116-543: The baekjeong ( Korean : 백정 ) were an untouchable caste in Korea , originating from some minority, nomadic groups of disputed ethnicity. In the early part of the Goryeo period (918–1392), these minorities were largely settled in fixed communities. However, the Mongol invasion left Korea in disarray and anomie and these groups became nomadic . Subgroups of the baekjeong included
232-464: A baekjeong is "a person who has no burden of duties (역, 役)". The term is a compound of baek ( 백 , 白 , lit. ' white/innocent/blank ' ), and jeong ( 정 , 丁 , lit. ' person ' ). As such, baekjeong or "blank man" connotes a group of peasants who have not been granted land because they have not received certain duties from the state. In the Goryeo period, terms for
348-404: A roof-tiled house and were not allowed to wear silk clothes or leather shoes or a gat (a traditional Korean horsehair hat). When baekjeong went outside their houses, they had to wear a paeraengi or bamboo hat. A baekjeong had to lower himself in front of a yangin and was forbidden to smoke or drink in their presence. Baekjeong could not ride a litter or horse when they married and
464-596: A system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from
580-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
696-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
812-459: A few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to
928-549: A general term for all northern peoples, Mongols , Manchurians, and so on. In his book, the origin of the baekjeong is attributed to a nomadic group from the Goryeo period known as the Yangsucheok (楊水尺) or Mujari (무자리). Being an alien people, the Yangsuchuk were hardly assimilated into the general population. They were engaged in the making and selling of willow baskets. They were also proficient in slaughtering animals and had
1044-629: A liking for hunting. From the Goryeo Dynasty (918~1392) until the time of King Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty, baekjeong was not used to refer to the lowest class of people. The Sino-Korean term baekjeong ( 白丁 ) originally meant "common people", a meaning which it retains in Chinese and Japanese. Based on information in the Goryeosa , the chief surviving history of Goryeo Korea, scholars assume that
1160-399: A married woman could not wear a hair stick . Baekjeong were not allowed surnames and were forbidden the use of certain characters in their personal names, such as 仁 "benevolence", 義 "righteousness", 禮 "rites", or 智 "wisdom". The extent to which they were seen as impure people is well-illustrated in the fact that their bodies were kept in separate graveyards so as not to mingle with those of
1276-562: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
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#17328518208151392-411: A satisfactory level for Sejong. In the 26th year of his reign, he had the cannon foundry Hwapojujoso ( 화포주조소 ; 火砲鑄造所 ) built to produce a new standard cannon with outstanding performance, and in the following year, he undertook a complete overhaul of the cannon. The Chongtongdeungnok ( 총통등록 ; 銃筒謄錄 ) compiled and published in the 30th year his reign, was an illustrated book that described
1508-526: A subject's duty is to serve his superior with honesty and not to tolerate deceit. However, people all around the world worship the Buddha, serve spirits at their houses, and yet reproach others for worshiping the very ghosts and Buddha they themselves revere; I find this highly reprehensible. In 1427, Sejong issued a decree against the Huihui ( Korean Muslim ) community that had enjoyed special status and stipends since
1624-466: Is also an account of Sejong's having a disease that roughly translates to palsy ( 풍증 ; 風症 ) and essential tremor ( 수전증 ; 手顫症 ), but terminology of the 15th century Korean traditional medicine does not translate well. Sejong died on 8 April 1450, on the Gregorian calendar, at the residence of Grand Prince Young-eung at the age of 52. He was buried at Yeongneung ( 영릉 ; 英陵 ), in
1740-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
1856-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
1972-484: Is featured on the 10,000 won banknote of the South Korean won , along with various scientific tools invented under his reign. Sejong was first portrayed in the 1000- hwan bill as part of the 15 August 1960 currency reform , replacing the portrait of former president Syngman Rhee . Sejong was also featured on the 500- hwan bill the following year. Both bills were decommissioned in 1962. Sejong's portrait returned with
2088-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
2204-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
2320-771: Is remembered as the inventor of Hangul , the native alphabet of the Korean language . Initially titled Grand Prince Chungnyeong ( 충녕대군 ; 忠寧大君 ), he was the third son of King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong . In 1418, Sejong replaced his eldest brother, Yi Je , as crown prince ; a few months later, Taejong voluntarily abdicated the throne in Sejong's favor. In the early years of Sejong's reign, King Emeritus Taejong retained vast powers, most notably absolute executive and military power, and continued to govern until his death in 1422. Sejong reinforced Korean Confucian and Neo-Confucian policies, and enacted major legal amendments ( 공법 ; 貢法 ). He personally created and promulgated
2436-703: Is served and cooked at the table. In this context, baekjeong is descriptive and carries no negative connotation. Throughout much of the Joseon Dynasty, they were also forced to serve as executioners . When the baekjeong community were called upon to supply an executioner, the job was assigned to some hapless member, sometimes practically an insane person. The baekjeong did jobs that no self-respecting Buddhist Korean would touch, including anything working with animals. Slaughtering animals, leather making--these kinds of unclean duties were avoided by other Koreans, and so were filled de facto by baekjeong. In other words,
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#17328518208152552-565: Is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by the Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has
2668-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
2784-466: The chaein ( 才人 "entertainers") and the hwachae ( 禾尺 ) or suchae ( 水尺 ), who were primarily butchers. The baekjeong occupied specific professions like butchery, tanning, basket weaving and performing executions. During the Goryeo period, "baekjeong" was used as a neutral term to refer to the common people. From the time of the Joseon dynasty, it became an insulting title used to refer to
2900-535: The Jongmyo Jerye (memorials honoring the kings of Joseon). In 1418, during Sejong's reign, scholars developed the Pyeongyeong ( 편경 ; 編磬 ), a lithophone modeled on the Chinese bianqing . The Pyeongyeong is a percussion instrument consisting of two rows of 8 pumice slabs hung on a decorative wooden frame with a 16-tone range and struck with an ox horn mallet. It was manufactured using pumice mined from
3016-520: The Veritable Records of King Sejong and Jeong In-ji 's preface to the Hunminjeongeum Haerye emphasize that Sejong invented it himself. Before the creation of the new alphabet, the people of Joseon primarily used Classical Chinese to write, alongside a few writing systems like idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil —which used Chinese characters to approximate sounds of
3132-483: The ' Jongmyo court music ' , which was used for royal ancestral rituals and is now inscribed as an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Hertiage . King Sejong profoundly affected Korea's history with the creation and introduction of hangul , the native phonetic writing system for the Korean language . Although it is widely assumed that he ordered the Hall of Worthies to invent the script, contemporaneous records such as
3248-470: The Cheongsong Sim clan [ ko ] , who would later become Queen Soheon . In 1412, Yi To was granted the title Grand Prince Chungnyeong ( 충녕대군 ; 忠寧大君 ). In 1414, he had his first son, who would later become Munjong . As Taejong's eldest son, Grand Prince Yangnyeong was to inherit the throne. However, Taejong, as well as court officials, increasingly deemed Yangnyeong unsuitable for
3364-703: The Gabo reform . However, social discrimination against the baekjeong did not come to an end. The family register of baekjeong was still separate and, under "occupation", their names were marked by the use of the word 屠漢 ("butcher") or a red dot. Nonetheless, the Gabo reform ensured that baekjeong could become officials, scholars, or artists if they had the ability. Although they were still largely limited to their traditional occupations, modified regulations in 1896 allowed non- baekjeong to become licensed butchers , eventually leading to meat businesses which have pushed many out of one of
3480-467: The Goryeo period, monks wielded strong political and economic influence. However, in Joseon, Buddhism was considered a false philosophy and the monks were viewed as corrupted by power and money. Likewise, Sejong continued Joseon's policies of "worshiping Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism " ( Korean : 승유억불 ; Hanja : 崇儒抑佛 ). He banned monks from entering Hanseong and reduced
3596-459: The Gyeonggi Province and was primarily used for ceremonies. Sejong's contribution to the arts continued long after his death; he had always wanted to use Korean music rather than Chinese music for ancestral rituals, but conservative court officials stopped his efforts. However, when Sejong's son, King Sejo , rose to the throne, he modified the ritual music composed by his father and created
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3712-584: The King Sejong Institute , the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts , Sejong Science High School , and Sejong University also bear his name. A 9.5-meter-high (31 ft) bronze statue of King Sejong , unveiled in 2009 in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet, now sits on a concrete pedestal on the boulevard of Gwanghwamun Square and directly in front of
3828-536: The Korean alphabet , encouraged advancements in science and technology, and introduced measures to stimulate economic growth. He launched military campaigns to the north and implemented a relocation policy ( 사민정책 ; 徙民政策 ), establishing settlements in the newly conquered areas. He also ordered the Occupation of Tsushima island. From 1439, he became increasingly ill and his eldest son, Crown Prince Yi Hyang , acted as regent . Sejong died on March 1450. Sejong
3944-524: The Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations , was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to
4060-601: The Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul. The pedestal contains one of the several entrances to the 3,200 m underground museum exhibit entitled "The Story of King Sejong". In 2007, the South Korean Chief of Naval Operations officially announced the naming of its Sejong the Great -class destroyers , further explaining that Sejong's name was chosen as he was the most beloved figure among South Koreans. A portrait of Sejong
4176-581: The Songhua River . Sejong promoted the sciences. In 1420, Sejong created an institute within Gyeongbokgung known as the Hall of Worthies . The institute was responsible for conducting scientific research with the purpose of advancing the country's technology. The Hall of Worthies was designed to host Joseon's best and brightest thinkers, with the government offering grants and scholarships to encourage young scholars to attend. In 1428, Sejong ordered
4292-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
4408-577: The Treaty of 1910 , hangul was outlawed again until the liberation of Korea in 1945. Sejong suffered from eye diseases and deteriorating vision and likely had health issues linked to excessive meat consumption all throughout his life. Sejong's love for meat is clear from a comment by King Emeritus Taejong . When Sejong stopped eating fish and meat to mourn after the death of Jeongjong —Sejong's uncle and Taejong 's older brother— Taejong remarked that Sejong had always found it hard to eat without meat since he
4524-516: The Treaty of Gyehae , the daimyo of Tsushima was obliged to pay tribute to the Joseon monarch, and in turn the Sō clan was allowed to serve as a diplomatic intermediary between Korea and Japan, as well as receive exclusive trade rights. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo to the north to destroy the Jurchens . The military campaign captured several fortresses, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, to
4640-451: The Yuan dynasty 's rule over Goryeo . The Huihui were forced to abandon their headgear, close down their "ceremonial hall" (a mosque in the city of Gaegyeong, in present-day Kaesong ), and worship like everyone else. No further records of Muslims exist during the Joseon era. In the early years of the Joseon dynasty, the economy operated on a barter system, with cloth, grain, and cotton being
4756-444: The baekjeong , hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by the upper class, authorities, and "commoners" and the use of degrading language against children in public schools. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ ) is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It
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4872-522: The casting methods , gunpowder usage, and specifications of the guns. The publication of this book is considered a remarkable achievement that marked a new era in the manufacture of artillery during the Joseon Dynasty. In June 1419, under the advice and guidance of his father, Sejong ordered the third and last occupation of Tsushima , known as Daemado Jeongbeol ( 대마도 정벌 ) in Korean and Ōei Invasion in Japanese. The ultimate goal of this military expedition
4988-422: The yangmin . Donghak and Christianity had a lot of influence on the baekjeong . These belief systems exposed the baekjeong --and Koreans more generally--to concepts of egalitarianism and social equality. The influence of these religions became linked to the social movement. Towards the end of the 19th century, there was an increasing impetus towards human dignity and liberalization. Of particular importance
5104-478: The "benefit of the feudalist ruling class ". Contrastingly, in a column from its 15 December 2001 issue, North Korean news outlet Tongil Sinbo reported that Sejong the Great greatly contributed to Korean science during his reign of 30 years. Hangul Day is also celebrated in North Korea, albeit on a different date. Sejong and his primary consort Soheon had ten children together: the most for any queen consort of
5220-472: The "organization" was a construction by Japanese authorities to ensure the labor wing of the Hyeongpyeongsa would not interfere with their access to leather needed for the invasion of China . As a result, the Hyeongpyeongsa shifted to the right, abandoning progressive ideals and finally disbanding in 1935, claiming the movement's aims had successfully been met. The growing power of the radical wing divided
5336-900: The 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By the 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
5452-441: The Great is considered one of the most influential monarchs in Korean history, with the creation of Hangul considered his greatest legacy. Sejong is widely renowned in modern-day South Korea. In a 2024 survey by Gallup Korea , Sejong was nominated as the second most respected figure by South Koreans, only to be surpassed by Yi Sun-sin . The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture evaluates the reign of Sejong "the most shining period of
5568-439: The Korean language—that had been in use since hundreds of years before hangul. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of Chinese characters required, lower-class people of Joseon lacked the privilege of education and were illiterate. To promote literacy, King Sejong created hangul (which initially had 28 letters, four of which are no longer in use). Hangul
5684-409: The ability to fund efforts for change. Beyond financial resources, organization was also strengthened due to the longstanding connections created through segregation and close-knit social networks. Between these human and financial resources, an emphasis on progressive models, and feelings of social deprivation and discrimination, the conditions were ripe for the baekjeong to mobilize for change. One of
5800-508: The ability to read and write would allow them to find and abuse loopholes within the law. Others felt that hangul would threaten their families' positions in court by creating a larger pool of civil servants. The Joseon elite continued to use the Chinese hanja long after Sejong's death. Hangul was often treated with contempt by those in power and received criticism in the form of nicknames, including eonmun ("vulgar script"), amkeul ("women's script"), and ahaekkeul ("children's script"). It
5916-469: The basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language ) is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since
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#17328518208156032-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
6148-407: The common policies of King Sejong could not overcome the prejudices of the ordinary people, who continued to discriminate against the descendants of outcastes. Even government officials did not follow the instructions of the king. Moreover, it seems that the baekjeong did not change their existing lifestyle or occupation easily. They settled in one area but did not try to farm, instead engaging in
6264-578: The earliest of these movements was in 1910 when Chang Chip'il , later an influential member of the Hyeongpyeongsa , unsuccessfully attempted to establish a trade union for butchers. In 1921, the Jipseong Johap was established by Korean and Japanese entrepreneurs, attempting to provide poverty assistance for butchers. However, this effort for improvement of economic conditions was soon overshadowed by an organization with broader goals. The Hyeongpyeongsa
6380-705: The end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from the Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that
6496-408: The end of the Joseon Dynasty, a mutual aid organization for the baekjeong was established, called Seungdongdoga ( 승동도가 ; 承洞都家 ), with representatives from various communities. The organization was involved in taking action, coordinating improvements, and acting at times as the official representative of the baekjeong in legal matters. In 1894, the Korean caste system was legally abolished by
6612-459: The exchange rate dropped below the coin's intrinsic value. In 1445, Sejong consolidated the various sujoji records, previously managed by various government offices, and placed them under the administration of the Ministry of Taxation ( Hojo ) to improve transparency in Joseon's fiscal policies. King Sejong was an effective military planner and created various military regulations to strengthen
6728-549: The few occupations open to them. However, while improvements to the social status of the baekjeong came slowly, it was different for the commoners (the lower of the yangmin ), who had economically been little different from slaves. Respect for government officials plunged in the 17th century as they fled from the invading Japanese and Manchurians, leaving the civilians at their mercy. The government also awarded many militiamen yangban class status in exchange for their voluntary militia activities against these invaders. In time, with
6844-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
6960-404: The fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of the population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it
7076-629: The group was assigned to the most demeaning tasks in Korean society. They were also considered in moral violation of Buddhist principles, which led Koreans to see work involving meat as polluting and sinful, even if they saw the consumption as acceptable. By the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, baekjeong accepted the principles of Confucianism and did not slaughter for three years when their parents died. The group had long suffered severe social discrimination in Korean society . The baekjeong were seen as contemptible and polluted people that others feared and avoided meeting. Baekjeong could not live in
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#17328518208157192-596: The group which would later be known as baekjeong were yangsucheok (hanja: 楊水尺 ), sucheok (hanja: 水尺 ), hwacheok or hwachae (hanja: 禾尺 ), and mujari (Korean: 무자리 , probably a compound of 물 "water" and 자리 "seat, place"). They descended from the Jurchen or Khitans dating back to the beginning of Goryeo. They enjoyed group life among themselves so they continued to live in temporary residences while moving to various areas. They were distributed nationwide, but were especially concentrated in
7308-471: The history of our [the Korean] people." Sejong's creation of the Korean alphabet is celebrated every 9 October as Hangul Day , a national holiday. Multiple places in South Korea, including Sejong Street ( Sejongno ; 세종로, 世宗路), Sejong–Pocheon Expressway , and Sejong Special Autonomous City , South Korea's de facto administrative capital, are named after him. Various institutes such as King Sejong Station ,
7424-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
7540-470: The introduction of Christianity in Korea in 1602. Hangul was brought into the mainstream culture in the 16th century, due to a renaissance in literature and poetry. It continued to gain popularity well into the 17th century, and gained wider use after a period of nationalism in the 19th century. In 1849, it was adopted as Korea's national writing system, and saw its first use in official government documents. After
7656-533: The introduction of the 10,000- won bill, when his portrait and Geunjeongjeon replaced Seokguram and Bulguksa as features of the bill, in 1973. In North Korea, Sejong is not as widely commemorated compared to the South. Vol. 16 of the Great Korean Encyclopedia asserts that " feudalist pressure and extortion" was strengthened during Sejong's reign, and that all of Sejong's policies were directed for
7772-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
7888-692: The king distributed it to poor peasants who needed it. Otherwise the state maintained a permanent grain dole, that existed since the days of Unified Silla. Sejong composed the famous Yongbieocheonga ("Songs of Flying Dragons"; 1445), Seokbo Sangjeol ("Episodes from the Life of Buddha"; July 1447), Worin Cheongang Jigok ("Songs of the Moon Shining on a Thousand Rivers"; July 1447), and Dongguk Jeongun ("Dictionary of Proper Sino-Korean Pronunciation"; September 1447). One of Sejong's closest friends and mentors
8004-570: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
8120-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
8236-529: The lowest class of society. In addition, since the Joseon dynasty, "baekjeong" has been also used to denigrate a person. In contemporary South Korea , the term is mainly associated with the meaning of a butcher and even used in the restaurants' names. According to Jeong Yakyong , one of the most distinguished scholars on the methodology of historical researches in the reign of King Jeongjo (1777-1800) and King Sunjo (1801-1834), one theory holds that they were of "Tatar" origin. The term "Tartar" seems to have been
8352-468: The mention of a rain gauge, Yeongjo ordered a reproduction. Since there is a mark of the Qing dynasty ruler Qianlong (r. 1735–96), dated 1770, this Korean-designed rain gauge is sometimes misunderstood as having been imported from China. In 1434, Jang Yeong-sil, tasked by King Sejong, invented the gabinja ( 갑인자 ; 甲寅字 ), a new type of printing press . This printing press was said to be twice as fast as
8468-473: The most common forms of currency. In 1423, under King Sejong's administration, the government attempted to introduce a national currency modeled after the Tang dynasty 's kaiyuan tongbao ( 開元通寶 ). The resulting Joseon tongbo ( 조선통보 ; 朝鮮通寶 ) was a bronze coin, backed by a silver standard, with 150 coins being equal to 600 grams of silver. However, production ceased in 1425 due to high manufacturing costs, as
8584-500: The movement by introducing a dissolution proposal, feeling that the organization had abandoned its original aims in favor of those of the bourgeois intellectuals directing it. It was their belief that dissolution would better serve their interests as it was replaced by trade unions . The dissolution proposal failed, but not without further alienating more conservative members of the movement, who were already financially strapped from broader economic conditions in Korea. Even more fatal for
8700-404: The movement was the arrest of a number of young radical members, who were accused of establishing a secret communist organization, the "Hyeongpyeongsa Youth Vanguard", which authorities said demanded struggle against feudalism and the abolishment of private property. The trial related to this accusation dragged on for four years, before the defendants were found to be innocent. It appears likely that
8816-567: The movement, and much of the economic support provided by wealthier baekjeong was pulled, particularly under the strain of the Great Depression , which had negatively impacted the meat and leather trades. The young socialists in the Hyŏngp'yŏngsa forged connections with other movements, attempting to broaden the movement and work towards "the reconstitution of Korea as a whole." More importantly, they focused on social and economic injustices affecting
8932-534: The newly adopted intensive and continuous cultivation methods. One of Sejong's close associates was inventor Jang Yeong-sil . Jang, who was originally a government-owned nobi from Dongnae , was appointed as a court technician by Sejong in 1423. Upon giving Jang a government position and funding for his inventions, officials protested, believing a person from the lower classes should not rise to power among nobles. Sejong instead believed he merited support because of his ability. In 1442, Jang Yeong-sil made one of
9048-453: The north refused to wear the humiliating garb traditionally expected of them and were jailed, an effort was made to release them. Growing industrialism in Korea began to erode baekjeong dominance over certain occupations, particularly as the Japanese began to control slaughterhouses and exploit them as employees. However, as some baekjeong fell into financial despair, the loosening of segregation led others to profit from changes, giving them
9164-494: The officials objected and insisted that Taejong select a wise person as heir apparent. King Taejong asked the officials to propose an alternative. According to the Veritable Records , they gave an indirect response: "The father knows his sons best, as the king knows his subjects best." Taejong judged his second son, Grand Prince Hyoryeong , to have a disposition too soft for the role. He then proposed Chungnyeong, whom he felt
9280-497: The political stability enjoyed in the past decades disintegrated when Danjong became the sixth king of Joseon at the age of twelve. Eventually, Sejong's second son, Grand Prince Suyang (later known as King Sejo ), usurped the throne in 1455. When six court officials were implicated in a plot to restore his nephew, Sejo abolished the Hall of Worthies and executed Danjong along with several ministers who served during Sejong's reign. Sejong
9396-420: The previous model and was composed of copper-zinc and lead-tin alloys. Sejong also wanted to reform the Korean calendar system, which was at the time based upon the longitude of the Chinese capital. He had his astronomers create a calendar with the Joseon capital of Hanseong as the primary meridian. This new system allowed Joseon astronomers to accurately predict the timing of solar and lunar eclipses . In
9512-572: The printing of one thousand copies of a "farmer's handbook". The following year, he published the Nongsa Jikseol ( 농사직설 ; 農事直說 ; lit. 'Straight Talk on Farming'), a compilation of various farming methods accommodative to Korea's climate and soil conditions. The book dealt with planting, harvesting, and soil treatment, and contained information about the different farming techniques that scientists gathered from different regions of Korea. These techniques were essential for maintaining
9628-408: The production and sale of wicker products, slaughtering, singing and dancing. In this situation, integration of the baekjeong into the ordinary peasantry was not easy and the practice of discrimination and suppression against them continued. In particular, the mainstream group regarded the life and customs of the butchers as despicable, antisocial, non-normative, and even potentially criminal. Near
9744-482: The project—despite fierce opposition from his courtiers—and condemned the hypocrisy of those who privately worship the Buddha yet publicly rebuke others for doing so. 上謂承政院曰 孟子言 '墨子以薄爲道, 而葬其親厚'。大抵臣子之道, 宜以直事上, 不可容其詐。 然世人在家, 奉佛事神, 靡所不至, 及對人, 反以神佛爲非, 予甚惡之。 The King spoke to the Seungjeongwon , Mencius once said, ' Mozi regards austerity as a virtue and yet made a lavish burial for his parents.' Generally speaking,
9860-401: The proposed reform. Joseon's economy depended on the agricultural output of the farmers, so Sejong allowed them to pay more or less tax according to the fluctuations of economic prosperity and hard times. Because of this, farmers could worry less about tax quotas and instead work at maintaining and selling their crops. It is said that once, when the palace had a significant surplus of food,
9976-631: The proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of
10092-509: The provinces of Pyeongan-do and Hwanghae-do . They were not registered in the national register. In the early days of the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, King Sejong consolidated the various outcaste groups with ordinary farmers. This combined group was called "baekjeong", the name of the general peasant group in the Goryeo period. King Sejong also put them on the family register, gave them lands to plant, settled them into fixed communities, and tried to keep them under state control. However,
10208-646: The realm of traditional Korean medicine , two important treatises were written during his reign. These were the Hyangyak Jipseongbang ( 향약집성방 ; 鄕藥集成方 ) and the Euibang Yuchwi ( 의방유취 ; 醫方類聚 ), which historian Kim Yong-sik says represents "the Koreans' efforts to develop their own system of medical knowledge, distinct from that of China". In 1426, Sejong enacted a law that granted government serfs ( 노비 ; 奴婢 ; nobi ) women 100 days of maternity leave after childbirth, which, in 1430,
10324-482: The rise of commerce, merchants bought forged family histories and official status documents as well. Eventually, around three fourths of the population were yangban in name. The term "baekjeong" is still used in modern South Korean society. This is particularly common in occupations dealing with raw meat, which carry a negative social stigma. In spite of this, "baekjeong" is widely used in Korean restaurant names, denoting barbecue establishments where raw marinated meat
10440-415: The rise of these ideas were transitions occurring in Korean society as a whole, particularly with regard to social classes. Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the baekjeong began to resist the open social discrimination that existed against them. In 1900, leaders from 16 counties petitioned the mayor of Jinju to be allowed to wear the same clothes and hats as other people. When others in
10556-404: The role due to his erratic and irresponsible behavior. In a series of escalating events involving Yangnyeong's affair with Eori, a concubine of Kwak Sŏn, Yangnyeong was ultimately deposed as crown prince. In mid-1418, court officials petitioned Taejong to consider a new candidate for the throne. Following primogeniture, Taejong initially considered Yangnyeong's eldest son for the role. However,
10672-539: The safety of his kingdom. During his reign great technological advancements were made in the manufacture of gunpowder and firearms . Hand cannons, known as Wangu ( 완구 ; 碗口 ), first built in 1407 and 1418, were improved upon, and the Sohwapo ( 소화포 ; 小火砲 ), Cheonjetanhwan ( 철제탄환 ), Hwapojeon ( 화포전 ; 火砲箭 ) and the Hwacho ( 화초 ; 火초 ) were invented during his reign. None of these had yet reached
10788-498: The same mound as his wife, Queen Soheon , who died four years earlier. The tomb is located in Yeoju , South Korea. His successor was his first son, Yi Hyang (posthumously King Munjong ). Sejong was concerned that sickly Munjong would die early and leave his vulnerable young son to reign, so he asked scholars from the Hall of Worthies to look after his young grandson, Danjong . As predicted, Munjong died two years after his ascension, and
10904-475: The seven schools of Buddhism down to two, Seon and Gyo , drastically decreasing the power and wealth of the religious leaders. One of the key factors in this suppression was Sejong's reform of the land system. This policy resulted in temple lands being seized and redistributed for development and monks losing large amounts of economic influence. Furthermore, he performed government ceremonies according to Confucianism and encouraged people to behave according to
11020-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
11136-458: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Sejong the Great Sejong ( Korean : 세종 ; Hanja : 世宗 ; 15 May 1397 – 30 March 1450), personal name Yi To ( 이도 ; 李祹 ), commonly known as Sejong the Great ( 세종대왕 ; 世宗大王 ), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea . He is regarded as one of the greatest rulers in Korean history, and
11252-436: The strain of changes such as urbanization and industrialization which threatened to atomize the community. Thus, the Hyeongpyeongsa pursued both an equality of human rights and the right to assimilate into the broader public, even as it worked to forge a common identity. In 1927 a number of members of the Hyeongpyeongsa were arrested for their involvement in the creation of an underground nationalist organization. Their absence
11368-409: The teachings of Confucius . At the same time, Sejong sought to alleviate religious tensions between Confucianism and Buddhism. The Seokbosangjeol ( 석보상절 ; 釋譜詳節 ), a 24-volume Korean-language biography of Buddha translated from Chinese Buddhist texts, was commissioned and published in Sejong's reign by Grand Prince Suyang , in mourning for Queen Soheon, a devout Buddhist. Sejong advocated
11484-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
11600-435: The thrall of the queen's clan, Taejong had Sejong's father-in-law, Shim On , executed on charges of treason. Other members of the queen's family were exiled or made commoners, which left Queen Soheon politically isolated and unable to protest. Despite inheriting significantly strengthened royal authority, Sejong did not suppress the press and promoted meritocracy through gwageo , the national civil service exam. During
11716-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
11832-573: The world's first standardized rain gauges named cheugugi ( 측우기 ; 測雨器 ). This model has not survived, with the oldest existing Korean rain gauge being made in 1770, during the reign of King Yeongjo . According to the Daily Records of the Royal Secretariat ( 승정원일기 ; 承政院日記 ; Seungjeongwon Ilgi ), Yeongjo wanted to revive the glorious times of Sejong the Great, and started reading chronicles from that era. When he came across
11948-463: Was a child. Sejong also started having musculoskeletal pain at the age of 22. One day he was supposed to organize a farewell party for the emissaries to the Ming dynasty but was in too much pain to do so. Sejong said: "My waist and back are stiff and immobile, so it is hard to bend or straighten." There is speculation that he had diabetes, but there is inadequate evidence for a modern medical diagnosis. There
12064-463: Was born Yi To ( 이도 ; 李祹 ) on 15 May 1397, in Junsubang, Hanseong ( Seoul ), Joseon to Yi Pang-wŏn and a lady of the influential Yeoheung Min clan (later Queen Wongyeong ). While records of Yi's childhood are scarce, it is known that Yi was born outside Gyeongbokgung when his father, Yi Pang-wŏn , was not yet heir to the throne. In 1408, Yi's father arranged his marriage to Lady Sim of
12180-533: Was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by the yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as
12296-501: Was commonly used for areas like casual writing, prose and bookkeeping, especially by the urban middle class like administrators and bureaucrats. It notably gained popularity among women and fiction writers, with former usually often not having been able to get access to hanja education. In 1504, the study and publication of hangul was banned by Yeonsangun . Its spread and preservation can be largely attributed to three main factors: books published for women, its use by Buddhist monks, and
12412-405: Was completed in 1443 and published in 1446 along with a 33-page manual titled Hunminjeongeum , explaining what the letters are as well as the philosophical theories and motives behind them. King Sejong faced backlash from the noble class as many disapproved of the idea of a common writing system, with some openly opposing its creation. Many within the nobility believed that giving the peasants
12528-602: Was intelligent and sharp in matters of politics. The officials welcomed the decision and confirmed that Chungnyeong had been their preferred choice. On 8 July 1418, Chungnyeong was made crown prince of Joseon. On 9 September 1418, Chungnyeong ascended the throne as King Sejong, following Taejong's abdication. However, Taejong retained military power and continued to make major political decisions as king emeritus ( 상왕 ; 上王 ) until his death. Sejong did not challenge Taejong's authority and deferred to his father during this period. Perpetually wary of royal authority falling into
12644-482: Was launched in Jinju on 23 April 1923 through the alliance of wealthy or educated baekjeong and non- baekjeong proponents of change, advocating for "the abolition of classes and of contemptuous appellations, the enlightenment of members, and the promotion of mutual friendship among members." It advocated both for individual civil rights as well as communal fellowship, recognizing that the group must maintain its identity under
12760-443: Was lengthened by one month before childbirth. In 1434, he also granted the husbands 30 days of paternity leave. In order to provide equality and fairness in taxation for the common people, Sejong issued a royal decree to administer a nationwide public opinion poll regarding a new tax system called Gongbeop in 1430. Over the course of five months, the poll surveyed 172,806 people, of which approximately 57% responded with approval for
12876-456: Was not equal in Christian congregations and protests erupted when missionaries attempted to integrate the baekjeon into worship services, with non- baekjeong finding such attempts insensitive to traditional notions of social status. Thus, both Donghak and Christianity exposed the baekjeong , and Koreans more generally, to concepts of egalitarianism and social equality. Parallel to and supportive of
12992-414: Was partially responsible for the organization's shift to the socialist left in the late 1920s. Power within the organization shifted several times, including the shift in 1925 from the original Chinju faction advocating educational reform to a group of Seoul intellectuals more interested in economic reforms based around traditional occupations. At the 1931 national conference, they stirred controversy within
13108-559: Was the 15th century musician Bak Yeon . Together they composed over two hundred musical arrangements. Sejong's independent musical compositions include the Chongdaeop ('Great Achievements'), Potaepyeong ('Preservation of Peace'), Pongnaeui ('Phoenix'), and Yominrak ('A Joy to Share with the People'). Yominrak continues to be a standard piece played by modern traditional Korean orchestras, while Chongdaeop and Potaepyeong are played during
13224-412: Was the growth of certain religions supportive of change. Donghak, a Korean nationalist religion, wished to end unfair conventions. Donghak peasants had staged an uprising in 1894 in favor of human rights, especially for those low on the social ladder. Among other things, they demanded that the baekjeong no longer be forced to wear discriminatory hats and widows be allowed to remarry. Although this uprising
13340-553: Was to remove the nuisance of Japanese pirates who had been operating from to the island. During the invasion, 245 Japanese were executed or killed and another 110 were captured, while 180 Korean soldiers died. Around 150 kidnapped victims (146 Chinese and 8 Koreans) were also freed. A truce was made in July 1419 and the Joseon army returned to the Korean Peninsula, but no official documents were signed until 1443. In this agreement, known as
13456-499: Was ultimately unsuccessful, it was an important impetus behind the Gabo Reform , and helped to abolish the class structure that had placed legal restrictions on certain groups. However, the baekjeong benefited much less from these changes than other groups, such as the slaves . The other major religious influence on human rights came through Christianity. Some missionaries had converted baekjeong to Christianity , stating that everyone has equal rights under God . However, everyone
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