Beorma ( / ˈ b eɪ ɔːr m ə / BAY -or-mə , Old English: [ˈbeːorˠmɑ] ) is the name most commonly given to the circa 7th century Anglo-Saxon founder or later leader of the settlement now known as the English city of Birmingham before its first mention in 1086. At its Saxon founding the forerunner settlement was known by an unknown name or as it in Norman times came to be recorded in an established two-part form "Beorma's ham" ("homestead of...") or "Beorma-inga-ham" ("homestead of the tribe/people of/related to...").
135-453: If Beorma, or similar, is probably a relevant personal name as the majority of Anglo-Saxon historians publishing on the subject claim, it has one other known exponent, a different Anglo-Saxon figure who owned another farmstead across the far side of Wessex , that of Barton-on-Sea , Hampshire which appears twice in the Domesday Book , as Bermintune and as Burmintune , directly cognate to
270-505: A Nailers' Union. Nailers also vowed not to teach their children the trade, a promise swiftly broken due to the lack of alternative employment. Further strikes took place in 1877 and 1878 due to a further 10% cut. When Bromsgrove's nailers were offered the old prices, they returned to work, despite the fact that the Black Country nailers had not received the same offer, which caused much resentment. The Bromsgrove nailers continued to pay into
405-488: A cap badge featuring the heraldic beast, until the regiments took back up individual regimental badges in the late 1960s. The Territorial Army Wessex Regiment continued to wear the Wessex Brigade badge until the late 1980s when its individual companies too readopted their parent regular regimental cap badges. The now disbanded West Somerset Yeomanry adopted a Wessex Wyvern rampant as the centre piece for its cap badge, and
540-527: A link to Bromsgrove were dropped once the railways started to meet local transport needs instead. The Birmingham and Gloucester Railway built the Lickey Incline , which opened in 1840. It was an engineering compromise, designed under protest by the company's engineer Captain Moorsom , to reduce the costs of construction by heading straight upwards, rather than meandering to take the gradient slowly. The design
675-618: A mere ealdorman , Aethelred , who acknowledged Alfred's overlordship and married his daughter Ethelfleda . The process by which this transformation of the status of Mercia took place is unknown, but it left Alfred as the only remaining English king. After the invasions of the 890s, Wessex and English Mercia continued to be attacked by the Danish settlers in England, and by small Danish raiding forces from overseas, but these incursions were usually defeated, while there were no further major invasions from
810-544: A new law code and championed a revival of scholarship and education. He gathered scholars from around England and Europe to his court, and with their help translated a range of Latin texts into English, doing much of the work personally, and orchestrated the composition of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . As a result of these literary efforts and the political dominance of Wessex, the West Saxon dialect of this period became
945-465: A new law code, gathered scholars to his court and was able to devote funds to building ships, organising an army and establishing a system of burhs . Alfred's son, Edward , captured the eastern Midlands and East Anglia from the Danes and became ruler of Mercia in 918 upon the death of his sister, Æthelflæd . Edward's son, Æthelstan , conquered Northumbria in 927, and England became a unified kingdom for
1080-573: A pilgrimage to Rome. The throne then passed to a series of other kings who claimed descent from Cerdic, but whose supposed genealogies and relationship to one another are unknown. During the 8th century Wessex was overshadowed by Mercia, whose power was then at its height, and the West Saxon kings may at times have acknowledged Mercian overlordship. They were, however, able to avoid the more substantial control which Mercia exerted over smaller kingdoms. During this period Wessex continued its gradual advance to
1215-414: A point, half cutting the nail off, fully cutting it and hammering a head. Simple nails might take a few blows and take a matter of seconds to make, while complex nails could involve twelve to twenty blows. Both men and women made nails, men making the more complex nails requiring greater physical effort, and women producing the simpler, smaller nails. Mechanisation quickly put the industry into decline from
1350-399: A result of the incline and the previous mismanagement. McConnell took charge of reorganising the use of the line's engines. He introduced a number of innovations, in the face of a board that was intent on severe cost cutting, by presenting many of the needs he had as means to save money, which often they were. He also persuaded them to allow him to build a house to his own design, which stood by
1485-513: A series of English offensives overwhelmed the Danes of Mercia and East Anglia, bringing all of England south of the Humber under Edward's power. In 918 Æthelflæd died and Edward took over direct control of Mercia, extinguishing what remained of its independence and ensuring that henceforth there would be only one Kingdom of the English . In 927 Edward's successor Æthelstan conquered Northumbria , bringing
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#17328514959511620-594: A site at the end of Digbeth High Street, directly opposite Birmingham's Selfridges building (it will occupy the site of the city's last seven burgage plots). Complete with state-of-the-art environmental and energy systems, the final development is likely to consist of a Marriott Hotel , apartments, green spaces, a niche shopping centre, a public space originally intended to house Birmingham's historic John F. Kennedy memorial, and two refurbished cold storage buildings which will be redeveloped as creative industries business incubation and innovation hubs. In 1972, following
1755-503: A thriving industry. Market day changed several times over the period, settling on Tuesday from 1792 onwards. Fairs were held twice yearly, in June and October by the eighteenth century, with the modern pleasure fairs originating from the June horse and pleasure fair. Dugdale described the town in 1819 as "a large and dirty place, full of shops and manufacturers of needles, nails, sheeting and other coarse linen." By 1897, Robert Sherard depicts
1890-617: A time without any major disruptions. However, when finally faced with northern invaders, a certain unnamed ruler in Britain (called "a proud tyrant" by Gildas) requested assistance from the Saxons in exchange for land. There were no conflicts between the British and the Saxons for a time, but following "a dispute about the supply of provisions" the Saxons warred against the British and severely damaged parts of
2025-399: A time—that was previously unknown to historians", according to the report. A report by The Guardian adds that "The presence of both kings on the two emperor coins suggests some sort of pact between the pair. But the rarity of the coins also suggests that Alfred quickly dropped his ally, who was just about written out of history". Alfred also reformed the administration of justice, issued
2160-541: A town that appears rather bucolic and "bright and sweet and clean." However, approaching the nailmaker's cottages, one could "pass in one minute from prosperous burgherdom to the lowest slavery". Bromsgrove and the outlying area along the Spadesbourne and Battlefield Brook had a series of around 14 watermills that supported small and medium-sized manufacturing. Some of these were corn mills, others processed linen and lint. These continued to provide employment through most of
2295-490: Is a diminutive of Beornmund (Beorn = 'prince'; Mund = 'hand') then the name would mean either "Princely protector" or "the Prince's hand". This interpretation would suggest that Beorma was a royal name, or else the name of a king's thegn . A royal connection for the founder of an early tribe whose territory is adjacent to that of the founders of Mercia draws attention to its similarity between the names Beornmund or Beorma and those of
2430-428: Is little record of an urban settlement. Later, in the 1230s, Henry III arranged that the rectory manor of St. John was transferred to Worcester Priory , to support the remembrance of his father King John , who was buried there. This meant that the town which grew up around this period was divided between two jurisdictions and landlords, the royal manor in the east, and the rectory manor controlled by Worcester Priory in
2565-532: Is not regarded by historians as reliable due to duplication of Chronicle entries and evidence that the area was first occupied by Jutes . Although the entry mentions Cynric as Cerdic's son, a different source lists him as the son of Cerdic's son, Creoda of Wessex . The Chronicle continues, stating that "Port, and his two sons Bieda and Mægla", landed at Portsmouth in 501 and killed a high-ranking British nobleman. In 508, Cerdic and Cynric slew British king Natanleod along with five thousand of his men (though
2700-648: Is now South Bromsgrove High School, was a corn and worsted mill. The Lint Mill closed after the Second World War. The oldest mill, the King's Mill or Town Mill, had been part of the rectory manor. It was demolished around 1881. Bromsgrove and the Black Country were centres of nail production, made by hand, usually as a family enterprise. Nailmakers in Bromsgrove lived in slum conditions in small cottages in courtyards off
2835-519: Is the most often imputed form of the name of the founder of Birmingham. A number of alternative names have been put forward (including Bearm, Berm, Beor, Bearma, Beorm and Breme), based on the fact that the city's name has been spelled in many different ways throughout its history. Just as the other names have been put forward for the founder of Birmingham, this name may share its origins with similar Anglo-Saxon place names-- Barton , Bearwood , Berwood , Bordesley , Brewood , and Burcot —all found within
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#17328514959512970-400: Is variously given as Ceola, Ceolwulf, Ceol, Cuthwine, Cutha or Cuthwulf. The tradition embodied in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , and in the genealogies of the West Saxon dynasty, is open to considerable doubt. This is largely because the founder of the dynasty and a number of his alleged descendants had Brittonic Celtic, rather than Anglo-Saxon Germanic, names. The name Cerdic is derived from
3105-542: The Battle of Edgehill . In February 1643, Charles I ordered that Bromsgrove's vicar John Hall be removed from his post as a rebel. The town would have been subject to the deprivations of the county in the wars , such as high taxation, pressing of men into military service and requisitioning of food and other property as armies passed through the area. For instance, in 1643, the Worcestershire Committee complained to
3240-530: The Chronicle , the Saxons conquered the Isle of Wight in 530 at a battle near Carisbrooke . Cynric became the ruler of Wessex after Cerdic died in 534, and reigned for twenty-six years. The sources do agree that Ceawlin , who succeeded Cynric in about 581, is the son of Cynric; he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine. Ceawlin's reign is thought to be more reliably documented than those of his predecessors, though
3375-527: The Chronicle' s dates of 560 to 592 are different from the revised chronology. Ceawlin overcame pockets of resisting Britons to the northeast, in the Chilterns , Gloucestershire and Somerset . The capture of Cirencester , Gloucester and Bath in 577, after the pause caused by the battle of Mons Badonicus, opened the way to the southwest. Ceawlin is one of the seven kings named in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of
3510-581: The De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . One of the "English" traditions about the Saxon arrival concerns Hengest and Horsa . When Bede wrote his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , he adapted Gildas' narrative and added details, such as the names of those involved. To the "proud tyrant" he gave the name Vortigern , and the Saxon commanders he named Hengest and Horsa. Further details were added to
3645-584: The English Channel near Dover, and was probably connected with the ancient tin trade . In the Late Neolithic , the ceremonial sites of Avebury and Stonehenge were completed on Salisbury Plain , but the final phase of Stonehenge was erected by the so-called " Wessex culture " of the Middle Bronze Age ( c. 1600–1200 BC ). The area has many other earthworks and erected stone monuments from
3780-515: The English Civil War , although it was a town involved in the support of the Trained Bands , the system of local militias used for law enforcement. In 1642, as preparations for war were made, Parliament surveyed the capabilities of the trained bands and documented that Bromsgrove had a store of munitions, including ten barrels of powder. The Royalists occupied the county in late 1642, following
3915-604: The Great Summer Army arrived from Scandinavia , to reinforce the Great Heathen Army. The reinforced army invaded Wessex and, although Æthelred and Alfred won some victories and succeeded in preventing the conquest of their kingdom, a number of defeats and heavy losses of men compelled Alfred to pay the Danes to leave Wessex. The Danes spent the next few years subduing Mercia and some of them settled in Northumbria, but
4050-453: The Isle of Wight , although Kent regained its independence almost immediately and Sussex followed some years later. His reign ended in 688 when he abdicated and went on pilgrimage to Rome, where he was baptised by Pope Sergius I but died soon afterwards. Bokerley Dyke appears to have been fortified around this period, and the former Roman Road at Ackling Dyke blocked by the Britons to prevent
4185-580: The Thames and the (Bristol) Avon , encouraging the kingdom's reorientation southwards. Cenwealh married Penda 's daughter, and when he repudiated her, Penda again invaded and drove him into exile for some time, perhaps three years. The dates are uncertain but it was probably in the late 640s or early 650s. He spent his exile in East Anglia , and was converted to Christianity there. After his return, Cenwealh faced further attacks from Penda's successor Wulfhere , but
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4320-556: The Thames and the Avon now probably formed the northern boundary of Wessex, while its heartland lay in Hampshire , Wiltshire , Berkshire , Dorset and Somerset . The system of shires which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England (and eventually Ireland , Wales and Scotland as well) originated in Wessex, and had been established by the mid-8th century. In 802
4455-514: The Victorians . Nevertheless, the association with Wessex was only popularised in the 19th century, most notably through the writings of E. A. Freeman . By the time of the grant of armorial bearings by the College of Arms to Somerset County Council in 1911, a (red) dragon had become the accepted heraldic emblem of the former kingdom. This precedent was followed in 1937 when Wiltshire County Council
4590-541: The baptism of Cynegils by Birinus , at the end of the 630s, perhaps in 640. Birinus was then established as bishop of the West Saxons, with his seat at Dorchester-on-Thames . This was the first conversion to Christianity by a West Saxon king, but it was not accompanied by the immediate conversion of all the West Saxons: Cynegils' successor (and probably his son), Cenwealh , who came to the throne in about 642,
4725-576: The "Arms of Edward the Confessor", and the design is based on an emblem historically used by King Edward the Confessor on the reverse side of pennies minted by him. The heraldic design continued to represent both Wessex and Edward in classical heraldry and is found on a number of church windows in derived shields such as the Arms of the Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster ( Westminster Abbey , which
4860-411: The 1840s. Nailmasters resorted to measures such as paying workers in tokens, redeemable only at their own stores, to maintain their profitability. The industry lasted longer in Bromsgrove, being the dominant occupation in the town through most of the 1800s due to lack of alternative work. As mechanisation took over, nailmakers produced nails that were still hard to produce by machine. Despite this, there
4995-625: The 1970s William Crampton , the founder of the British Flag Institute , designed a flag for the Wessex region which depicts a gold wyvern on a red field. A white cross on a field of red, known as the Flag of Saint Aldhelm (whose feast day on 25 May is also celebrated as "Wessex Day") is sometimes flown by Wessex regionalists as an alternative to the Wyvern. The flag is effectively an inverted version of
5130-467: The Baptist , standing at a prominent point in the local landscape. Bromsgrove, along with all the towns in north Worcestershire , was committed to defending the city of Worcester , and is recorded to have contributed burgesses to Droitwich in 1086. There may also have been Anglo-Saxon or Norman fortifications in Bromsgrove, but no archaeological evidence remains outside the literature. Bromsgrove and
5265-482: The Beowulf Brewing Company established a series of Anglo-Saxon brands for its beers, most of which had thematic links to the legend of Beowulf . One of these beers, a pale session bitter, was instead named after Beorma to commemorate the city in which the brewery was founded. The "Beorma Quarter" is planned for construction from 2010 onwards, as a multimillion-pound 30-storey city-within-a-city development on
5400-587: The Black Death also caused traders to attempt to hike their prices, which the courts attempted to suppress. Even in later years, Bromsgrove did not grow a market in luxury goods, except for one haberdasher . Its markets did not compete with the larger centres for the highest value goods, such as wines or jewellery. Church court records show that Bromsgrove had an urban underclass, including prostitutes and beggars. Assaults, murders and burglaries are also recorded. Servants, often young people, feature particularly in
5535-418: The British name Caraticos. This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time. Other members of the dynasty possessing Celtic names include Ceawlin and Cædwalla . Cædwalla, who died as late as 689, was the last West Saxon king to possess a Celtic name. Cynegils ' reign saw the first event in West Saxon history that can be dated with reasonable certainty:
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5670-418: The Bromsgrove's hinterland changed. Farms tended to merge and become larger, and moved from producing crops to raising livestock. This resulted in higher value goods like wool, leather and meat being sold through Bromsgrove's market and contributed to the town's prosperity in the later Middle Ages. The town's population would have fell, but can still be estimated as around 400 in the later 1300s. The aftermath of
5805-543: The Cross of Saint George, although it is also thought to have been derived from the arms of Sherborne Abbey , Dorset. A coat of arms was attributed by medieval heralds to the Kings of Wessex. These arms appear in a manuscript of the 13th century, and are blazoned as Azure , a cross patoncé (alternatively a cross fleury or cross moline ) between four martlets Or . The attributed arms of Wessex are also known as
5940-460: The English People as holding "imperium" over the southern English: the Chronicle later repeated this claim, referring to Ceawlin as a bretwalda , or "Britain-ruler". Ceawlin was deposed, perhaps by his nephew, Ceol , and died a year later. Six years later, in about 594, Ceol was succeeded by a brother, Ceolwulf , who was succeeded in his turn in about 617 by Cynegils of Wessex . The genealogies do not agree on Cynegils' pedigree: his father
6075-539: The Great . This occurred because the first two brothers died in wars with the Danes without issue, while Æthelred's sons were too young to rule when their father died. In 865, several of the Danish commanders combined their respective forces into one large army and landed in England. Over the following years, what became known as the Great Heathen Army overwhelmed the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia. Then in 871,
6210-504: The High Street, and in Sidemoor and Catshill . Their sheds were attached to the cottages. As a result, the pollution and dirt was hard to control. Nailmakers would purchase their iron from the nailmasters and sell their nails to nailmasters at set prices, effectively at a piece-rate. The basic technique of nail production did not change much, involving in essence heating iron rods, making
6345-551: The King about the "plunderings and abuses" of the Royalist troops of Sir Thomas Aston , which had made it impossible for Bromsgrove and other places to pay their monthly contributions. The following year, Parliamentary forces briefly imposed themselves on northern Worcestershire. In June 1644, General William Waller 's force of around 10,000 men pursued the King's army across the county as it retreated from Oxford. Waller's army during June lived off whatever they could requisition, first in
6480-509: The Middle Ages probably reached a population of no more than 600. It was not especially wealthy. Taxation records show that most families, even among the richest, had relatively moderate incomes, compared to other towns in the Midlands. It did, however, have an urban character, and attracted people into the town from the surrounding area. By the end of the Middle Ages, Bromsgrove was a centre for
6615-646: The Neolithic and Early Bronze periods, including the Dorset Cursus , an earthwork 10 km (6 mi) long and 100 m (110 yd) wide, which was oriented to the midwinter sunset. Although agriculture and hunting were pursued during this long period, there is little archaeological evidence of human settlements. By the Iron Age , Celtic British tribes such as the Durotriges , Atrebates , Belgae and Dobunni occupied
6750-679: The Priory Manor was given to the new Dean and Chapter. Tithe collection and rents would have carried on in a similar fashion. One major change was the political fortunes of the Talbot family, who chose to remain Catholics. They were connected to the Wintours by marriage, with the result that they were suspected of involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Bromsgrove did not play a major military role in
6885-596: The Saxons finally defeated the British by treacherously attacking them once the two parties had convened for a meeting. Some additional details of the Hengest and Horsa legend are found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . The Chronicle then records subsequent Saxon arrivals, including that of Cerdic, the founder of Wessex, in 495. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , Cerdic of Wessex and his son Cynric of Wessex landed in southern Hampshire in 495, but this account
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#17328514959517020-580: The Thames estuary. Having defeated King Beorhtwulf of Mercia in battle, the Danes moved on to invade Wessex, but were decisively crushed by Egbert's son and successor King Æthelwulf in the exceptionally bloody Battle of Aclea . This victory postponed Danish conquests in England for fifteen years, but raids on Wessex continued. In 855–856 Æthelwulf went on pilgrimage to Rome and his eldest surviving son Æthelbald took advantage of his absence to seize his father's throne. On his return, Æthelwulf agreed to divide
7155-607: The Vale of Evesham, then Bromsgrove and Kidderminster. The Talbot family who held Grafton became central figures in the county's military organisation under the Royalists. The promotion of Catholics and recusants like the Talbots was a source of controversy in Worcestershire, referred to, for instance, by the clubmen in their attempts to resist the demands of both armies in the later part of
7290-421: The West Saxons' advance into Dorset . Evidence suggests that Dorset, north Hampshire, eastern Devon and southern Wiltshire were substantially under West Saxon control by the beginning of the reign of Cædwalla of Wessex in 685, but details of their conquest are unclear. His successor was Ine , who also claimed to be a descendant of Cerdic through Ceawlin, but again through a long-separated line of descent. Ine
7425-458: The accession of his brother Centwine of Wessex . Centwine is known to have fought and won battles against the Britons , but the details have not survived. Centwine was succeeded by another supposed distant relative, Cædwalla , who claimed descent from Ceawlin. Cædwalla reigned for just two years, but achieved a dramatic expansion of the kingdom's power, conquering the kingdoms of Sussex , Kent and
7560-469: The alleged B-line of Mercian kings noted by Dr. Barbara Yorke that included Beornred , Beornwulf , Beorhtwulf and Burgred . The name Beorma has been used to establish and promote links with the city of Birmingham on a number of occasions, evolving from an academic assumption about an etymological source into an established character, albeit mythical, which has come to symbolise Birmingham's Anglo-Saxon foundation. In 2002 Birmingham's medieval history
7695-414: The assembly. However, after ten weeks of strike, the nailers returned to work without any concessions. Six more major strikes followed in the years to 1891. The longest three included a twenty-week strike in 1860, and a twelve-week strike in 1868. In 1869, a ten-week strike was caused after nail prices were cut by 20% in the 'Starvation list'. A meeting of 4,500 people at Crown Close led to the formation of
7830-405: The battle and an apparent peace agreement with the Britons. The battle of Mons Badonicus is believed to have been fought around this time. Gildas states that the Saxons were completely defeated in the battle, in which King Arthur participated according to Nennius . This defeat is not recorded in the Chronicle . The thirty-year period of peace was temporarily interrupted when, according to
7965-480: The continent encouraged Alfred to protect his Kingdom of Wessex. Over the following years Alfred carried out a dramatic reorganisation of the government and defences of Wessex, building warships, organising the army into two shifts which served alternately, and establishing a system of fortified burhs across the kingdom. This system is recorded in a 10th-century document known as the Burghal Hidage , which details
8100-461: The continent. The balance of power tipped steadily in favour of the English. In 911 Ealdorman Æthelred died, leaving his widow, Alfred's daughter Æthelflæd , in charge of Mercia. Alfred's son and successor Edward the Elder then annexed London, Oxford and the surrounding area, probably including Middlesex , Hertfordshire , Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire , from Mercia to Wessex. Between 913 and 918
8235-412: The country. In time, however, some Saxon troops left Britain; under Ambrosius Aurelianus , the British subsequently defeated those who remained. A lengthy conflict ensued, in which neither side gained any decisive advantage until the Britons routed the Saxons at the Battle of Mons Badonicus . After this, there occurred a peaceful period for the Britons, under which Gildas was living at the time he wrote
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#17328514959518370-508: The current Royal Wessex Yeomanry adopted a similar device in 2014 when the Regiment moved from wearing individual squadron county yeomanry cap badges to a unified single Regimental cap badge. When Sophie, Countess of Wessex was granted arms, the sinister supporter assigned was a blue wyvern, described by the College of Arms as "an heraldic beast which has long been associated with Wessex" . In
8505-474: The death of King Harold II , who was previously Earl of Wessex . Dragon standards were in fairly wide use in Europe at the time, being derived from the draco standard employed by the later Roman army , and there is no evidence that it explicitly identified Wessex. A panel of 18th century stained glass at Exeter Cathedral indicates that an association with an image of a dragon in south west Britain pre-dated
8640-545: The early twentieth century, as jobs in the car industry at Longbridge and elsewhere became available. Most of the nailmaker's cottages were demolished in slum clearances in the twentieth century. The canals did not quite reach Bromsgrove's town, although several plans were made. The nearest points on the network were Tardebigge and Stoke Works on the Worcester and Birmingham Canal , built between 1792 and 1815. Canals did connect Birmingham, Droitwich and Worcester. Plans to add
8775-545: The end of 368. In 380–1, Magnus Maximus defeated further raids. However, there was increasing internal conflict across the Roman Empire. During 383–4, in the context of the overthrow of Emperor Gratian , Maximus took most of the garrison from Britain to Gaul, where he was made Augustus of the West , ruling Britain, Gaul, Spain and Roman Africa. Following the death of Maximus in 388, Roman authority in Britain again declined. During
8910-497: The entry for Birmingham. The meaning and linguistic proximity of 'beorn', prince, coupled with the usually personal suffix -ing so correlated by following well-known names in most cases, underpins the leading theory that both places had an eponymous human leader. However few records of such princely names containing the 'm' sound supports a counter-theory of word origin. It points to relative proximity to forests/heath clearings of multi-pointed shrubs, broom (and relatives gorse), as
9045-458: The environs of Birmingham. The high incidence of these place names has been used to suggest that Beorma's tribe, the beormingas, settled across the wider woodland area which formed the northern part of the Forest of Arden . The second most common name associated with the origin of Birmingham is Breme or Brom, which could be a given name, but whose meaning is derived from the spiky shrub ‘ broom ’ (which
9180-562: The fictional story of Beorma, interweaving it with true stories of men who lived and worked in Birmingham. Wessex The Kingdom of the West Saxons , also known as the Kingdom of Wessex , was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the south of Great Britain , from around 519 until Alfred the Great declared himself as King of the Anglo-Saxons in 886. The Anglo-Saxons believed that Wessex
9315-472: The final unification of the kingdom of England. When Eadred died in 955, he was succeeded by Edmund's elder son Eadred, whose incompetent rule may have led to the division of England between Wessex under Eadred and Mercia and Northumbria under his younger brother Edgar in 957, although some historians argue that it was intended from the start that the kingdom would be divided when Edgar came of age, which occurred in 957. Eadwig died in 959 and Edgar became king of
9450-561: The first time. Cnut the Great , who conquered England in 1016, created the wealthy and powerful earldom of Wessex, but in 1066 Harold Godwinson reunited the earldom with the crown and Wessex ceased to exist. From the Neolithic onwards the chalk downland of the area that would become Wessex was traversed by the Harrow Way , which can still be traced from Marazion in Cornwall to the coast of
9585-487: The first war. In the third civil war of 1649, the Talbots joined King Charles II at the Battle of Worcester with a force of local men and had a role in his escape. The battle was traumatic for the county, as the Scottish troops in support of Charles looted as they traversed the county. Afterwards, as some of the Scots dispersed trying to escape, further skirmishes occurred as they were arrested or killed. Local tradition recounts that Battlefield Brook and Battlefields Farm
9720-436: The fortunes of Wessex were transformed by the accession of Egbert who came from a cadet branch of the ruling dynasty that claimed descent from Ine's brother Ingild . With his accession the throne became firmly established in the hands of a single lineage. Early in his reign he conducted two campaigns against the " West Welsh ", first in 813 and then again at Gafulford in 825. During the course of these campaigns he conquered
9855-606: The future Wessex. Following the Roman conquest of Britain , from the 1st century AD, numerous country Roman villa with attached farms were established across Wessex, along with the important towns of Dorchester and Winchester (the ending -chester comes from Latin castra , "a military camp"). The Romans, or rather the Romano-British , built another major road that integrated Wessex, running eastwards from Exeter through Dorchester to Winchester and Silchester and on to London . In
9990-457: The great earldoms of the late Anglo-Saxon period, 1066 marks the extinction of Wessex as a political unit. Wessex is often symbolised by a wyvern or dragon . Both Henry of Huntingdon and Matthew of Westminster talk of a golden dragon being raised at the Battle of Burford in 752 by the West Saxons. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts a fallen golden dragon, as well as a red/golden/white dragon at
10125-468: The historicity of Natanleod has been disputed), and Cerdic became the first king of Wessex in 519. The Saxons attacked Cerdicesford in 519, intending to cross the River Avon and block a road which connected Old Sarum and Badbury Rings , a British stronghold. The battle appears to have ended as a draw, and the expansion of Wessex ended for about thirty years. This is likely due to losses suffered during
10260-618: The idea that Birmingham itself was preceded by a tribal territory occupied by the Beormingas. According to Tom Shippey J.R.R. Tolkien went on to use the character of Beorn in The Hobbit to evoke links between elfland and the counties surrounding Birmingham. As no records of the place-name exist from the Anglo-Saxon period, only the entry for Bermingham in the Domesday Book of 1086 Beorma
10395-579: The importation of items from the Roman Empire stopped. Theories about the settlement of Saxons, Jutes and Angles in Britain are divided into two categories by the historian Peter Hunter Blair (1956), namely "Welsh" and "English". The Welsh tradition is exemplified by Gildas , in De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . In brief, it states that after the Romans left, the Celtic Britons managed to continue for
10530-614: The increased rates may have hastened the demise of the industry. The industry featured in Robert Sherard 's book The White Slaves of England in 1897, which includes a detailed picture of nailmaking in its final years. At this time, working weeks of 70–90 hours were commonplace and poverty still widespread. Their diet was typically bread, margarine and tea, with cheese as an occasional supplement, and sometimes meat. Chickens and pigs were often kept as another way to supplement their diet. Nailmakers would often make supplementary income in
10665-518: The king of Northumbria . He thereby became the Bretwalda , or high king of Britain. This position of dominance was short-lived, as Wiglaf returned and restored Mercian independence in 830, but the expansion of Wessex across south-eastern England proved permanent. Egbert's later years saw the beginning of Danish Viking raids on Wessex, which occurred frequently from 835 onwards. In 851 a huge Danish army, said to have been carried on 350 ships, arrived in
10800-419: The kingdom with his son to avoid bloodshed, ruling the new territories in the east while Æthelbald held the old heartland in the west. Æthelwulf was succeeded by each of his four surviving sons ruling one after another: the rebellious Æthelbald, then Æthelbert , who had previously inherited the eastern territories from his father and who reunited the kingdom on Æthelbald's death, then Æthelred, and finally Alfred
10935-765: The late 390s, Stilicho attempted to restore control, with a campaign against the Picti, but this was undermined in 401 when Stilicho transferred troops to the Continent to fight the Goths . Two subsequent Roman rulers of Britain were murdered. In 407, a Roman officer in Britain, Constantine III declared himself Augustus of the West, and left for Gaul, taking with him Roman troops. Finally, in 410, when Romano-British officials requested military assistance from Emperor Honorius , he told them to manage their own defences. Economic decline occurred after these events: circulation of Roman coins ended and
11070-404: The latter date to around 879 CE. According to a news report, "experts believe it [the hoard] was buried by a Viking during a series of raids known to have taken place in the area at that time", while Wessex was ruled by Alfred the Great and Mercia by Ceolwulf II. Two imperial coins recovered from the treasure hunters depict the two kings, "indicating an alliance between the two kingdoms—at least, for
11205-502: The leader of a (possibly mercenary) group with whom he shared a contractual obligation (the frankpledge ) to one of the Mercian kings . Beorma variously means, in Old English , " fermented ", "head of beer ", " yeasty " or " frothy ", from which the modern English words barm and barmy are derived. The assertion that Beorma was the founder of Birmingham arose from a post-war challenge to
11340-468: The location and garrisoning requirements of thirty-three forts, whose positioning ensured that no one in Wessex was more than a long day's ride from a place of safety. In the 890s these reforms helped him to repel the invasion of another huge Danish army – which was aided by the Danes settled in England – with minimal losses. In 2015, two individuals found a large hoard near Leominster consisting primarily of Saxon jewellery and silver ingots but also coins;
11475-521: The main income of the household. Between 22 and 29 people are recorded in the 1300s at the Court Leet paying 'fines' for selling ale for more than the fixed price; this seems to have been applied in effect as a tax. Women were able to hold property, sometimes as widows or jointly with their husbands, and owned up to 10% of Bromsgrove's plots at various times. After the Black Death , the social structure of
11610-557: The marshes of the Somerset Levels , but after a few months he was able to gather an army and defeated the Danes at the Battle of Edington , bringing about their final withdrawal from Wessex to settle in East Anglia. There were simultaneous Danish raids on the north coast of France and Brittany in the 870s – prior to the establishment of Normandy in 911 – and recorded Danish alliances with both Bretons and Cornish may have resulted in
11745-519: The mid-4th century there were increasing raids on Roman Britain by peoples such as the Picts , Scottish people , Attacotti , and Franks , as well as the Saxons. In 367, these tribes simultaneously invaded Britain from the north, west and east. The invaders reportedly defeated or co-opted Roman forces in most parts of northern and western Britain. However, the Roman general Theodosius had recaptured most areas by
11880-465: The nineteenth century, but declined towards the end. Within the town, Cotton Mill was used for cotton and worsted until around 1830, reopening briefly in the 1850s. The 6–7 acre pool located in what is now Sanders Park was drained in 1865. It was a five-storey building, demolished in 1892. Near Charford, Moat Mill served as a flour mill with five grindstones until around 1913, and the Lint Mill, at what
12015-628: The number of minor aristocratic, gentry and ecclesiastical estates grew, which would have needed to buy and sell goods. Hanbury alone had six manor houses and two granges in the 1200s. The Priory Manor itself would have been a potential customer, as would Grafton Manor just south of the town. Nevertheless, not all the local trade would have passed directly through Bromsgrove, as the Priory for instance would often take locally produced goods directly to Droitwich or Worcester, or purchase them directly at other larger centres with particular specialisms. In 1317, it
12150-411: The old Bromsgrove station. McConnell rebuilt some of the engines as saddle tanks as a cost-saving measure to remove the need for the bankers to haul engine tenders with them up the incline. In 1845, he built a new banker Great Britain , which became very well known among engineers, some of whom visited to view it in summer 1846. Probably after this, McConnell persuaded Stephenson and others to set up
12285-442: The organisation of matters that relate to the town itself, such as the maintenance of roads and other facilities. The main representative post appears to be that of Bailiff. The royal manor, with its Court Leet, dealt with the majority of financial matters including tolls and revenues from the market, after disputes with the Priory manor over rights to various revenues and fines were settled. The royal manor would therefore have paid for
12420-482: The origin in both cases. As the person after whom Birmingham was named, there are three possible answers to the question of exactly who Beorma was. Beorma could have been the founder or ancestor of a tribe, the beormingas , long before its arrival in what was to become Anglo-Saxon Mercia ; the ealdorman or head of a tribe or clan of kinsmen who travelled together for the purpose of migration (and who settled in Mercia); or
12555-552: The receipt of his honorary doctorate from the University of Birmingham , broadcaster and Birmingham City Organist George Thalben-Ball wrote 'Toccata Beorma' as a celebration of his links with the city. In 2000 the Women & Theatre company embarked on a national tour to celebrate the millennium by performing a new musical play, Tribe of Beorma , by Janice Connolly . On 5 March 2007 Radio 4's Afternoon Play by Stephanie Dale recounted
12690-507: The records of disorderly behaviour. However, violence was not confined to the lower and middle orders; other courts issued warrants for the arrest of two of the Staffords of Grafton Manor in the 1401 and 1450, along with their followers, some natives of Bromsgrove, for politically motivated violence. Governance of the town itself is difficult to discern. Manorial records give evidence for courts, rents and fines, but do not present evidence about
12825-453: The rest returned to Wessex in 876. Alfred responded effectively and was able with little fighting to bring about their withdrawal in 877. A portion of the Danish army settled in Mercia, but at the beginning of 878 the remaining Danes mounted a winter invasion of Wessex, taking Alfred by surprise and overrunning much of the kingdom. Alfred was reduced to taking refuge with a small band of followers in
12960-541: The sizes of the frontages of the buildings. The road entering Bromsgrove from the west appears to have been diverted to ensure that it met Bromsgrove at the furthest point north, forcing travellers to pass south through the whole High Street if intending to continue west. The town probably benefited from the growth of the local agricultural population in the early medieval period, which began to establish new farmland in places like Stoke Prior and Hanbury through assarting (creating clearings in) Feckenham Forest. Similarly,
13095-497: The standard written form of Old English for the rest of the Anglo-Saxon period and beyond. The Danish conquests had destroyed the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia and divided Mercia in half, with the Danes settling in the north-east while the south-west was left to the English king Ceolwulf , allegedly a Danish puppet. When Ceolwulf's rule came to an end he was succeeded as ruler of "English Mercia" not by another king but by
13230-639: The story in the Historia Brittonum , which was partially written by Nennius . According to the Historia , Hengest and Horsa fought the invaders of Britain under the condition of gaining the Island of Thanet . The daughter of Hengest, Rowena, later arrived on a ship of reinforcements, and Vortigern married her. However, a war arose in Kent due to a dispute between Hengest and Vortigern's son. After losing several battles,
13365-525: The strike fund, however. The poor working conditions prompted a Parliamentary investigation and report in 1888. Shortly after, a final 16-week strike in 1891-2 was supported by the Sunday Chronicle who paid £100 into the strike fund, and the chainmakers of Brierley Hill contributed a further £25. Events were organised and a soup kitchen provided, alongside strike pay. The nailmasters offered increased prices of 20% and eventually agreed 30–40%, however,
13500-551: The summer picking fruit at Dodford , at the former Chartist plots. "Foggers", or middle men who typically owned general stores, would buy nails at a 30% discount from nailers, and often pay in tokens to redeem in their shops, despite the Truck Act , which had banned such practices. They were able to do this largely because they offered credit to the impoverished nailmakers. Nailmakers, even when supplying directly to nailmasters, were subject to arbitrary decisions. A particular grievance
13635-457: The supply of wood to Droitwich for the salt pans. During the Anglo-Saxon period the Bromsgrove area had a woodland economy; including hunting, maintenance of haies and pig farming. At the time of Edward the Confessor , the manor of Bromsgrove is known to have been held by Earl Edwin , who became Earl of Mercia in 1062. After the Norman conquest, the manor that later held the town of Bromsgrove
13770-555: The suppression of Cornish autonomy with the death by drowning of King Donyarth in 875 as recorded by the Annales Cambriae . No subsequent 'Kings' of Cornwall are recorded after this time, but Asser records Cornwall as a separate kingdom from Wessex in the 890s. In 879 a Viking fleet that had assembled in the Thames estuary sailed across the English Channel to start a new campaign on the continent. The rampaging Viking army on
13905-431: The surrounding area was put under forest law when the boundaries of Feckenham Forest were extended hugely by Henry II . Forest law was removed from the Bromsgrove area in 1301 in the reign of Edward I , when the boundaries were moved back. Bromsgrove was one of the smallest urban settlements in the county, and had no formal status as a borough. A market day was first granted in 1200; however, even at this time, there
14040-478: The throne, the kingdom was divided to avoid war. Æthelwulf was succeeded in turn by his four sons, the youngest being Alfred the Great . Wessex was invaded by the Danes in 871, and Alfred was compelled to pay them to leave. They returned in 876 , but were forced to withdraw. In 878 they forced Alfred to flee to the Somerset Levels , but were eventually defeated at the Battle of Edington . During his reign Alfred issued
14175-496: The upkeep of the market and the tollhouse, which also served at some points as a jail. Christopher Dyer suggests that local societies may have grown up to deal with some of its organisational issues. There was for instance a guild in the town during the 1300s. There were three crosses erected in the town, and reports of well-paved roads in the 1400s, so Dyer concludes that the town's voluntary self-organisation seems to have been adequate to deal with its key problems. Bromsgrove in
14310-399: The vastly wealthy holders of this earldom, first Godwin and then his son Harold Godwinson , were the most powerful men in English politics after the king. Finally, on the death of Edward the Confessor in 1066, Harold became king, reuniting the earldom of Wessex with the crown. No new earl was appointed before the ensuing Norman Conquest of England , and as the Norman kings soon did away with
14445-531: The way Anglo-Saxon place-names had been constructed. It was not until 1940 that Eilert Ekwall noted that: "Birmingham probably meant 'the Hamm of Beornmund’s people' (OE Beornmund-ingaham). Or the direct base may be a pet-form Beorma from Beornmund" . Ekwall's view was built on by J.M. Dodgson who went on to suggest that –ingaham settlements like Birmingham and Nottingham were signs of earlier settlement than –ing settlements like Reading and Hastings , reinforcing
14580-606: The west, overwhelming the British kingdom of Dumnonia ( Devon ). At this time Wessex took de facto control of much of Devon, although Britons retained a degree of independence in Devon until at least the 10th century. ( William of Malmesbury claimed that the Britons and Saxons inhabited Exeter "as equals" until 927.) As a result of the Mercian conquest of the northern portion of its early territories in Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire ,
14715-446: The west. The division ran along the High Street. Nevertheless, records show no sign of an urban settlement in 1240–1250. New initiatives to establish a market took place in 1250, and Bromsgrove residents appear in the tax records by 1275. The town appears to have been founded as a series of plots of sizes between two and four rods (10 and 20 m), marked out along the current High Street. These plots can still be discerned today, in
14850-615: The western Britons still in Devon and reduced those beyond the River Tamar , now Cornwall , to the status of a vassal . In 825 or 826 he overturned the political order of England by decisively defeating King Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellendun and seizing control of Surrey , Sussex, Kent and Essex from the Mercians, while with his help East Anglia broke away from Mercian control. In 829 he conquered Mercia, driving its King Wiglaf into exile, and secured acknowledgement of his overlordship from
14985-516: The whole of England under one ruler for the first time. The Kingdom of Wessex had thus been transformed into the Kingdom of England . Æthelstan never married, and when he died in 939 he was succeeded by his half-brother Edmund . Edmund's sons were young children when he died in 946, so he was succeeded by his full brother Eadred . Edmund and Eadred both lost control of Northumbria at the beginning of their reigns but had regained it by their deaths. Northumbria's acceptance of West Saxon rule in 954 meant
15120-416: The whole of England. After the conquest of England by the Danish king Cnut in 1016, he established earldoms based on the former kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia, but initially administered Wessex personally. Within a few years, however, he had created an earldom of Wessex, encompassing all of England south of the Thames, for his English henchman Godwin, Earl of Wessex . For almost fifty years
15255-458: The wool trade. Manufacture of cloth, particularly narrow cloth and friezes is first recorded in 1533. Nailmaking was probably introduced in the region in the sixteenth century and was taking place in Bromsgrove in the seventeenth century. It provided an alternative trade for the rural poor, who would initially have supplemented other work with the nail trade. At the Reformation , around 1540,
15390-451: Was baptised and was expanded under his rule. Cædwalla later conquered Sussex , Kent and the Isle of Wight . His successor, Ine ( r. 689–726 ), issued one of the oldest surviving English law codes and established a second West Saxon bishopric . The throne subsequently passed to a series of kings with unknown genealogies. During the 8th century, as the hegemony of Mercia grew, Wessex largely retained its independence. It
15525-487: Was a pagan at his accession. However, he too was baptised only a few years later and Wessex became firmly established as a Christian kingdom. Cynegils' godfather was King Oswald of Northumbria , and his conversion may have been connected with an alliance against King Penda of Mercia , who had previously attacked Wessex. These attacks marked the beginning of sustained pressure from the expanding kingdom of Mercia . In time this would deprive Wessex of its territories north of
15660-507: Was a great deal of pressure on wages, which became low, causing an industry-wide strike in 1842, when nailmasters attempted to reduce their purchase prices by 10%. 15,000 nailers attended a meeting in Dudley Market Place, including around 1,500 from Bromsgrove. The nailers brought caltrops , known to them as the 'tis-was', to prevent the 6th Hussars from charging and breaking up their protest. The Hussars were prevented from breaking up
15795-474: Was a small market town, primarily producing cloth through the early modern period. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it became a major centre for nail making. Bromsgrove is first documented in the early 9th century as Bremesgraf. An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 909 AD mentions a Bremesburh ; possibly also referring to Bromsgrove. The Domesday Book of 1086 references Bremesgrave . The name means Bremi’s grove . The grove element may refer to
15930-454: Was able to expand West Saxon territory in Somerset at the expense of the Britons . He established a second bishopric at Winchester , while the one at Dorchester was soon abandoned as Mercian power pushed southwards. After Cenwealh's death in 673, his widow, Seaxburh , held the throne for a year; she was followed by Æscwine , who was apparently descended from another brother of Ceawlin. This
16065-445: Was annually visited by Hall's son, an Anglican bishop. He was licensed as a Congregationalist teacher in 1672 in Bromsgrove and died in 1699. A Congregationalist chapel was established in Bromsgrove in 1693. Cloth manufacture fell into decline in the 1700s. By 1778, 140 hands (i.e., people) were employed in the manufacture of linsey and linen employed 180. By comparison, nail making employed 900 hands by this time and had become
16200-546: Was being considered for sale to the new railway. One died instantly, the other a day later. Another accident occurred at the nascent works in March 1841, when a botched repair caused steam to escape from one of the locomotives onto the drunken William Creuze, causing his death. The result was that the works were reorganised under a new manager GD Bischopp and a foreman recruited from Manchester, James McConnell . Working practices were very unsafe, as well as difficult and expensive, as
16335-574: Was commemorated by the placement of a set of ornate rolled steel memorial arches in Gooch Street on a bridge over the River Rea in the suburb of Highgate by artist Steve Field, which reflect upon the foundation of the city and on modern Highgate's local identity. The memorial says "near this river crossing an Anglian tribe led by Beorma founded Birmingham". A micro-brewery founded in the city's Yardley suburb in 1996 (and relocated to Chasewater in 2003),
16470-646: Was commonly found in the woodland clearings of the Forest of Arden) rather than with a given name. Birmingham has also been known as Bromwycham, and nearby towns with a similar etymology include Bromford , Little Bromwich , West Bromwich , Bromsgrove , Broomhill and several Bromleys scattered across Staffordshire and Warwickshire. By the 14th century there were so many English place-names prefixed by Brom- that differentiating names (such as Abbots Bromley , originally referred to as Bromleage in 1002 and Kings Bromley , originally known as Brom Legge ) were adopted. If Beorma
16605-508: Was during this period that the system of shires was established. Under Egbert , Surrey , Sussex, Kent, Essex , and Mercia, along with parts of Dumnonia , were conquered. He also obtained the overlordship of the Northumbrian king. However, Mercian independence was restored in 830. During the reign of his successor, Æthelwulf , a Danish army arrived in the Thames estuary, but was decisively defeated. When Æthelwulf's son, Æthelbald , usurped
16740-595: Was founded by Cerdic and Cynric of the Gewisse , though this is considered by some to be a legend . The two main sources for the history of Wessex are the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (the latter of which drew on and adapted an early version of the List), which sometimes conflict. Wessex became a Christian kingdom after Cenwalh ( r. 642–645, 648–672 )
16875-470: Was founded by the king). Bromsgrove Bromsgrove is a town in Worcestershire , England , about 16 miles (26 km) north-east of Worcester and 13 miles (21 km) south-west of Birmingham city centre. It had a population of 34,755 in at the 2021 census. It gives its name to the wider Bromsgrove District , of which it is the largest town and administrative centre. In the Middle Ages, it
17010-458: Was given the right hold a Tuesday market and three-day fair every 29 August at the Decollation of St. John the Baptist. The market place and tollhouse were located at the junction of St. John Street and the High Street. Its market was especially used by the surrounding area to sell surplus oats, which were increasingly produced in the area, while wheat was grown in southern Worcestershire. The area
17145-467: Was granted arms. Two gold Wessex dragons were later granted as supporters to the arms of Dorset County Council in 1950. In the British Army the wyvern has been used to represent Wessex: the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division , and postwar regional 43 (Wessex) Brigade adopted a formation sign consisting of a gold wyvern on a black or dark blue background. The regular Wessex Brigade of the 1960s adopted
17280-420: Was held by the King. The royal manor of Bromsgrove and King's Norton covered 23,000 acres (9,300 ha) from Woodcote to Deritend . Among the manor's possessions were 13 salt pans at Droitwich , with three workers, producing 300 mits. The King had the right to sell the salt from his pans before any other salt in the town. Bromsgrove is sited at the centre of a very large parish, with its church, St John
17415-681: Was known for the high quality of its pigs. Common trades can be traced from surnames in this period, and included in the years to 1327 bakers, tanners, carpenters, drapers, dyers, butchers, masons, smiths, shoemakers and fullers. The town had a large number of tanneries and cloth was also produced. Tanneries and breweries were located on the Priory manor side of the town, with access to the Spadesbourne brook. This created significant problems of pollution. Bromsgrove benefited from sales to travellers, for instance of beer, bread, horsebread, meat and cheese. Brewing and selling ale seems to have been predominantly done by women in Bromsgrove, perhaps to supplement
17550-416: Was mocked by leading engineers such as Stephenson and Brunel . The 1 in 37½ gradient imposed long-term costs on the operation of the railway, particularly the need for extra engines to push freight and passengers up the hill. Two railwaymen, Tom Scaife and Joseph Rutherford, were killed by an explosion that took place on 10 November 1840 while they were inspecting a steam locomotive named Surprise . It
17685-455: Was named after one of the encounters, although it is unclear whether before or after. Disputes about the vicarage continued through the Interregnum and Protectorate . John Hall was vicar again until 1652. John Hall's successor John Spilsbury, previously a fellow of Magdalen College , was unpopular with some of Bromsgrove's churchgoers, who attempted unsuccessfully to eject him. Spilsbury
17820-402: Was one of several occasions when the kingship of Wessex is said to have passed to a remote branch of the royal family with an unbroken male line of descent from Cerdic; these claims may be genuine, or may reflect the spurious assertion of descent from Cerdic to legitimise a new dynasty. Æscwine's reign only lasted two years, and in 676 the throne passed back to the immediate family of Cenwealh with
17955-677: Was removed after the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, and left the Church of England by refusing to conform to the Act of Uniformity along with around 2,000 other Anglican ministers from the Commonwealth period. He was confined to his house, banished from the county and finally imprisoned for his non-conformism. The toll on his health may have led to illness and death. He did return to Bromsgrove, where he
18090-505: Was that they would sometimes reject a week's work essentially due to oversupply, perhaps claiming the quality was low, leaving the nailmaker with no income and the need to purchase new iron. Some found comfort in religion; Sherard quotes one as saying: "when I get to heaven I shall get my reward, and my Oppressor will get his". Hymn singing while working was common, and the Doxology was a particular favourite. The industry finally declined in
18225-469: Was the most durable of the West Saxon kings, reigning for 38 years. He issued the oldest surviving English code of laws apart from those of the kingdom of Kent, and established a second West Saxon bishopric at Sherborne , covering the area west of Selwood Forest , which formed an important boundary between east and west Wessex. Near the end of his life he followed in Cædwalla's footsteps by abdicating and making
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