73-505: Malla ( Prakrit : š«š®šš®š MallaÄ« ; Pali : Malla ; Sanskrit : ą¤®ą¤²ą„ą¤²ā Malla ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of north-eastern Indian subcontinent whose existence is attested during the Iron Age . The population of Malla, the Mallakas , were divided into two branches, each organised into a gaį¹asaį¹ gha (an aristocratic oligarchic republic ), presently referred to as
146-728: A classical language on 3 October 2024 by the Government of India as the earliest Prakrit texts are older than literature of most of the languages. In 1955, government of Bihar established at Vaishali , the Research Institute of Prakrit Jainology and Ahimsa with the aim to promote research work in Prakrit. The National Institute of Prakrit Study and Research is located in Shravanabelagola , Karnataka, India. Rajgir Rajgir , old name Rajagriha , meaning "The City of Kings,"
219-545: A cover term for languages that were not actually called Prakrit in ancient India, such as: According to some scholars, such as German Indologists Richard Pischel and Oskar von HinĆ¼ber , the term "Prakrit" refers to a smaller set of languages that were used exclusively in literature: According to Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar Shreyansh Kumar Jain Shastri and A. C. Woolner , the Ardhamagadhi (or simply Magadhi ) Prakrit, which
292-530: A distinction between Jain and non-Jain Prakrit literature. Jacobi used the term "Jain Prakrit" (or "Jain Maharashtri", as he called it) to denote the language of relatively late and relatively more Sanskrit-influenced narrative literature, as opposed to the earlier Prakrit court poetry. Later scholars used the term "Jain Prakrit" for any variety of Prakrit used by Jain authors, including the one used in early texts such as Tarangavati and Vasudeva-Hindi . However,
365-530: A grave offence committed by the Licchavikas towards the MÄgadhÄ« king BimbisÄra. The hostilities between Licchavi and Magadha continued under the rule of AjÄtasattu , who was BimbisÄra's son with another Licchavika princess, VÄsavÄ«, after he had killed BimbisÄra and usurped the throne of Magadha. Eventually Licchavi supported a revolt against AjÄtasattu by his younger step-brother and the governor of Aį¹ ga , Vehalla, who
438-426: A highly systematized Prakrit grammar, but the surviving Prakrit texts do not adhere to this grammar. For example, according to Vishvanatha (14th century), in a Sanskrit drama, the characters should speak Maharashtri Prakrit in verse and Shauraseni Prakrit in prose. But the 10th century Sanskrit dramatist Rajashekhara does not abide by this rule. Markandeya, as well as later scholars such as Sten Konow, find faults with
511-402: A language (or languages) spoken by the common people, because it is different from Sanskrit, which is the predominant language of the ancient Indian literature. Several modern scholars, such as George Abraham Grierson and Richard Pischel , have asserted that the literary Prakrit does not represent the actual languages spoken by the common people of ancient India. This theory is corroborated by
584-506: A limited degree of autonomy in terms of their internal administration, and they stopped existing as a republican tribe when the Maurya dynasty ruled Magadha or shortly after. Just like a Vaidehas, Licchavikas, and NÄyikas, the Mallakas were a kį¹£atriya tribe, and each of the republics of the Mallakas were organised into a gaį¹asaį¹ gha (an aristocratic oligarchic republic ), which had
657-498: A market scene in Uddyotana's Kuvalaya-mala (779 CE), in which the narrator speaks a few words in 18 different languages: some of these languages sound similar to the languages spoken in modern India; but none of them resemble the language that Uddyotana identifies as "Prakrit" and uses for narration throughout the text. The local variants of Apabhramsha evolved into the modern day Indo-Aryan vernaculars of South Asia. Literary Prakrit
730-452: A modern university that is based on the famous university and Buddhist monastery of ancient India, has been established with its campus in Rajgir. It began its first academic session on 1 September 2014. Japanese monk Nichidatsu Fujii , the founder of Nipponzan Myohoji order of Buddhism established a white stupa atop Ratnagiri hills in Rajgir, which was inaugurated on 25 October 1969. This stupa
803-562: A ruling Assembly consisting of the heads of the kį¹£atriya clans belonging to the VÄseį¹į¹ha / VaÅiį¹£į¹ha gotra , and who were given the title of rÄjÄ s. The position of rÄjÄ was hereditary, and after the death of one of them, his eldest son would succeed him by being introduced to the Assembly following a ceremony held, for the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ, at the Makuį¹a-bandhana , which
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#1732848658643876-922: A sacred place for Hindus where water from seven different springs ( Saptarshi ) merge and is notable for its healing effects. There is a Japanese temple beside the Venu Vana, an artificial forest with historical associations to Buddha and the kings of the region. Other places of interest include the Rajgir Heritage Museum, the Sariputta Stupa, Ghora Katora Lake , and the Rajgir glass bridge. The Son Bhandar caves are situated in Rajgir. The caves are concerned with Jainism and are considered to belong to 3ā4 century AD. After Cunningham's inspection, several scholars visited this place and some had opinions to concern with Buddhism. After some time all Buddhism connections were refused because of an inscription found on
949-525: A share because they were dependencies of the Licchavikas without their own sovereignty, and therefore could not put forth their own claim while Licchavi could. The Mallakas of PÄvÄ were the first ones to arrive with an army to KusinÄrÄ, and they put forth their claim to the relics in rude and hostile terms. In the end, each Malla republic obtained a share of the Buddha's relics and built their own stÅ«pa s and gave their own feasts to commemorate this event. After
1022-412: A total population of 41,587, of which 21,869 were males and 19,718 were females. The population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 6,922. The total number of literates in Rajgir was 24,121, which constituted 58.0% of the population with male literacy of 65.4% and female literacy of 49.8%. The effective literacy rate of the 7+ population of Rajgir was 69.6%, of which the male literacy rate was 78.1% and
1095-456: A wrestling match between Bhima (one of the Pandavas) and Jarasandha, the then king of Magadha. Jarasandha was invincible as his body could rejoin any dismembered limbs. According to the legend, Bhima split Jarasandha into two and threw the two halves facing opposite to each other so that they could not join. There is a famous Jarasandha's Akhara (the place where martial arts are practised). Rajgir
1168-567: Is kį¹£atriya s who had not been initiated, because they did not practice orthodox Vedic traditions. Prakrit Prakrit ( / Ė p r ÉĖ k r ÉŖ t / ) is a group of vernacular classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding earlier inscriptions and Pali . The oldest stage of Middle Indo-Aryan language
1241-1043: Is a sacred site situated in Rajgir. Renowned for its thermal spring and the tomb of Makhdoom Syed Ghulam Ali, as well as the prayer space of Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri , it holds significance for pilgrims and visitors alike. The thermal spring, dating back approximately 800 years, attracts numerous visitors who utilise it for ablution (Wudu) and bathing purposes. The Chief Minister of Bihar, Nitish Kumar also took bath here in his childhood. Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation provides travel facility from state capital Patna to visit Bodh circuit ( Bodhgaya , Rajgir, Nalanda , Vaishali , Kesaria , Lumbini , Kushinagar , Sarnath ), Jain Circuit (Rajgir, Pawapuri ) and Sikh Circuit in Bihar. Located in Patna division, this Nagar Panchayat type of municipal council mainly depends upon tourism and
1314-491: Is also present here along with many other Jain temples. This temple is also a place for four Kalyanakas of Bhagwan Munisuvratnath. It is also mentioned in Jain and Buddhist scriptures, which give a series of place-names, but without geographical context. The attempt to locate these places is based largely on reference to them and to other locations in the works of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, particularly Faxian and Xuanzang . It
1387-744: Is an ancient city and university town in the district of Nalanda in Bihar , India . It was the capital of the Haryanka dynasty , the Pradyota dynasty , the Brihadratha dynasty and the Mauryan Empire , as well as the dwelling ground of historical figures such as Buddha , Mahavira and Bimbisara . Due to its religious significance, the city holds a place of prominence in Hindu , Buddhist and Jain scriptures. As of 2011,
1460-618: Is attested in the inscriptions of Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE), as well as in the earliest forms of PÄli, the language of the TheravÄda Buddhist canon. The most prominent form of Prakrit is ArdhamÄgadhıĢ, associated with the ancient kingdom of Magadha, in modern Bihar, and the subsequent Mauryan Empire. MahÄvıĢra, the last tirthankar of 24 tirthankar of Jainism, was born in Magadha, and the earliest Jain texts were composed in ArdhamÄgadhıĢ. Almost all
1533-526: Is now the basis for all Sanskrit grammar. Similarly, the Agamas, and texts like Shatkhandagama , do not follow the modern Prakrit grammar. Prakrita Prakasha, a book attributed to Vararuchi , summarizes various Prakrit languages. Prakrit literature was produced across a wide area of South Asia. Outside India, the language was also known in Cambodia and Java. Literary Prakrit is often wrongly assumed to have been
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#17328486586431606-571: Is on the basis of Xuanzang in particular that the site is divided into Old and New Rajgir. The former lies within a valley and is surrounded by low-lying hills, Rajgir Hills . It is defined by an earthen embankment (the Inner Fortification), with which is associated the Outer Fortification, a complex of cyclopean walls that runs (with large breaks) along the crest of the hills. New Rajgir is defined by another, larger, embankment outside
1679-1101: Is situated in Nalanda Forest Division covering an area of 35.84 km under the Nalanda district administration. This wildlife sanctuary, notified in 1978, represents a remnant patch of forests nestled in the Rajgir hills within the south Gangetic Plain . It is home to a number of wild animals including: mammals ā blue bull ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ), chital or spotted deer ( Axis axis ), Indian crested porcupine ( Hystrix indica ), small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ), jungle cat ( Felis chaus ); birds ā painted spurfowl ( Galloperdix lunulata ), Eurasian thick knee ( Burhinus oedicnemus ), painted sandgrouse ( Pterocles indicus ); reptiles and amphibians ā Bengal monitor ( Varanus bengalensis ), Indian bullfrog ( Hoplobatrachus tigerinus ), Jerdon's bullfrog ( Hoplobatrachus crassus ), ornate narrow-mouthed frog ( Microhyla ornata ), and Indian tree frog ( Polypedates maculatus ). According to 2011 Indian Census , Rajgir had
1752-615: Is supplemented by agriculture. A number of resorts and hotels are located in Rajgir to serve the tourists. In addition, Rajgir is located near the tourist spots like Nalanda, Pawapuri and Kundalpur . Rajgir ranks top in Bihar, in reference to revenue collected by tourism. Rajgir International Cricket Stadium is a proposed cricket stadium in the city. In 2013, it was announced by the Chief Minister of Bihar Nitish Kumar that an international cricket stadium will be constructed at Rajgir in Bihar's Nalanda district. Nalanda University ,
1825-725: The Greater Magadha cultural region. Similarly to the other populations of the Greater Magadha cultural area, Mallakas were initially not fully Brahmanised despite being an Indo-Aryan people, but, like the Vaidehas, they later became Brahmanised and adopted the VÄseį¹į¹ha (in Pali) or VaÅiį¹£į¹ha (in Sanskrit) gotra . At some point in time, the Mallakas became divided into two separate republics with their respective capitals at KusinÄrÄ and PÄvÄ, possibly due to internal trouble, and henceforth
1898-493: The Jains used Prakrit for religious literature, including commentaries on the Jain canonical literature, stories about Jain figures, moral stories, hymns and expositions of Jain doctrine. Prakrit is also the language of some Shaiva tantras and Vaishnava hymns. Besides being the primary language of several texts, Prakrit also features as the language of low-class men and most women in
1971-722: The Malla Republics , which were part of the larger Vajjika League . The Mallakas lived in the region now covered by the Gorakhpur district in India , although their precise borders are yet to be determined. The Mallakas' neighbours to the east across the SadÄnirÄ river were the Licchavikas , their neighbours to the west were the Sakyas , Koliyas , Moriyas , and KauÅalyas , the southern neighbours of
2044-565: The Sanskrit stage plays . American scholar Andrew Ollett traces the origin of the Sanskrit Kavya to Prakrit poems. Some of the texts that identify their language as Prakrit include: The languages that have been labeled "Prakrit" in modern times include the following: Not all of these languages were actually called "Prakrit" in the ancient period. Dramatic Prakrits were those that were used in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue
2117-654: The hostilities between the ancient Macedonian king Philip II to the Athenian and Theban republics. As important members of the Vajjika League, the Malla republics were also threatened by AjÄtasattu, and the Vajjika Gaį¹a Mukhya Ceįøaga held war consultations with the rÄjÄ s of the Licchavikas and Mallikas before the fight started. The Mallakas therefore fought on the side of the other confederate tribes of
2190-550: The 24th Tirthankara spent fourteen years of his life at Rajgir and Nalanda, spending Chaturmas (i.e. 4 months of the rainy season) at a single place in Rajgir (Rajgruhi) and the rest in the places in the vicinity. It was the capital of one of his Shravaks (follower) King Shrenik . Thus Rajgir is also of religious importance to Jains. The twentieth Jain Tirthankara, Munisuvrata is supposed to have been born here. An ancient temple (about 1200 years old) dedicated to Munisuvrat Bhagwan
2263-466: The 6th and 5th century BC, and the Buddha was offered a forest monastery here by the king Bimbisara . As such, the city of Rajgir became one of the Buddha's most important preaching locations. The main tourist attractions include the ancient city walls from Ajatashatru 's period, Bimbisar 's Jail, Jarasandh 's Akhara, Gridhra-kuta, ('Hill of the Vultures') , Son Bhandar Caves and the Jain temples on
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2336-566: The Buddha and his followers went to KusinÄrÄ, and on the way they crossed two rivers, the first one being named KakutthÄ in Pali and KukustÄ in Sanskrit, and the second one being the HiraƱƱavatÄ« which separated the two Mallaka republics. The Buddha spent his final days in the Malla republic of KusinÄrÄ, and when he sent Änanda to inform the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ of his impending death, Änanda found
2409-640: The KauÅalyas and the Licchavikas. Bandhula was later treacherously murdered along with his sons by Pasenadi , and, in retaliation, some Mallakas helped Pasenadi's son ViįøÅ«įøabha usurp the throne of Kosala to avenge the death of Bandhula, after which Pasenadi fled from Kosala and died in front of the gates of the MÄgadhÄ« capital of RÄjagaha . The Buddha arrived in PÄvÄ shortly after the Mallakas there had inaugurated their new santhÄgÄra , which they had named Ubbhataka. From PÄvÄ,
2482-597: The Licchavikas, the Mallakas' Assemblies met rarely while the Assemblies' inner councils, the Mallaka Councils, consisting of four members for the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ and of five members for the Mallakas of PÄvÄ, met more often and performed the public administration within each republic. These Councils were the sovereign bodies of the Mallaka republics. The Manusmį¹iti refers to the Mallakas as VrÄį¹yakį¹£atriya s, that
2555-474: The Mallaka Council holding a meeting about public affairs in their santhÄgÄra. When Änanda went again to the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ to inform them of the Buddha's passing, he found them this time holding a meeting to discuss the funeral ceremony of the Buddha in the santhÄgÄra. After the Buddha's cremation, his remains were honoured in the santhÄgÄra of KusinÄrÄ for seven days, and it was in this santhÄgÄra that
2628-605: The Mallakas and the Licchavikas did arise, such as in the case of the man named Bandhula, a Mallaka who, thanks to his education received in Takį¹£aÅilÄ , had offered his services as a general to the KauÅalya king Pasenadi so as to maintain the good relations between the Mallakas and Kosala. Bandhula, along with his wife MallikÄ, violated the Abhiseka-Pokkharaį¹Ä« sacred tank of the Licchavikas, which resulted in armed hostilities between
2701-455: The Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ received the envoys of Magadha , Licchavi , Shakya , Buli , Koliya , the Mallakas of PÄvÄ, and Moriya , who all went to KusinÄrÄ to claim their shares of the Buddha's relics. The Licchavikas, the Mallakas, and the Sakyas were able to claim shares of the relics, but the other members of the Vajjika League, the Vaidehas and the NÄyikas , were not among the states claiming
2774-631: The Mallakas were the KÄlÄmas and the Gaį¹ gÄ river, and the northern Mallaka borders were the HimÄlaya mountains. The territory of the Mallakas was a tract of land between the Vaidehas and the KauÅalyas. The territories of the two Malla republics were divided by the river named HiraƱƱavatÄ« in PÄli , and Hiraį¹yavatÄ« in Sanskrit , and the two Malla republics respectively had their capitals at KusinÄrÄ , identified with
2847-430: The Prakrit portions of Rajashekhara's writings, but it is not clear if the rule enunciated by Vishvanatha existed during Rajashekhara's time. Rajashekhara himself imagines Prakrit as a single language or a single kind of language, alongside Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and Paishachi . German Indologist Theodor Bloch (1894) dismissed the medieval Prakrit grammarians as unreliable, arguing that they were not qualified to describe
2920-598: The Vultures') .It was also the relaxing place of him in Venuban which is a government owned tourist place now. He also delivered some of his famous sermons and initiated king Bimbisara of Magadha and others to Buddhism. It was here that Budhha delivered his famous Atanatiya Sutra . On one of the hills is the Saptaparni Cave where the First Buddhist Council was held under the leadership of Maha Kassapa . Mahavira ,
2993-413: The above-mentioned caves. These caves should be related to Digambar sect of Jainism as Xuanzang wrote in his book about Vaibhar Hill of Rajgir that the place was occupied by Digambar Jain monks for meditation purposes. After some centuries these caves were converted by Hindus as Vishnu sculpture was also found from the mound of a cave. Makhdum Kund , also recognised as Dargah-e-Makhdoomiya
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3066-470: The capital to Pataliputra (modern Patna ). Shishunaga (413-395 BC) founded Shishunaga dynasty in 413 BC with Rajgir as its initial capital before it was moved to Pataliputra. It is associated with the founders of both the religions: Jainism and Buddhism , associated with both the historical Arihant Shraman Bhagawan Mahavira and Buddha . It was here that Gautama Buddha spent several months meditating, and preaching at Gridhra-kuta, ('Hill of
3139-441: The city. The 2,500-year-old cyclopean wall is also located in the region. The ancient Nalanda university was located in the vicinity of Rajgir, and the contemporary Nalanda University named after it was founded in 2010 nearby. The town is also famed for its natural springs and towering hills that dominate the landscape. The name Rajgir ( Sanskrit RÄjagį¹ha , Pali : Rajagaha ), literally meaning "royal mountain" comes from
3212-666: The common people ā as well as the converse influence of Sanskrit on the Prakrits, gave Prakrits progressively higher cultural prestige. Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) characterizes Prakrit as the language of "the lowest of the low", stating that the language was known as Patal-bani ("Language of the underground") or Nag-bani ("Language of the snakes"). Among modern scholars, Prakrit literature has received less attention than Sanskrit. Few modern Prakrit texts have survived in modern times, and even fewer have been published or attracted critical scholarship. Prakrit has been designated as
3285-516: The death of the 24th Jain TÄ«rthaį¹ kara , MahÄvÄ«ra , the Mallakas and the Licchavikas jointly instituted a festival of lights to commemorate his passing. The relations of the Licchavikas, who led the Vajjika League which the Mallakas were part of, with their southern neighbour, the kingdom of Magadha , were initially good, and the wife of the MÄgadhÄ« king BimbisÄra was the VesÄlia princess VÄsavÄ«, who
3358-529: The failure of this rebellion, Vehalla sought refuge at his grandfather's place in the Licchavika and Vajjika capital of VesÄlÄ«, following which AjÄtasattu repeatedly attempted to negotiate with the Licchavikas-Vajjikas. After AjÄtasattu's repeated negotiation attempts ended in failure, he declared war on the Vajjika League in 484 BCE. Tensions between Licchavi and Magadha were exacerbated by the handling of
3431-578: The female literacy rate was 60.1%. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes population was 11,724 and 42 respectively. Rajgir had 7030 households in 2011. The town is also notable in Jainism and Buddhism . It was the birthplace of the 20th Jain Tirthankar Munisuvrata , and is closely associated with the Mahavira and Gautama Buddha . Both Mahavira and Buddha taught their beliefs in Rajgir during
3504-508: The five peaks. Another major attraction is the peace pagoda , Vishwa Shanti Stupa , built-in 1969, one of the 80 peace pagodas in the world, to spread the message of peace and non-violence. It is the oldest peace pagoda in India. The rope-way that leads to it is another attraction, which was gifted by Japanese spiritual leader Fuji Guruji in the 1960s. A new rope way has been planned. Rajgir has hot water springs, locally known as Brahmakund ,
3577-450: The historic RÄjagį¹iha, meaning "house of the king" or "royal house". It has also historically been known as Vasumati, Brahdrathapura, Grivraja/Girivraja and Kusagrapura. Girivraja means an enclosure of hills. The epic Mahabharata calls it Girivraja and recounts the story of its king, Jarasandha, and his battle with the Pandava brothers and their allies Krishna . Mahabharata recounts
3650-569: The joint MÄgadhÄ«-Licchavika border post of Koį¹igÄma on the Gaį¹ gÄ by the Licchavika-led Vajjika League who would regularly collect all valuables from Koį¹igÄma and leave none to the MÄgadhÄ«s. Therefore AjÄtasattu decided to destroy the Vajjika League in retaliation, but also because, as an ambitious empire-builder whose mother VÄsavÄ« was Licchavika princess of VaidehÄ« descent, he was interested in
3723-459: The language of the texts composed centuries before them. Other scholars such as Sten Konow , Richard Pischel and Alfred Hillebrandt disagree with Bloch. It is possible that the grammarians sought to codify only the language of the earliest classics of the Prakrit literature, such as the Gaha Sattasai . Another explanation is that the extant Prakrit manuscripts contain scribal errors. Most of
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#17328486586433796-458: The league against Magadha. The military forces of the Vajjika League were initially too strong for AjÄtasattu to be successful against them, and it required him having recourse to diplomacy and intrigues over the span of a decade to finally defeat the Vajjika League by 468 BCE and annex its territories, including Licchavi, Videha and NÄya, to the kingdom of Magadha. The Mallakas also became part of AjÄtasattu's MÄgadhÄ« empire, although they were allowed
3869-423: The modern village of KÄsiÄ in Kushinagar , and at PÄvÄ (now known as Fazilnagar ). KusinÄrÄ was close to the Sakya capital of Kapilavatthu to its north-east, and PÄvÄ was close to the Licchavika capital of VesÄlÄ«. The Mallakas are called Malla in PÄli texts, MallaāÄ« in Jain PrÄkrit texts, and Malla in Sanskrit texts. The Mallakas were an Indo-Aryan tribe in the eastern Gangetic plain in
3942-420: The native prÄkrit grammarians identify prÄkį¹ta to be named so because they originate in the source language (prakį¹ti) which is Sanskrit . Thus the name prÄkį¹ta indicates that they depend on Sanskrit for their origin and are not themselves the prakį¹ti (or originary languages, originating independent of Sanskrit): The dictionary of Monier Monier-Williams (1819ā1899), and other modern authors, however, interpret
4015-420: The northern entrance of the valley and next to the modern town. The modern town is situated close to the Rajgir hills while the valley is surrounded by seven hills: Vaibhara, Ratna, Saila, Sona, Udaya, Chhatha, and Vipula. River Panchane flows through the outskirts of the town. The landscape of Rajgir or Pant WLS is uneven terrain enclosed by five hills; Ratnagiri, Vipulgiri, Vaibhagiri, Songiri and Udaygiri. It
4088-609: The other two being Sanskrit and the vernacular languages. It describes Prakrit as a mixture of Sanskrit and vernacular languages, and adds that Prakrit was "mostly employed in the praise of kings, ministers, and chiefs". During a large period of the first millennium, literary Prakrit was the preferred language for the fictional romance in India. Its use as a language of systematic knowledge was limited, because of Sanskrit's dominance in this area, but nevertheless, Prakrit texts exist on topics such as grammar, lexicography , metrics, alchemy, medicine, divination , and gemology . In addition,
4161-464: The population of the town was reported to be 41,000 while the population in the community development block was about 88,500. Rajgir was the first capital of the ancient kingdom of Magadha , a state that would eventually evolve into the Mauryan Empire . It finds mention in India's renowned literary epic, the Mahabharata , through its king Jarasandha . The town's date of origin is unknown, although ceramics dating to about 1000 BC have been found in
4234-466: The relations between the two Mallaka republics remained uncordial. Both Mallaka republics nevertheless became members of the Licchavi-led Vajjika League , within which, unlike the Vaidehas, they maintained their own sovereign rights because they had not been conquered by the Licchavikas, and the Mallakas held friendly relations with the Licchavikas, the Vaidehas, and the NÄyikas who were the other members of this league. However occasional tensions between
4307-434: The rubric of 'Prakrits', while others emphasize the independent development of these languages, often separated from the history of Sanskrit by wide divisions of caste , religion , and geography . The broadest definition uses the term "Prakrit" to describe any Middle Indo-Aryan language that deviates from Sanskrit in any manner. American scholar Andrew Ollett points out that this unsatisfactory definition makes "Prakrit"
4380-400: The southern wall of a cave. According to this inscription these caves were built by inspiration of a Jain Muni Vair for Jain ascetics. Sculptures of Teerthankaras were also carved in these caves. From an architectural aspect; these caves are analogous to Nagarjuni cave and Barabar Caves caves of Mauryan era. Therefore, it can be concluded that construction time should not differ much from
4453-512: The surviving Prakrit manuscripts were produced in a variety of regional scripts during 1300ā1800 CE. It appears that the scribes who made these copies from the earlier manuscripts did not have a good command of the original language of the texts, as several of the extant Prakrit texts contain inaccuracies or are incomprehensible. Also, like Sanskrit and other ancient languages Prakrit was spoken and written long before grammars were written for it. The Vedas do not follow Panini's Sanskrit grammar which
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#17328486586434526-442: The territory of the former MahÄ-Videha kingdom which by then was part of the Vajjika League. AjÄtasattu's hostility towards the Vajjika League was also the result of the differing forms of political organisation between Magadha and the Vajjika League, with the former being monarchical and the latter being republican, not unlike the opposition of the ancient Greek kingdom of Sparta to the democratic form of government in Athens , and
4599-477: The word in the opposite sense: "the most frequent meanings of the term prakį¹ta , from which the word "prakrit" is derived, are "original, natural, normal" and the term is derived from prakį¹ti , "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". Modern scholars have used the term "Prakrit" to refer to two concepts: Some modern scholars include all Middle Indo-Aryan languages under
4672-423: The works written by Jain authors do not necessarily belong to an exclusively Jain history, and do not show any specific literary features resulting from their belief in Jainism. Therefore, the division of Prakrit literature into Jain and non-Jain categories is no longer considered tenable. Under the Mauryan Empire various Prakrits enjoyed the status of royal language. Prakrit was the language of Emperor Ashoka who
4745-442: Was a shrine holding an important political meaning for the republic (the Mallakas of PÄvÄ had a similar shrine of their own). Similarly to that of the Licchavikas, the Mallaka General Assembly had a large number of members, with the meetings being only rarely attended by all of them. The Mallaka republics, like the other gaį¹asaį¹ gha of the Vajjika League, held their Assembly and Council meetings in their own santhÄgÄras . Like
4818-507: Was a strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Characters each spoke a different Prakrit based on their role and background; for example, Dramili was the language of "forest-dwellers", Sauraseni was spoken by "the heroine and her female friends", and Avanti was spoken by "cheats and rogues". Maharashtri and Shaurseni Prakrit were more common and were used in literature extensively. Some 19thā20th century European scholars, such as Hermann Jacobi and Ernst Leumann , made
4891-444: Was among the main languages of the classical Indian culture. Dandin 's Kavya-darsha ( c. 700 ) mentions four kinds of literary languages: Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha , and mixed. Bhoja 's Sarasvati-Kanthabharana (11th century) lists Prakrit among the few languages suitable for composition of literature. Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) names Prakrit among the three kinds of literary languages native to India,
4964-463: Was patron of Buddhism. Prakrit languages are said to have held a lower social status than Sanskrit in classical India. In the Sanskrit stage plays , such as Kalidasa 's Shakuntala , lead characters typically speak Sanskrit, while the unimportant characters and most female characters typically speak Prakrit. While Prakrits were originally seen as 'lower' forms of language, the influence they had on Sanskrit ā allowing it to be more easily used by
5037-434: Was the capital of Haryanka dynasty kings Bimbisara (558ā491 BC) and Ajatashatru (492ā460 BC). Ajatashatru kept his father Bimbisara in captivity here. The sources do not agree on which of the Buddha 's royal contemporaries, Bimbisara and Ajatashatru , was responsible for its construction. It was the ancient capital city of the Magadha kings until the 5th century BC when Udayin (460ā440 BC), son of Ajatashatru, moved
5110-450: Was the daughter of the Licchavika NÄyaka Sakala's son Siį¹ha. There were nevertheless occasional tensions between Licchavi and Magadha, such as the competition at the Mallaka capital of KusinÄrÄ over acquiring the relics of the Buddha after his death. In another case, the Licchavikas once invaded MÄgadhÄ« territory from across the Gaį¹ gÄ , and at some point the relations between Magadha and Licchavi permanently deteriorated as result of
5183-503: Was the son of BimbisÄra by another Licchavika wife of his, CellanÄ, a daughter of Ceįøaga , who was the head of both the Licchavi republic and the Vajjika League; BimbisÄra had chosen Vehalla as his successor following AjÄtasattu's falling out of his favour after the latter had been caught conspiring against him, and the Licchavikas had attempted to place Vehalla on the throne of Magadha after AjÄtasattu's usurpation and had allowed Vehalla to use their capital VesÄlÄ« as base for his revolt. After
5256-448: Was used extensively to write the scriptures of Jainism , is often considered to be the definitive form of Prakrit, while others are considered variants of it. Prakrit grammarians would give the full grammar of Ardhamagadhi first, and then define the other grammars with relation to it. For this reason, courses teaching 'Prakrit' are often regarded as teaching Ardhamagadhi. Medieval grammarians such as Markandeya (late 16th century) describe
5329-440: Was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation. The phrase "Dramatic Prakrits" often refers to three most prominent of them: Shauraseni Prakrit , Magadhi Prakrit , and Maharashtri Prakrit . However, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Prachya, Bahliki, Dakshinatya, Shakari, Chandali, Shabari, Abhiri, Dramili, and Odri. There
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