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74-596: Barfi or burfi is a milk-based sweet from the Indian subcontinent with a fudge -like consistency. Its name comes from the Persian and Urdu word ( barf ) for snow. Barfi is consumed throughout India and Pakistan and is especially popular in North India . It is often served at celebrations and religious festivals such as Diwali and Holi . Barfi originated in Persia and

148-466: A sheaf ") and his son Beow ("Barley") are associated with the grain, or are possibly corn-gods; J. R. R. Tolkien wrote a poem "King Sheave" about them, and based a major element of his legendarium , the Old Straight Road from Middle-earth to the earthly paradise of Valinor , on their story. William of Malmesbury 's 12th century Chronicle tells the story of the related figure Sceafa as

222-441: A batter and then cast into mini balls and fried in ghee . Every mini ball, called boondi , melts like a fresh sweet. The mini balls are combined with aromatic spices and then formed into bite-size spheres, which are called motichoor ka ladoo . With each bite, the mini balls distribute a burst of flavor throughout the mouth. Other examples include Tirupati laddu , so popular that over a million laddu are distributed every week from

296-399: A batter of wheat flour, mawa and oil. The batter is then deep fried until crisp. Next, a sugar syrup is made which is known as "pak". The crisp croissants are finally soaked in the sugar syrup until they absorb the liquid. Kheer is a pudding, usually made from milk, sugar and one of these ingredients: vermicelli, rice, bulgur wheat, semolina, tapioca, dried dates, or shredded white gourd. It

370-470: A brittle spike ; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal . Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikelets, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two tightly linked genes known as Bt 1 and Bt 2 ; many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive , so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for

444-523: A creative combination of preparation techniques. The composition and recipes of the sweets and other ingredients vary by region. Mithai are sometimes served with a meal, and often included as a form of greeting, celebration, religious offering, gift giving, parties, and hospitality in the Indian subcontinent. On South Asian festivals – such as Holi , Diwali , and Raksha Bandhan – sweets are homemade or purchased, then shared. Many social gatherings, wedding ceremonies and religious festivals often include

518-696: A fresh cheese and rice flour fritter soaked in sugar syrup that the document suggests should be prepared from strained curdled milk mixed with buttermilk; and many others. Mānasollāsa mentions numerous milk-derived sweets and describes how to make milk solids and condensed milk. It also contains methods for souring milk to produce sweets. The origin of sweets in the Indian subcontinent has been traced to at least 500 BCE when, records suggest, both raw sugar ( gur , vellam , jaggery) and refined sugar (sarkara) were being produced. By 300 BCE, kingdom officials in India were acknowledging five kinds of sugar in official documents. By

592-435: A meal). Consuming breakfast cereals containing barley over weeks to months improves cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. Barley contains gluten , which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders , such as coeliac disease , non-coeliac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers. Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley. Barley, made into malt ,

666-403: A mix), and there are important differences in enzyme content, kernel shape, and other factors that malters and brewers must take into consideration. In traditional taxonomy, different forms of barley were classified as different species based on morphological differences. Two-row barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) was named Hordeum spontaneum . Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes

740-592: A simple inheritance-based tree. Bambusoideae (bamboos)  ( fescue , ryegrass ) Hordeum (barley) Triticum (wheat) Secale (rye) Oryza (rice) other grasses Sorghum (sorghum) Zea (maize) Barley was one of the first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent , an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia, around 9,000 BC. Wild barley ( H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum ) ranges from North Africa and Crete in

814-503: A single temple of Lord Venkateswara. Malpua is a deep fried wheat or rice flour pancake soaked in sugar syrup. It is popular in Bangladesh, East India , and Nepal. Pathishapta is a Bengali dessert. The final dish is a rolled pancake that is stuffed with a filling often made of coconut, milk, cream, and jaggery from the date palm. These desserts are consumed in Thailand as well. Pongal is

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888-512: A sleeping child in a boat without oars with a sheaf of corn at his head. Axel Olrik identified Peko , a parallel "barley-figure" in Finnish culture, in turn connected by R.D. Fulk with the Eddaic Bergelmir . In English folklore , the figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it: beer and whisky. In

962-434: A social celebration of food, and the flavors of sweets are an essential element of such a celebration. Ancient Sanskrit literature from India mention feasts and offerings of mithas (sweet). Rigveda mentions a sweet cake made of barley called apūpa, where barley flour was either fried in ghee or boiled in water, and then dipped in honey. Malpua preserves both the name and the essentials of this preparation. One of

1036-536: A sweet dish traditionally made on Pongal , the Tamil harvest festival. Rasgulla is a popular sweet in the Indian subcontinent. It comes in many forms, such as Kamalabhog (orange rasgulla), Rajbhog (stuffed with dry fruits and khoya inside), Kadamba (often served with kheer ), and Rasamundi , Raskadamba . Some are white in color while others are cream, brown, gold or orange. They are called Rasbari in Nepal . This dish

1110-558: A total of 5000 Mbp. Details of the genome are freely available in several barley databases. The barley genus Hordeum is relatively closely related to wheat and rye within the Triticeae , and more distantly to rice within the BOP clade of grasses ( Poaceae ). The phylogeny of the Triticeae is complicated by hybridization between species, so there is a network of relationships rather than

1184-584: A variety of flavors such as mango, saffron , pistachios, badam (almond), coconut and plain. It is also a street side summertime snack and festive sweet, which food hawkers carry around in a big earthen pot and play a particular horn music to attract customers. These vendors are known as kulfiwalla (those who sell kulfi). Laddu (sometimes transliterated as laddoo or laadu) is made of varieties of flour, grains, pulses, semolina, regional or seasonal fruits, dry fruits, and other ingredients cooked with sugar. These are then shaped into bite-size or larger spheres. Laddu

1258-484: A variety of flavors. Some versions, called danedhar , are removed from the syrup and sugar-coated into different fruit shapes and other creative designs. These are festive foods found year-round in many parts of India. Ras malai consists of flattened balls of chhena (cheese curds) soaked in malai (clotted cream) flavored with cardamom. Its name comes from the Hindu/Urdu ras , "juice," and malai , "cream." Sandesh

1332-453: Is a Bengali sweet made from chhena (cheese curds) kneaded with sugar. A variation called nolen gurher sandesh is made from date molasses instead of sugar. Sel roti is a Nepali home-made circular-shaped bread or rice donut that is prepared during Tihar , a widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal and India ( Sikkim and Darjeeling regions). It is made of rice flour and incorporates customized flavors. A semi liquid rice flour dough

1406-404: Is a cereal , a member of the grass family with edible grains. Its flowers are clusters of spikelets arranged in a distinctive herringbone pattern . Each spikelet has a long thin awn (to 160 mm (6.3 in) long), making the ears look tufted. The spikelets are in clusters of three. In six-row barley, all three spikelets in each cluster are fertile; in two-row barley, only the central one

1480-472: Is a common sweet found in the Indian subcontinent . It is made out of fried chenna (milk solids and cheese) balls soaked in sweet rose-water flavoured syrup. Jalebi and Imarti is made by deep-frying a fermented batter of wheat flour with yoghurt, in a circular (coil-like) shape and then soaking it in sugar syrup. Imarti is a variant of Jalebi, with a different flour mixture and has tighter coils. Typically Jalebi

1554-401: Is a form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove hull . Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley to increase the digestibility of the grain, especially for pigs and poultry. Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, bran, and flour. In 2022, world production of barley

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1628-516: Is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers , but both varieties are in common usage now. Distilled from green beer, Scottish and Irish whisky are made primarily from barley. About 25% of American barley is used for malting, for which barley is the best-suited grain. Accordingly, barley

1702-432: Is a ready-to-eat solid, brittle sweet generally made from casting a mix of dry nuts and hot jaggery syrup. Peanuts and jaggery mix are most common. Other than almonds, cashews, walnuts, sesame and other seeds, varieties of chikki are also prepared from puffed or roasted Bengal gram , puffed rice, beaten rice, puffed seasonal grains, and regional produce such as Khobara ( desiccated coconut ). Like many Indian sweets, Chikki

1776-506: Is a sweet made from milk solids ( khoya ) or condensed milk and other ingredients like ground cashews or pistachios. Some barfis use various flours such as besan (gram flour). Barfi may be flavored with pastes or pieces of fruit such as mango, banana, berries, or coconut. They may also include aromatic spices such as cardamom and rose water as flavorings. Chhena murki is a sweet made from chhena , milk, and sugar. It originated in Bhadrak , but

1850-503: Is a traditional Jewish stew often eaten on the Sabbath , in numerous recipes by both Mizrachi and Ashkenazi Jews ; its original form was a barley porridge. In Eastern and Central Europe, barley is used in soups and stews such as ričet . In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare. The six-row variety bere

1924-526: Is also known as payasam . Phirni is a popular variation of kheer. Payasam has been a cultural dish throughout the history of the Indian subcontinent and is usually served during ceremonies, feasts and celebrations. In many parts of India, ancient traditions maintain that a wedding is not fully blessed if payasam is not served at the feast during traditional ceremonies like marriage, childbirth, annaprasan (first solid feed to child), and other occasions. Other than sweet yogurt, some families serve kheer during

1998-621: Is at best mixed. Barley grains were once used for measurement in England, there being nominally three or four barleycorns to the inch. By the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures. In ancient Mesopotamia , barley was used as a form of money, the standard unit of weight for barley, and hence of value, being the shekel . In the Old English poem Beowulf , and in Norse mythology , Scyld Scefing (the second name meaning "with

2072-537: Is brown or yellow, while Imarti is reddish in colour. The sweet is often enjoyed with milk, tea, yogurt or Lassi . In classical Sanskrit literature, jalebis have been referred to as kundalika or jalavallika . Kesari bhath is a sweet dish made of semolina , sugar , ghee . Its origins are attributed to Kannada cuisine . It has the consistency of a grainy soft halwa . Semolina is roasted and boiled with very little water when it loses its water content sugar and ghee are added. Often cardamom and Cloves are added for

2146-580: Is cultivated in Orkney , Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles of the Scottish Highlands and Islands . When milled into beremeal , it is used locally in bread , biscuits , and the traditional beremeal bannock . In Japanese cuisine, barley is mixed with rice and steamed as mugimeshi . The naval surgeon Takaki Kanehiro introduced it into institutional cooking to combat beriberi , endemic in

2220-581: Is fertile. It is a self-pollinating , diploid species with 14 chromosomes . The genome of barley was sequenced in 2012 by the International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium and the UK Barley Sequencing Consortium. The genome is organised into seven pairs of nuclear chromosomes (recommended designations: 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H), and one mitochondrial and one chloroplast chromosome , with

2294-512: Is flaky and has a crisp texture and melts in the mouth. It is usually packaged in cubes and served garnished with chopped pistachio nuts, or in a rolled paper cone. There are many different flavorings that can be added, including mango, strawberry, pineapple and chocolate. Tiler Khaja is a type of confectionery made from sesame seeds produced in Kushtia District of Bangladesh . Other traditional Indian sweets and desserts famous throughout

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2368-643: Is grown around the world in temperate areas. It grows best in well-drained soil in full sunshine. In the tropics and subtropics, it is grown for food and straw in South Asia, North and East Africa, and in the Andes of South America. In dry regions it requires irrigation. It has a short growing season and is relatively drought-tolerant . Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than other cereals, varying in different cultivars. It has less winter-hardiness than winter wheat and far less than rye. Like other cereals, barley

2442-400: Is made by boiling small dumplings made of a mixture of chhenna and semolina in sugar syrup. Once cooked, these are stored in the syrup, making them spongy. Increasing the semolina content reduces the sponginess of the dessert and hardens them, creating a variety of textures. Some Rasgulla are stuffed inside with treats, such as dry fruits, raisins, candied peel, and other delicacies to create

2516-404: Is made using flavored milk that is first condensed and caramelized by slow cooking along with a small quantity of rice or seasonal grain flour; once condensed, dry nut pastes and aromatic spices are added and the mix frozen in small earthen or metal cans. This creates a dense form of frozen dessert; it is typically served between −10 and −15 °C when it is easier to spoon and eat. Kulfi comes in

2590-482: Is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit documents as temple offerings, and is referred to as ladduka . It is popular all over India, is easy to prepare, and comes in dozens of varieties. Laddu is often served during festivals, religious ceremonies, or household events such as weddings. One example of laddu is Motichoor ka Ladoo . It is a sweet food popular in states like Bihar . It is made from roasted gram flour flakes which are sweetened, mixed with almonds, rolled into

2664-448: Is now popular throughout Odisha and other parts of India. To prepare chhena murki, milk and sugar are boiled to a thick consistency. Chhena is soaked in the mixture. Flavorings and spices are typically added. Chhena poda ('burnt cheese' in Odia ) is a dessert from Odisha. It is made of well-kneaded chhena , sugar, cashews, and raisins. It is baked for several hours until it browns. Chikki

2738-573: Is often assessed by its malting enzyme content. Barley wine is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. An 18th-century alcoholic drink of the same name was made by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine, borage , lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin. Nonalcoholic drinks such as barley water and roasted barley tea have been made by boiling barley in water. In Italy, roasted barley

2812-659: Is often decorated with vark (edible silver foil). It can also be decorated with coconut , ground nuts , or powdered milk . Fruit, nuts, legumes, spices, and other flavorings may be added to the khoa -sugar mixture and yield different varieties of barfi . Commonly added fruits include guava and melon seeds . Typical nuts added include almonds , cashews , coconut, and pistachios . Mung beans are sometimes added and yield moong dal barfi . Common flavorings and spices include cardamom , kewra ( fragrant screwpine ), orange , mango , saffron , rosewater , and vanilla . Food colorings may also be added. Sweet from

2886-415: Is often served with a garnish of aromatic spices, almonds, cashews or pistachios. The recipes vary by region. Gajrela may be cooked without ghee and can include cottage cheese or other milk solids for a sophisticated mix of flavors. It is common in Indian and Pakistani restaurants and is a seasonal street and cafe food served during the post-monsoon season through to spring festive celebrations. Gulab jamun

2960-431: Is relatively tolerant of drought and soil salinity but is less winter-hardy than wheat or rye . In 2022, barley was fourth among grains in quantity produced, 155 million tonnes , behind maize , wheat, and rice . Globally, 70% of barley production is used as animal feed , while 30% is used as a source of fermentable material for beer , or further distilled into whisky , and as a component of various foods. It

3034-535: Is sometimes used as coffee substitute, caffè d'orzo (barley coffee). Some 70% of the world's barley production is used as livestock feed, for example for cattle feeding in western Canada. In 2014, an enzymatic process was devised to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, suitable for carnivorous fish such as trout and salmon . Barley straw has been placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help prevent algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. The technique's effectiveness

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3108-630: Is susceptible to several viral diseases, such as barley mild mosaic bymovirus . Some viruses, such as barley yellow dwarf virus , vectored by the rice root aphid , can cause serious crop injury. For durable disease resistance, quantitative resistance is more important than qualitative resistance . The most important foliar diseases have corresponding resistance gene regions on all chromosomes of barley. A large number of molecular markers are available for breeding of resistance to leaf rust, powdery mildew, Rhynchosporium secalis , Pyrenophora teres f. teres , Barley yellow dwarf virus , and

3182-422: Is typically a high protein delicacy. Chomchom is a traditional Bengali sweet, prepared from flattened paneer (a form of curdled milk solids, cheese) sweetened in syrup. Gajar Pak, also called Gajrela , is a seasonal pudding-like sweet made from carrots. It is popular in the North India . It is made by slowly cooking shredded carrots with ghee , concentrated and caramelized milk, mawa (khoya) and sugar; it

3256-425: Is typically planted on tilled land. Seed was traditionally scattered , but in developed countries is usually drilled . As it grows it requires soil nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), often supplied as fertilizers. It needs to be monitored for pests and diseases, and if necessary treated before these become serious. The stems and ears turn yellow when ripe, and the ears begin to droop. Traditional harvesting

3330-611: Is used in gruel . This gruel is known as سويق : sawīq in the Arab world . With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East , barley is used in a wide range of traditional Arabic , Assyrian , Israelite , Kurdish , and Persian foodstuffs including keşkek , kashk , and murri . Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia. Cholent or hamin (in Hebrew)

3404-399: Is used in soups and stews and in barley bread of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into malt using a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In English folklore, John Barleycorn personifies the grain and the alcoholic beverages made from it. English pub names such as The Barley Mow allude to its role in the production of beer. The Old English word for barley

3478-430: Is usually prepared by adding together milk, water, sugar, butter, cardamom , cloves as well as other flavors based on personal choice. Shrikhand is a traditional Gujarati and Marathi dessert made from strained yogurt , sugar, saffron, and cardamom. It has a smooth, creamy texture and is served chilled. Soan papdi is a predominantly sugar based sweet that is pulled to create thin strands resembling cotton candy. It

3552-449: The Barley yellow mosaic virus complex . Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer husk or hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley). Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled to remove most of the bran, and polished. Barley meal, a wholemeal barley flour lighter than wheat meal but darker in colour,

3626-649: The rachis . In wild barley (and other Old World species of Hordeum ), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. A mutation in one gene, vrs1 , is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley. Brewers in Europe tend to use two-row cultivars and breweries in North America use six-row barley (or

3700-511: The B vitamin niacin (14% DV), and dietary minerals , including iron (10% DV) and manganese (12% DV) (table). According to Health Canada and the US Food and Drug Administration , consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley beta-glucan can lower levels of blood cholesterol , a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases . Eating whole-grain barley, a high-fibre grain, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to

3774-448: The Gupta dynasty era (300–500 CE), sugar was being made not only from sugar cane, but from other plant sources such as palm. Sushruta Samhita records about sugar being produced from mahua flowers , barley (yavasa) and honey and Sugar-based foods were also used in temple offerings as bhoga for the deities which, after the prayers, became prasād for devotees, the poor, or visitors to

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3848-476: The Hindu King Somesvara III . The document describes meals that include a rice pudding called payasam (Sanskrit: पायसं), known as kheer in other South Asian languages . The document mentions seven kinds of rice. Mānasollāsa also describes recipes for golamu , a donut from wheat flour that is scented with cardamom; gharikas , a fried cake from black gram flour and sugar syrup; chhana ,

3922-521: The Indian subcontinent Sugarcane has been grown in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years, and the art of refining sugar was invented there 8000 years ago (6000 BCE) by the Indus Valley civilisation . The English word "sugar" comes from a Sanskrit word sharkara for refined sugar, while the word "candy" comes from Sanskrit word khaanda for the unrefined sugar – one of the simplest raw forms of sweet. Over its long history, cuisines of

3996-713: The Indian subcontinent developed a diverse array of sweets. Some claim there is no other region in the world where sweets are so varied, so numerous, or so invested with meaning as the Indian subcontinent. In the diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent, sweets are called by numerous names, a common name being mithai . They include sugar, and a vast array of ingredients such as different flours, milk, milk solids, fermented foods, root vegetables, raw and roasted seeds, seasonal fruits, fruit pastes and dry fruits. Some sweets such as kheer and barfi are cooked, varieties like Mysore pak are roasted, some like jalebi are fried, others like kulfi are frozen, while still others involve

4070-675: The Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period ( circa 1500–850 BC). Barley ( Yava in Sanskrit ) is mentioned many times in the Rigveda and other Indian scriptures as a principal grain in ancient India. Traces of barley cultivation have been found in post-Neolithic Bronze Age Harappan civilization 5,700–3,300 years ago. Barley beer was probably one of the first alcoholic drinks developed by Neolithic humans; later it

4144-566: The armed forces in the 19th century. It became standard prison fare, and remains a staple in the Japan Self-Defense Forces . Cooked barley is 69% water, 28% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) reference serving, cooked barley provides 515 kilojoules (123 kcal) of food energy and is a good source (10% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of essential nutrients , including, dietary fibre ,

4218-556: The aromatic smell. Khaja is a sweet of India. Refined wheat flour, sugar, and oils are the chief ingredients of khaja. It is believed that, even 2000 years ago, Khaja was prepared in the southern side of the Gangetic Plains of Bihar. These areas, which are home to the sweet, once comprised the central part of the Maurya and Gupta empires. Presently, Khajas are prepared and sold in the city of Patna , Gaya and several other places across

4292-591: The domestication of barley, in the form of cultivars that cannot reproduce without human assistance, comes from Mesopotamia, specifically the Jarmo region of modern-day Iraq, around 9,000–7,000 BC. Domestication changed the morphology of the barley grain substantially, from an elongated shape to a more rounded spherical one. Wild barley has distinctive genes , alleles , and regulators with potential for resistance to abiotic or biotic stresses ; these may help cultivated barley to adapt to climatic changes. Wild barley has

4366-466: The fifth century AD. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies. It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet. In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along

4440-502: The history of Indian food include: Barley Barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), a member of the grass family , is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains ; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikelets and making it much easier to harvest . Its use then spread throughout Eurasia by 2000 BC. Barley prefers relatively low temperatures and well-drained soil to grow. It

4514-568: The initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, mentioned in the Homeric hymn to Demeter . The goddess's name may have meant "barley-mother", incorporating the ancient Cretan word δηαί (dēai), "barley". The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder 's Natural History . Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibetan cuisine since

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4588-417: The last meal, as auspicious food, before a family member or guest departs on a long journey away from the home. Kozhukatta is a traditional sweet dumpling from Kerala and Sri Lankan Catholics. It is made up of thickened rice flour and variations of the filling may include using coconut , jaggery or sugar. It is closely associated with modak and mochi . Kulfi is traditional South Asian ice-cream. It

4662-594: The more complete surviving texts, with extensive descriptions of sweets and how to prepare them, is the Mānasollāsa ( Sanskrit : मानसोल्लास ; meaning in Sanskrit, the delight of an idea, or delight of mind and senses ). This ancient encyclopedia on food, music and other Indian arts is also known as the Abhilaṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi (the magical stone that fulfils desires). Mānasollāsa was composed about 1130 CE, by

4736-662: The mutant allele . Domestication in barley is followed by the change of key phenotypic traits at the genetic level. The wild barley found currently in the Fertile Crescent may not be the progenitor of the barley cultivated in Eritrea and Ethiopia , indicating that it may have been domesticated separately in eastern Africa. Archaeobotanical evidence shows that barley had spread throughout Eurasia by 2,000 BC. Genetic analysis demonstrates that cultivated barley followed several different routes over time. By 4200 BC domesticated barley had reached Eastern Finland. Barley has been grown in

4810-454: The song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting; but he is revenged by getting the men drunk: "And little Sir John and the nut-brown bowl / Proved the strongest man at last." The folksong " Elsie Marley " celebrates an alewife of County Durham with lines such as "And do you ken Elsie Marley, honey? / The wife that sells

4884-527: The state of Bihar. Khajas of the Silao and Rajgir are known for their puffiness. Khajas have traveled to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, including Andhra Pradesh and Odisha . The Khaja of Kakinada, a coastal town of Andhra Pradesh, is famous in South India and Orissa. This Khaja is dry on the outside and full of sugar syrup on the inside. The Khaja of Puri is also very famous. Khajas are made by first mixing

4958-476: The temple. Adhirasam is a sweet similar to a doughnut originating from Tamil cuisine made from rice flour, jaggery , butter and pepper. Bal mithai is a brown chocolate-like fudge, made with roasted khoya , coated with white sugar balls, and is a popular sweet from Kumaon . It is said to be invented in Almora bazaars in early twentieth century and since then has become a symbol of Kumaoni cuisine . Barfi

5032-574: The west to Tibet in the east. A study of genome-wide diversity markers found Tibet to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley. The earliest archaeological evidence of the consumption of wild barley , Hordeum spontaneum , comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee , where grinding stones with traces of starch were found. The remains were dated to about 23,000 BC. The earliest evidence for

5106-412: Was bere . This survives in the north of Scotland as bere ; it is used for a strain of six-row barley grown there. Modern English barley derives from the Old English adjective bærlic , meaning "of barley". The word barn derives from Old English bere-aern meaning "barley-store". The name of the genus is from Latin hordeum , barley, likely related to Latin horrere , to bristle. Barley

5180-412: Was 155 million tonnes, led by Russia accounting for 15% of the world total (table). France, Germany, and Canada were secondary producers. Worldwide barley production was fourth among grains, following maize (1.2 billion tonnes), wheat (808 million tonnes), and rice (776 million tonnes). Barley is a crop that prefers relatively low temperatures, 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F) in the growing season; it

5254-940: Was by hand with sickles or scythes ; in developed countries, harvesting is mechanised with combine harvesters . Among the insect pests of barley are aphids such as Russian wheat aphid , caterpillars such as of the armyworm moth , barley mealybug , and wireworm larvae of click beetle genera such as Aeolus . Aphid damage can often be tolerated, whereas armyworms can eat whole leaves. Wireworms kill seedlings, and require seed or preplanting treatment. Serious fungal diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by Blumeria graminis , leaf scald caused by Rhynchosporium secalis , barley rust caused by Puccinia hordei , crown rust caused by Puccinia coronata , various diseases caused by Cochliobolus sativus , Fusarium ear blight , and stem rust ( Puccinia graminis ). Bacterial diseases of barley include bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens . Barley

5328-599: Was introduced to India by the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. Through indentured workers it was brought to Trinidad in the mid-19th century and became popular there. To prepare barfi , khoa (condensed milk) and granulated sugar are mixed and cooked together. When the mixture thickens to a fudge-like consistency, it is spread onto a greased plate. After cooling, it is cut into squares, diamonds, or circles. It can also be formed into balls, layered, or rolled into multicolored slices. When served at special occasions, it

5402-428: Was named as H. distichon , six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as H. vulgare (or H. hexastichum ), and six-row with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon . Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, H. vulgare . Hulless or "naked" barley ( Hordeum vulgare var. nudum )

5476-628: Was used as currency. The Sumerian language had a word for barley, akiti . In ancient Mesopotamia , a stalk of barley was the primary symbol of the goddess Shala . Rations of barley for workers appear in Linear B tablets in Mycenaean contexts at Knossos and at Mycenaean Pylos . In mainland Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries . The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of

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