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62-531: An area of land on the peninsula, lying only some 200 m east of Casey Station, is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as North-east Bailey Peninsula Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.135 primarily because it serves as a scientific reference site which has supported studies into the diverse range of vegetation found in the Windmill Islands region. The Casey Station reported

124-564: A crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition. The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in

186-657: A fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island , leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and

248-528: A hypothetical war in the Antarctic. On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W ) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression. In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of

310-541: A nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia . A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April. On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare

372-653: A permanent presence and assert Britain's claim to the Falkland Islands Dependencies , as well as to deny use of the area to the Kriegsmarine , which was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points. There was also a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands . The expedition under Lieutenant James Marr left the Falklands on 29 January 1944. Bases were established on Deception Island ,

434-520: A plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance. In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making

496-570: A territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none. Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic. Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War , and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom

558-581: Is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude . Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat , which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires , Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during

620-527: Is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country . Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to

682-399: Is now suspected to be lost to the sea or buried under mounds of ice and snow. The crew of the mission which included Richard Black and Paul Siple conducted multiple experiments and observations including collecting samples of plants, algae and lichen. The mission resulted in a better understanding of polar science. With World War II ramping up the U.S. government deemed it wise to evacuate

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744-593: Is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle. Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows

806-623: The Eagle arrived at Stations A and B with additional scientists. Once there crew and equipment were loaded on to the Fitzroy and William Scoresby and were sent to Hope Bay to construct Station D while others sent to Stonington Island to begin work on Station E were moved out on the Eagle . Construction of Station E was abandoned after James Marr resigned for health reasons on 7 February. His successor Andrew Taylor shifted focus to Station D at Seal Point where

868-618: The USMS North Star. Per Roosevelt's 25 November 1939 orders the goal of the expedition was to construct and maintain two bases, West Base near King Edward VII Land and East Base near Charcot Island . They were also tasked with mapping the features of Heard Island as well as the James W. Ellsworth and Marie Byrd area , along with the coast line of meridians between 72 degrees and 148 degrees West. The team succeeded in building both East Base and West Base with East Base being used again during

930-475: The Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS ), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica , Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War , designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity ; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica

992-585: The Falklands after completing the main hut at Port Lockroy on 17 February 1944. The postal office was completed 23 March 1944 after William Scoresby returned with more crew although it later burned down on 23 April 1944. Survey work began in May not long after the world was alerted of the expedition's existence. Elke Mackenzie Lamb , a leading scientist in the crew, collected samples of lichen, worms, sea urchins and sponges. In February 1945 Fitzroy, William Scorresby and

1054-702: The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year . At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization , the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At

1116-554: The International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024 ,

1178-697: The International Geophysical Year and the Antarctic Treaty . New Swabia was an area of land claimed by Nazi Germany in the Norwegian Queen Maud Land claim. It was explored in 1939 by the crew of the MS Schwabenland of the Third German Antarctic Expedition who set out secretly on 17 December 1938 from Hamburg with the goal of establishing a German whaling base in Antarctica for the newly made German whaling fleet. This

1240-488: The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition . The Team brought along a newly designed Antarctic Snow Cruiser which had smooth tract-less tires which made it difficult to grip onto the Antarctic ice. Due to this problem and constant repair and maintenance on the tires the vehicle was abandoned when the expedition team evacuated. It was found years later during Operation Highjump and once more in 1958. It

1302-941: The South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962 , South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica , and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town . The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa. Antarctica during World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups International competition extended to

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1364-702: The Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$ 10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury , Commerce , Transportation , and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department , which reports such plans to other nations as required by

1426-600: The Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation . In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at

1488-532: The Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation. Under

1550-652: The ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica. Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on

1612-543: The New Swabia area in 1945 after its defeat in the Second World War . The United States Antarctic Service Expedition was the first government funded Antarctic expedition since the United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842) and was led by Richard E. Byrd a famous polar explorer renowned for previous Antarctic expeditions. The Third German Antarctic Expedition (1938–1939) created a sense of urgency for

1674-561: The Port Lockroy area. Operation Tabarin was a secret mission undertaken by the British that started in 1943 and ended in 1946. Its original purpose was to set up bases in Graham Land but Lieutenant Commander James Marr with the help of a Discovery Committee decided to extend its reach to surveying and other scientific research. It began with the pretense of searching Antarctica's seas for Nazi U-boats and other German shipping threats but

1736-544: The South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress,

1798-427: The U.S. government to establish permanent settlement in Antarctica. Commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939, Richard.E Byrd supplied much of the equipment which was designated for use in his own planned privately funded expedition. The expedition was hastily planned with Byrd being given only 4 months to plan. The expedition begun in late 1939 when 125 men departed on the ships Bear of Oakland and

1860-495: The United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting

1922-472: The United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act , Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C.   § 2401 et seq. , provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute : Violation of

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1984-478: The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused

2046-602: The area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole. Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty

2108-614: The base was finished on 20 March 1945. After building a hut on Coronation Island the British visited Argentina's Meteorology base on Laurie Island. The British began three sledging expeditions to the smaller islands in the area such as Duse Point and Vortex Island starting in August 1945 and concluding in December 1945 after the team returned to Station D for the final time. The team came back with samples of rocks, lichens, fossils and scientific data and chart improvements. The expedition finished at

2170-561: The coast line and surveyed the area where they recorded claim reservations at significant locations along the coast. The MS Schwabenland brought along two Dornier Wal seaplanes that took fifteen total photographic survey flights with 16,000 aerial photographs taken of the Neuschwabenland area. After the expedition left Antarctica on 6 February 1939 they returned to Hamburg on 11 April 1939. Nazi Germany never developed any type of permanent settlement in Antarctica and forfeited its claim to

2232-465: The coast of Graham Land , and at Hope Bay . The research begun by Operation Tabarin continued in subsequent years, ultimately becoming the British Antarctic Survey . In the postwar period, competition continued among Antarctica's claimant powers, as well as the United States and Soviet Union . In the late 1950s, this competition would gave way to a cooperative international framework with

2294-482: The continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years. The positions of

2356-490: The continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until

2418-683: The continent of Antarctica during the World War II era, though the region saw no combat. During the prelude to war, Nazi Germany organised the 1938 Third German Antarctic Expedition to preempt Norway's claim to Queen Maud Land . The expedition served as the basis for a new German claim, called New Swabia . A year later, the United States Antarctic Service Expedition established two bases, which operated for two years before being abandoned. Responding to these encroachments, and taking advantage of Europe's wartime turmoil,

2480-483: The exception of a fuel tank with a painted Argentine flag . They quickly established camp at an old Norwegian whaling station raising the Union flag and set up Base B as a science station. The rest of the expedition team left for Hope Bay to set up Base A on 7 February 1944. Due to heavy weather conditions the Fitzroy and William Scoresby left on 10 February 1944 and set up camp at Port Lockroy. The two ships departed to

2542-458: The first heatwave at the site in 2020, with temperatures reaching 9.2 degrees Celsius in January. 66°17′S 110°31′E  /  66.283°S 110.517°E  / -66.283; 110.517 This Wilkes Land location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Antarctic Treaty System The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as

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2604-545: The framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty . As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority. Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include: The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are

2666-783: The international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM) , which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. As of 2024, there are 57 states party to

2728-556: The invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed. In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly . In 1950,

2790-816: The laws of the Australian Capital Territory ) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960 , the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981 . The law of the United States , including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end,

2852-588: The mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of

2914-477: The nearby nations of Chile and Argentina made their own claims. In 1940 Chile proclaimed the Chilean Antarctic Territory in areas already claimed by Britain, while Argentina proclaimed Argentine Antarctica in 1943 in an overlapping area. In response to the activities of Germany, Chile, Argentina, and the United States, Britain launched Operation Tabarin in 1943. Its objective was to establish

2976-569: The raiders used the islands as a stopping ground to swap disguises and refuel. The cruiser Pinguin captured a fleet of Norwegian fishers on 14 January 1941 near South Georgia . German presence in the Pacific dwindled until the last ship was sunk or captured in the mid-1940s. Argentina conducted two expeditions during the Second World War. The first occurred in late 1942, the second in February 1943. The first expedition happened in 1942 when

3038-646: The right to make a claim. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who

3100-437: The ship Primero De Mayo captained by Alberto J. Oddera landed on Deception Island where surveying was conducted. Following the surveying the crew of the expedition planted a flag to claim the area for Argentina. The 1943 expedition occurred in February following the destruction of the previous expeditions flag by MV Carnarvon Castle . The expedition was largely uneventful with little activity besides photographic surveys of

3162-490: The start of 1946 when on 14 January 1946 departure of crew began and concluded on 11 February 1946 when all military crew members departed for home. The mission resulted in an expansion of British land claims on the continent and further scientific research. Station A at Port Lockroy is now preserved as a museum. Operation Tabarin was followed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey . Throughout

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3224-478: The studies being carried out had been completed. Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower , to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of

3286-454: The treaty has 57 parties. After World War II , the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump , the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for

3348-658: The treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". [REDACTED]   East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany . Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants. Reserved

3410-518: The twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in

3472-407: The two bases. West Base cleared on 1 February 1941 and East Base followed suite on 22 March 1941. The ships USMS North star and Bear of Oakland arrived on 5 May 1941 and 18 May 1941 respectively. During World War II, Nazi Germany constructed a commerce-raiding fleet of Auxiliary Merchant Cruisers destined to sail through the Pacific and disrupt Allied shipping. The main goal of these raiders

3534-413: The years, rumors of a hidden German base in the Antarctic have persisted, stemming from theories of escaped Nazi leaders and the appearance of a U-boat in July 1945. The theory was set forward by the Hungarian Ladislas Szabo, who set forth the idea in 1947. Many noted scientists such as Colin Summerhayes have disproved these theories in peer-reviewed papers. They prove through declassified documents that

3596-481: Was actually a cover for the construction of bases in disputed territory which was claimed by Argentina . Led by James Marr , who had previous polar experience, the mission team landed at Port Foster , Deception Island on 6 February 1944 after departing from Avonmouth on 14 December 1943. Halfway through the voyage the expedition force switched ships to the Fitzroy and William Scoresby captained by Victor Marchesi. They found no Argentine presence upon landing with

3658-411: Was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China. The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas: Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there

3720-424: Was part of Hitler's attempt to create a production of fat from raw materials such as whale oil and to prevent having to rely on fat imports from Norway . The expedition was led by Capt. Alfred Ritscher who had previous experience in polar expeditions. The ship landed at the Princess Martha Coast on 19 January 1939 where research soon began after the team constructed a temporary base. They planted German flags on

3782-561: Was to destroy and capture enemy shipping. The Germans constructed 9 ships which were merchant ships that were converted to armed raiders with 5.9 inch guns and torpedo tubes. They were often disguised as neutral vessels. While the ships mainly spent time in warmer waters near Asia many did stray into colder waters. The Atlantis for example stopped at Kerguelen Islands in December 1940 to rest and resupply on water and food. The ship suffered its first wartime casualty when they lost Bernhard Herrmann after an accident on Christmas Eve. Many of

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3844-418: Was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south , which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent

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