent of action, but attribute all one's actions to God. It
26375-543: The first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to
26586-412: The foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga . The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world". Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as
26797-466: The genitals) and commanded Draupadi to sit on his lap. Bhima also swore to avenge Draupadi's humiliation by drinking the blood of Dushasana , who had forcibly dragged her by her hair and attempted to disrobe her in the Kauravas' assembly. During their twelve-year exile in the forest following their loss in the game of dice, the Pandavas encountered numerous adversities and engaged in various significant events. Bhima, with his immense strength and courage,
27008-537: The gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature. O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names they first set forth the beginning of Language, Their most excellent and spotless secret was laid bare through love, When the wise ones formed Language with their mind, purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan, Then friends knew friendships – an auspicious mark placed on their language. — Rigveda 10.71.1–4 Translated by Roger Woodard The Vedic Sanskrit found in
27219-510: The halves apart, preventing them from reuniting. As a result, Jarasandha was killed. Jarasandha had previously imprisoned 100 kings, preparing them for sacrifice as part of his enmity with Krishna. His death at Bhima's hands liberated these kings, who, in gratitude, pledged their allegiance to Yudhishthira, acknowledging him as the Chakravarti, or universal ruler. Afterwards, Bhima then conquered Anga after defeating it king Karna . He later slew
27430-431: The historic Sanskrit literary culture and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment. Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead ". After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with
27641-478: The intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as
27852-422: The king of Aswamedha, subjugating the entire eastern region. He then marched into Pulinda , bringing the kings Sukumara and Sumitra under his sway. Bhima's encounter with Shishupala , the king of Chedi , was peaceful, as Sisupala welcomed him and offered his kingdom. Bhima stayed for thirty nights before continuing his campaign, subjugating King Srenimat of Kumara and Vrihadvala, the king of Kosala , followed by
28063-491: The king of the Nagas. Impressed by Bhima's lineage and potential, Vasuki offered him a divine elixir. Bhima consumed eight pots of this elixir, thereby acquiring the strength of a thousand elephants. He spent eight days in the Naga realm to fully assimilate this power. On the ninth day, the Nagas, honouring his newfound strength, returned Bhima to Hastinapura, where he rejoined his family. In Hastinapura, Bhima, along with his brothers,
28274-464: The kingdom of Matsya, ruled by King Virata, and assumed various disguises. Bhima took on the role of Vallabha, a cook, and wrestler in King Virata's palace. Within themselves, Pandavas called him Jayanta. His primary duties involved working in the royal kitchens, though his position as a wrestler occasionally necessitated the display of his physical prowess. There was a wrestling bout where a wrestler from
28485-432: The largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press. — Foreword of Sanskrit Computational Linguistics (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni and Peter Scharf Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, music, drama , scientific , technical and others. It
28696-412: The linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language. Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced. Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and
28907-451: The literary works. The Indian tradition, states Winternitz , has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the Ramayana , the Mahabharata ,
29118-581: The manuscripts. The most accepted version is one prepared by scholars led by Vishnu Sukthankar at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , preserved at Kyoto University , Cambridge University and various Indian universities. Bhima also appears in few of the later written Puranic scriptures , most prominent being the Krishna-related Bhagavata Purana . Bhima was the second of the five Pandava brothers,
29329-498: The meaning of Vishnu to be the 'pervading actor'. In the Bhagavad Gita, similarly, ' Krishna identified himself both with Vāsudeva , Vishnu and their meanings'. The ideas at the centre of Vedic rituals in Shatapatha Brahmana and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita revolve around this absolute Person, the primordial genderless absolute, which is the same as the goal of Pancaratra Agama and Tantra. The Bhagavad Gita manuscript
29540-539: The message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to reclaim their dormant but strong identity. Aurobindo (1872–1950) saw the Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion" and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita. [23] He who in this way knows the Spirit And material nature, along with the qualities [guna], In whatever stage of transmigration he may exist, Is not born again. [24] Some perceive
29751-461: The mightiest warrior. A notable incident in his infancy underscored his extraordinary strength: when he accidentally fell from his mother's lap onto a rock, the rock shattered into pieces while Bhima remained unscathed. This event served as an early indication of his formidable abilities. After Pandu's demise in the forest, the Pandavas were raised alongside their cousins, Kauravas , in Hastinapura ,
29962-564: The mighty king of Madagiri. He further vanquished powerful rulers such as Vasudeva of Pundra , Mahaujah of Kausika-kachchha, and the king of Vanga . Additional conquests included Samudrasena, Chandrasena, and Tamralipta, as well as the kings of Karvatas and Suhmas. Finally, Bhima subdued the Mlechchha tribes along the sea coast and in marshy regions, gathering vast amounts of wealth from the Lohity region before returning to Indraprastha, where he offered
30173-501: The modern age include the Samaveda , Yajurveda , Atharvaveda , along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and the early Upanishads . These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of
30384-429: The more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah . Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of Greater India
30595-401: The most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century. Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created
30806-593: The most archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the Gathas of old Avestan and Iliad of Homer . As the Rigveda was orally transmitted by methods of memorisation of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity, as a single text without variant readings, its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European . Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around
31017-601: The most prominent sacred text and is a central text in Vedanta and the Vaishnava Hindu tradition. While traditionally attributed to the sage Veda Vyasa , the Gita is probably a composite work composed by multiple authors. It is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna , an avatar of Vishnu , at the onset of the Kurukshetra War , incorporating teachings from
31228-505: The northeast direction toward the Saugandhika forest. This journey brought Bhima to Kadalivana, where he encountered Hanuman , his half-brother, as both were sons of the wind god, Vayu . Initially, Hanuman tested Bhima's strength and humility by blocking his path with his tail. Despite Bhima's efforts, he was unable to move Hanuman's tail. Recognising the limits of his strength, Bhima humbled himself, prompting Hanuman to reveal his true identity. Hanuman blessed Bhima and provided him guidance to
31439-441: The now dormant Sharada script . Variant manuscripts of the Gita have been found on the Indian subcontinent Unlike the enormous variations in the remaining sections of the surviving Mahabharata manuscripts, the Gita manuscripts show only minor variations. According to Gambhirananda, the old manuscripts may have had 745 verses, though he agrees that “700 verses is the generally accepted historic standard." Gambhirananda's view
31650-535: The numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language. Sanskrit has been taught in traditional gurukulas since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791 during East India Company rule . Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist hymns and chants . In Sanskrit,
31861-508: The numerous manuscripts, the rest of the epic exists in many versions. The differences between the Northern and Southern recensions are particularly significant, with the Southern manuscripts more profuse and longer. Scholars have attempted to construct a critical edition , relying mostly on a study of the "Bombay" edition, the "Poona" edition, the "Calcutta" edition and the "south Indian" editions of
32072-403: The oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition. However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as
32283-431: The other." Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English: A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for
32494-444: The path of knowledge ( jnana yoga ), the path of devotion ( bhakti yoga ), the path of action ( karma yoga ), and the path of meditation ( raja yoga ). Medieval commentators argued which path had priority. According to Robinson, modern commentators have interpreted the text as refraining from insisting on one right marga (path) to spirituality. According to Upadhyaya, the Gita states that none of these paths to spiritual realization
32705-414: The possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit". The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and
32916-435: The preceptor fell unconscious (Chapter 94, Verse 18). Bhima continued his assault on the Kaurava brothers, killing nine more sons of Dhritarashtra (Chapter 96, Verse 23). In another encounter, Bhima faced Bahlika, whom he defeated in combat (Chapter 104, Verse 18). He also engaged Bhurishravas in a duel (Chapter 110, Verse 10). Bhima's continued offensive efforts led to the killing of ten Maharathis (great chariot warriors) of
33127-439: The previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock. Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes
33338-406: The prince of Kalinga by thrashing and kicking him (Chapter 155, Verse 24). He continued his offensive against key warriors, pushing and beating Jayarata, Dhruva, Durmada, and Dushkarna to death (Chapter 155). Bhima also rendered the great hero Somadatta unconscious with his club (Chapter 157, Verse 10). Bhima encountered Vikarna along with seven Kaurava brothers . In the battle that ensued, Vikarna
33549-480: The problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view
33760-461: The putative sons of retired Kuru king Pandu , and was born to Kunti with divine intervention due to Pandu's inability to conceive. According to the epic, Kunti invoked the wind god, Vayu , using a mantra provided by the sage Durvasa , resulting in Bhima's birth. This divine connection bestowed upon him immense physical strength. At the time of his birth, a celestine prophecy declared that he would become
33971-422: The rationale for war, his choices and the right thing to do. The Bhagavad Gita is the compilation of Arjuna's questions and moral dilemma and Krishna's answers and insights that elaborate on a variety of philosophical concepts. The compiled dialogue goes far beyond the "rationale for war"; it touches on many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues and life's choices. According to Flood and Martin, although
34182-596: The regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism , the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, states Paul Dundas , these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly
34393-490: The relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India,
34604-658: The results, loss or gain. Desires, selfishness, and the craving for fruits can distort one from spiritual living. The Bhagavad Gita is part of the Prasthanatrayi , which also includes the Upanishads and the Brahma sutras , the foundational texts of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. The Gita is a revered text in the Vaishnava tradition, mostly through the Vaishnava Vedanta commentaries written on it, though
34815-439: The riches to Yudhishthira. Yudhishthira was able to perform the Rajasuya Yajna successfully. During the grand ceremony, Bhima's valor was acknowledged, and he played a prominent role in the various rituals and the protection of the sacrificial arena. However, the Rajasuya Yajna also sowed the seeds of future conflict. During the ceremony, a dispute arose regarding the distribution of royal honours. Bhima notably supported Krishna in
35026-464: The rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life of Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been composed in or after the 3rd century BCE. Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit. The text has occasional pre-classical elements of
35237-558: The role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other. These speculations became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal —a scholar of Linguistics with
35448-491: The same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin". The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had
35659-551: The semi-nomadic Aryans . The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the " Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey. Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes
35870-594: The social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres. While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it
36081-610: The support of a mighty army, first moved diplomatically, beginning with the Panchalas , where he conciliated the tribe without conflict. From there, he swiftly vanquished the Gandakas, Videhas , and Dasarnas . In the Dasarna region, Bhima engaged in a notable battle with King Sudharman, who, after a fierce fight, was so impressed by Bhima's prowess that he was appointed commander of Bhima's forces. Bhima's conquest continued as he defeated Rochamana,
36292-523: The tantric and vedic, the Agama and the Gita share the same Vāsudeva-Krishna roots. Some of the ideas in the Bhagavad Gita connect it to the Shatapatha Brahmana of Yajurveda . The Shatapatha Brahmana , for example, mentions the absolute Purusha who dwells in every human being. According to Hudson, a story in this Vedic text highlights the meaning of the name Vāsudeva as the 'shining one (deva) who dwells (Vasu) in all things and in whom all things dwell', and
36503-515: The tension between the Brahmanical worldorder with its caste-based social institutions that hold society together, and the search for salvation by ascetics who have left society. Knowledge is indeed better than practice; Meditation is superior to knowledge; Renunciation of the fruit of action is better than meditation; Peace immediately follows renunciation. Bhagavad Gita, chapter XII, verse 12 According to Gavin Flood and Charles Martin,
36714-644: The text itself is also celebrated in the Puranas, for example, the Gita Mahatmya of the Varaha Purana . While Upanishads focus more on knowledge and the identity of the self with Brahman, the Bhagavad Gita shifts the emphasis towards devotion and the worship of a personal deity, specifically Krishna. There are alternate versions of the Bhagavad Gita (such as the one found in Kashmir), but the basic message behind these texts
36925-648: The threat he posed. Another significant event involved the Pandavas' quest to obtain divine weapons. At one point, Arjuna departed to the Himalayas to undertake severe penance in order to acquire celestial weapons from the god Shiva . During Arjuna's prolonged absence, Bhima and the remaining Pandavas grew increasingly concerned for his safety. The Pandavas ventured to Mount Gandhamadana in search of Arjuna. During this arduous journey, they encountered numerous challenges, including fatigue and harsh terrains. At one point, Draupadi fainted from exhaustion. Bhima then invoked his son Ghatotkacha , who promptly arrived and assisted
37136-399: The time, returned to their temporary abode with Draupadi. In a twist of events, Kunti, unaware of what Arjuna had won, instructed her sons to "share the alms" equally among them. Adhering to their mother's words, the Pandavas agreed to marry Draupadi collectively. Thus, Draupadi became the wife of all five Pandavas, a union that was sanctified by divine mandate. Bhima, being one of her husbands,
37347-411: The topic of BG chapter 6, the Bhagavad Gita introduces "the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' ( jnana ), 'action' ( karma ), and 'love' ( bhakti ). BG XIII verse 23-25 famously mentions four kinds of yoga, or ways of seeing the self, adding meditation to the three yogas. Yet, the practice of dhyana (meditation), is a part of all three classical paths in Hinduism. Knowledge or insight, discerning
37558-408: The total food consumed by the Pandavas was eaten by him. The rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas intensified as they grew older. Bhima's physical strength and assertiveness were sources of constant irritation for Duryodhana , who viewed him as a significant threat. The poisoning incident was one of several attempts by the Kauravas to eliminate Bhima. Another major scheme involved sending
37769-414: The true self ( purusha ) from matter and material desires ( prakriti ), is the true aim of classical yoga , in which meditation and insight cannot be separated. Furthermore, the Gita "rejects the Buddhist and Jain path of non-action, emphasizing instead renunciation of the fruits of action" and devotion to Krishna. The systematic presentation of Hindu monotheism as divided into these four paths or "Yogas"
37980-535: The turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various Brahmic scripts , and in the modern era most commonly in Devanagari . Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of India 's Eighth Schedule languages . However, despite attempts at revival, there are no first-language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue, but
38191-727: The two special characteristics of the Gita." Similarly, Cornille states that the Gita asserts that the path of Bhakti (devotion) is the foremost and the easiest of them all. According to Huston Smith , a notable neo-Vedantin , referring to BG XIII verse 23–25, the Gita mentions four ways to see the self, based on the Samkhya-premise that people are born with different temperaments and tendencies ( guṇa ). Some individuals are more reflective and intellectual, some are effective and engaged by their emotions, some are action-driven, yet others favour experimentation and exploring what works. According to Smith, BG XIII verse 24-25 lists four different spiritual paths for each personality type respectively:
38402-552: The two. Numerous classical and modern thinkers have written commentaries on the Gita with differing views on its essence and essentials, including on the relation between the individual self ( jivatman ) and God (Krishna) or the supreme self (Atman/ Brahman ). The Gita famously mentions, in chapter XIII verse 24–25, the four ways to see the self, interpreted as four yogas, namely through meditation ( raja yoga ), insight/intuition ( jnana yoga ), work/right action ( karma yoga ) and devotion/love ( bhakti yoga ), an influential division that
38613-408: The variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa , Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja , Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana. In the Aṣṭādhyāyī , language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines
38824-564: The vernacular Prakrits. Many Sanskrit dramas indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi , Paithan , Pune and Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era. According to Lamotte , Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit
39035-618: The war, Bhima also killed Anga, the King of the Mleccha tribe (Chapter 26, Verse 17). Bhima's confrontation with Bhagadatta's elephant was a notable encounter in which he was defeated and forced to retreat temporarily (Chapter 26, Verse 19). Later, he targeted Karna 's forces, attacking them and killing fifteen warriors in the process (Chapter 32, Verse 32). Bhima then fought against Vivinsati, Chitrasena, and Vikarṇa (Chapter 96, Verse 31). In another engagement, Bhima fought Alambusha and emerged victorious (Chapter 106, Verse 16). Bhima then clashed with Kritavarma (Chapter 114, Verse 67). During
39246-551: The world, after 1885 and given H. P. Blavatsky, Subba Rao and Anne Besant writings. Their attempt was to present their "universalist religion." These late 19th-century theosophical writings called the Gita a "path of true spirituality" and "teaching nothing more than the basis of every system of philosophy and scientific endeavour", triumphing over other "Samkhya paths" of Hinduism that "have degenerated into superstition and demoralized India by leading people away from practical action". Neo-Hindus and Hindu nationalists have celebrated
39457-446: The Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey . According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times
39668-408: Was a spoken language ( bhasha ) used by the cultured and educated. Some sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region. According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit
39879-427: Was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit. This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in
40090-472: Was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE. Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit. Reinöhl mentions that not only have
40301-568: Was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati . The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. Xuanzang , another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in
40512-399: Was carried out discreetly to avoid compromising the Pandavas' incognito status. Kichaka's brothers blamed Sairandhri (Draupadi) for his death and tried to forcefully cremate her along with Kichaka, but Bhima slew them and rescued Draupadi. Despite Kichaka's death raising suspicions within the palace, the Pandavas successfully maintained their disguises. Towards the end of their incognito year,
40723-431: Was disclosed in Hastinapura. This was followed by the division of the kingdom, with Pandavas establishing a new city called Indraprastha . Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava, aspired to perform the Rajasuya Yajna, a royal sacrifice that would establish him as an emperor. For this endeavour, he needed to assert his dominance over other kings and obtain their allegiance. Bhima played a crucial role in this military campaign. He
40934-442: Was equivalent to punishing them. Bhima also contemplated killing the Kauravas on the spot. However, Arjuna calmed him down, and Yudhisthira firmly prohibited any confrontation. After the Kauravas exiled the Pandavas for thirteen years, Bhima swore terrible oaths of vengeance. He vowed to kill Duryodhana by breaking his thigh, a reference to Duryodhana's insulting gesture during the dice game, when he exposed his thigh (a euphemism for
41145-427: Was from the Rakshasa race—supernatural beings typically associated with evil deeds, such as consuming humans. Together, they had a son named Ghatotkacha (see previous section for details). Both Hidimbi and Ghatotkacha are notable exceptions, exhibiting benevolent qualities despite their Rakshasa origins. Draupadi was the daughter of King Drupada of Panchala , who held a svayamvara , an ancient ceremony in which
41356-406: Was inserted into the epic at a later date. The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than the earliest "external" references we have to the Mahabharata epic. The Mahabharata – the world's longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim
41567-427: Was instrumental in addressing many challenges that arose during this period. A prominent encounter during their exile was with the Rakshasa Kirmira , the brother of the Rakshasa Baka , whom Bhima had previously slain in Ekachakra. Kirmira, seeking revenge for his brother's death, confronted the Pandavas in the Kamyaka forest. Bhima engaged in a fierce battle with Kirmira and ultimately killed him, thereby eliminating
41778-408: Was killed (Chapter 199, Verse 45). Bhima was the only warrior who refused to submit to the invincible Narayanastra weapon and had to dragged to his safety by Arjuna and Krishna . Sanskrit language Sanskrit ( / ˈ s æ n s k r ɪ t / ; attributively 𑀲𑀁𑀲𑁆𑀓𑀾𑀢𑀁 , संस्कृत- , saṃskṛta- ; nominally संस्कृतम् , saṃskṛtam , IPA: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm] )
41989-455: Was killed by Karna, leading to Bhima lament over his death. Bhima then killed the elephant named Ashvatthama as part of a strategic deception to spread the false news that Drona's son, Ashvatthama , had been killed (Chapter 190, Verse 15). This ruse led to Drona's surrender and eventual downfall. Bhima then fought against the Narayanastra , a celestial weapon deployed by Ashvatthama (Chapter 199, Verse 45). During this encounter, Bhima's charioteer
42200-416: Was killed. Bhima grieved Vikarna's death by praising his noble deeds. In this chapter, Bhima also killed Bahlika (Chapter 157, Verse 11) and other warriors including Nagadatta, Dridharatha, Mahabahu, Ayobhuja, Dridha, Suhastha, Viraja, Pramathi, Ugra, and Anuyayi (Chapter 157, Verse 16). On the 15th day of the war, Bhima attacked Duryodhana and defeated him after a fierce exchange. Bhima's son Ghatotkacha
42411-411: Was known for his deep affection and protective nature toward Draupadi throughout their lives. From Draupadi, Bhima fathered Sutasoma . Bhima's other wife Valandhara, the daughter of King of Kashi , was won by him at her svayamvara contest. They had a son named Savarga. The Bhagavata Purana records Valandhara as Kali and Savarga as Sarvagata. After their marriage to Draupadi, the Pandavas' survival
42622-469: Was likely a deliberate declaration to prevent further insertions and changes to the Gita. Since Shankara's time, "700 verses" has been the standard benchmark for the critical edition of the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita is a poem written in the Sanskrit language. Its 700 verses are structured into several ancient Indian poetic meters , with the principal being the shloka ( Anushtubh chanda ). It has 18 chapters in total. Each shloka consists of
42833-417: Was popularized by Swami Vivekananda in the 1890s. The Gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the word Bhagavad in several ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as, "the song of God"; "the word of God" by the theistic schools, "the words of the Lord", "the Divine Song", and "Celestial Song" by others. In India, its Sanskrit name
43044-405: Was preferable to war ( Udyoga Parva , Chapter 74). However, he also asserted that he was prepared for battle and spoke confidently about his prowess in the upcoming conflict (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 76). When Duryodhana sent Uluka with a message to the Pandavas, Bhima responded with an insulting reply, rejecting any form of submission or negotiation (Udyoga Parva, Chapter 163). On the first day of
43255-418: Was rescued by the Nagas (divine serpents) after being poisoned, to his victories over formidable foes like Bakasura , Hidimba , and Jarasandha , Bhima's adventures are integral to the Mahabharata ’s storyline. His raw, earthy nature is reflected in the brutal slaying of his enemies, his immense appetite and his marriage with Hidimbi , a rakshasi (a supernatural being known to consume humans), who bore him
43466-459: Was serving in the palace under the guise of a maid named Sairandhri. Kichaka's advances toward Draupadi escalated and he tried to sexually assault her, prompting her to seek Bhima's protection. Bhima devised a plan to eliminate Kichaka without revealing their true identities. He arranged for Draupadi to lure Kichaka into a secluded area, where Bhima, disguised, awaited him. A physical confrontation ensued, during which Bhima killed Kichaka. This incident
43677-456: Was tasked with subjugating the kingdoms in the eastern region of the sub-continent, since Bhishma —the Grandsire of the Kuru princes— thought the easterners were skilled in fighting from the backs of elephants and in fighting with bare arms. He deemed Bhima to be the most ideal person to wage wars in that region. The Mahabharata mentions several kingdoms to the east of Indraprastha which were conquered by Bhima. In his eastern campaign, Bhima, with
43888-459: Was their encounter with Nahusha , a former king who had been transformed into a python due to a curse. Bhima, while traversing the forest, was captured by this python. Despite his strength, Bhima was unable to free himself. Yudhishthira arrived and, recognising the being as Nahusha, engaged in a dialogue with him. Through Yudhishthira's wisdom, Nahusha was released from his curse and restored to his original form. The Pandavas also had to contend with
44099-470: Was to seize the weapons of the Pandavas. Bhima, who was gone hunting during the abduction, was deeply upset when he came to know of Jatasura's evil act on his return. A fierce encounter followed between the two gigantic warriors, where Bhima emerged victorious by decapitating Jatasura and crushing his body. After completing their twelve-year exile, the Pandavas entered their thirteenth year, during which they were required to live incognito. They sought refuge in
44310-460: Was trained in the arts of warfare under the tutelage of Dronacharya , the royal guru. Bhima specialised in the use of the mace ( gada ) and became an unmatched mace fighter. Additionally, he received advanced training from Balarama , known for his expertise in mace combat. Bhima's training also included proficiency in various other weapons, establishing him as a versatile warrior. Bhima was also renowned for his giant appetite – at times, half of
44521-442: Was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit. Sanskrit as
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