The Aztec or Mexica calendar is the calendrical system used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico . It is one of the Mesoamerican calendars , sharing the basic structure of calendars from throughout the region.
130-535: The Aztec sun stone , often erroneously called the calendar stone, is on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City . The actual Aztec calendar consists of a 365-day calendar cycle called xiuhpōhualli (year count), and a 260-day ritual cycle called tōnalpōhualli (day count). These two cycles together form a 52-year "century", sometimes called the " calendar round ". The xiuhpōhualli
260-614: A bibliographer catalogued the Florentine Codex in the Laurentian Library in Florence. The work is now carefully rebound in three volumes. A scholarly community of historians, anthropologists, art historians, and linguists has been investigating Sahagún's work, its subtleties and mysteries, for more than 200 years. The Historia general is the product of one of the most remarkable social-science research projects ever conducted. It
390-555: A center for Spanish Franciscan intellectual life. It was there that he joined the Order of Friars Minor or Franciscans . He was probably ordained around 1527. Entering the order he followed the Franciscan custom of changing his family name for the name of his birth town, becoming Bernardino de Sahagún. Spanish conquistadores led by Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (on
520-559: A century sent a message to some people that the Spanish would continue to dominate over the remnants of Aztec culture. Another debate sparked by the influence of the Western perspective over non-Western cultures surrounds the study and presentation of cultural objects as art objects. Carolyn Dean, a scholar of pre-Hispanic and Spanish colonial culture discusses the concept of “art by appropriation,” which displays and discusses cultural objects within
650-444: A ceremonial basin or ritual altar for gladiatorial sacrifices , than as an astrological or astronomical reference. Yet another characteristic of the stone is its possible geographic significance. The four points may relate to the four corners of the earth or the cardinal points. The inner circles may express space as well as time. Lastly, there is the political aspect of the stone. It may have been intended to show Tenochtitlan as
780-552: A community within Tenochtitlan. His claim is further supported by the presence of Mexica ruler Moctezuma II 's name on the work. These elements ground the Stone's iconography in history rather than myth and the legitimacy of the state in the cosmos. The methods of Aztec rule were influenced by the story of their Mexica ancestry, who were migrants to the Mexican territory. The lived history
910-532: A consistent set of questions presented to different informants with the aim of eliciting information on specific topics. Some passages reflect Sahagún's own narration of events or commentary. During the period in which Sahagún conducted his research, the conquering Spaniards were greatly outnumbered by the conquered Aztecs, and were concerned about the threat of a native uprising. Some colonial authorities perceived his writings as potentially dangerous, since they lent credibility to native voices and perspectives. Sahagún
1040-471: A desire to preach the Gospel to new peoples. Many Franciscans were convinced that there was great religious meaning in the discovery and evangelization of these new peoples. They were astonished that such new peoples existed and believed that preaching to them would bring about the return of Christ and the end of time, a set of beliefs called millenarianism . Concurrently, many of the friars were discontented with
1170-682: A dozen village elders in Nahuatl, assisted by native graduates of the college at Tlatelolco . Sahagún questioned the elders about the religious rituals and calendar, family, economic and political customs, and natural history . He interviewed them individually and in groups, and was thus able to evaluate the reliability of the information shared with him. His assistants spoke three languages (Nahuatl, Latin and Spanish). They participated in research and documentation, translation and interpretation, and they also painted illustrations. He published their names, described their work, and gave them credit. The pictures in
1300-568: A gold content of 15 grams (0.4823 troy ounces ) and was minted from 1917 to 1921 and restruck with the date 1959 from the mid-1940s to the late 1970s. Different parts of the sun stone are represented on the current Mexican coins, with each denomination having a different section. Currently, the image is present in the 10 Peso coin as part of the New Peso coin family started in 1992 having .925 silver centers and aluminum bronze rings changing in 1996 where new coins were introduced with base metal replacing
1430-523: A long history of over 200 years of archaeologists, scholars, and historians adding to the interpretation of the stone. Modern research continues to shed light or cast doubt on existing interpretations as discoveries such as further evidence of the stone's pigmentation. As Eduardo Matos Moctezuma stated in 2004: In addition to its tremendous aesthetic value, the Sun Stone abounds in symbolism and elements that continue to inspire researchers to search deeper for
SECTION 10
#17328561674321560-646: A popular but incorrect generic name; the most correct Nahuatl word for this cycle is Xiuhnelpilli . The table with the current years: For many centuries scholars had tried to reconstruct the Calendar. A widely accepted version was proposed by Professor Rafael Tena of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia , based on the studies of Sahagún and Alfonso Caso of the National Autonomous University of Mexico . His correlation argues that
1690-710: A vision of humanity — may shape a missionary's vision of human beings, and in turn the missionary's behavior on a cultural frontier. The pro-indigenous approach of the Franciscan missionaries in New Spain is consistent with the philosophy of Franciscan John Duns Scotus. In particular, he outlined a philosophical anthropology that reflects a Franciscan spirit. Several specific dimensions of Sahagún's work (and that of other Franciscans in New Spain) reflect this philosophical anthropology. The native peoples were believed to have dignity and merited respect as human beings. The friars were, for
1820-599: Is commonly referred to as the Mexican Sundial suit. After the conquest of the Aztec Empire by the Spanish in 1521 and the subsequent colonization of the territory, the prominence of the Mesoamerican empire was placed under harsh scrutiny by the Spanish. The rationale behind the bloodshed and sacrifice conducted by the Aztec was supported by religious and militant purposes, but the Spanish were horrified by what they saw, and
1950-482: Is considered to be the agricultural calendar, since it is based on the sun, and the tōnalpōhualli is considered to be the sacred calendar. The tōnalpōhualli ("day count") consists of a cycle of 260 days, each day signified by a combination of a number from 1 to 13, and one of the twenty day signs. With each new day, both the number and day sign would be incremented: 1. Crocodile is followed by 2. Wind, 3. House, 4. Lizard, and so forth up to 13. Reed. After Reed,
2080-564: Is exclusively from an indigenous, largely Tlatelolcan viewpoint. He revised the account in 1585 in important ways, adding passages praising the Spanish, especially the conqueror Hernan Cortés , rather than adhering to the indigenous viewpoint. The original of the 1585 manuscript is lost. In the late 20th century, a handwritten copy in Spanish was found by John B. Glass in the Boston Public Library , and has been published in facsimile and English translation, with comparisons to Book 12 of
2210-599: Is more apparent that it is the ancient Toci rather than Saint Ann [whom they worship]. But in this same section, Sahagún expressed his profound doubt that the Christian evangelization of the Indians would last in New Spain, particularly since the devastating plague of 1576 decimated the indigenous population and tested the survivors. [A]s regards the Catholic Faith, [Mexico] is a sterile land and very laborious to cultivate, where
2340-470: Is not known for certain where the beginning of this Tonantzin may have originated, but this we know for certain, that, from its first usage, the word means that ancient Tonantzin. And it is something that should be remedied, for the correct [native] name of the Mother of God, Holy Mary, is not Tonantzin, but Dios inantzin [Nahuatl for: the Mother of God]. It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under
2470-551: Is not unique as a chronicle of encounters with the New World and its people, but it stands out due to Sahagún's effort to gather information about a foreign culture by interviewing people and gathering perspectives from within that culture. As Nicholson has stated, "the scope of the Historia’s coverage of contact-period Central Mexico indigenous culture is remarkable, unmatched by any other sixteenth-century works that attempted to describe
2600-513: Is the Florentine Codex . It is a codex consisting of 2,400 pages organized into twelve books, with approximately 2,500 illustrations drawn by native artists using both native and European techniques. The alphabetic text is bilingual in Spanish and Nahuatl on opposing folios, and the pictorials should be considered a third kind of text. It documents the culture, religious cosmology (worldview), ritual practices, society, economics, and history of
2730-504: Is the duration of one Aztec "century", and that is how they can express a certain amount of Aztec centuries. Thus, 676 years are 13 Aztec centuries; 364 years are 7, and 312 years are 6 Aztec centuries. Placed among these four squares are three additional dates, "One Flint" ( Tecpatl ), "One Rain" ( Atl ), and "Seven Monkey" ( Ozomahtli ), and a Xiuhuitzolli , or ruler's turquoise diadem, glyph. It has been suggested that these dates may have had both historical and cosmic significance, and that
SECTION 20
#17328561674322860-586: Is the mother of the Virgin Mary, and therefore literally the grandmother of Jesus, but Sahagún writes: All the people who come, as in times past, to the feast of Toci, come on the pretext of Saint Ann, but since the word [grandmother] is ambiguous, and they respect the olden ways, it is believable that they come more for the ancient than the modern. And thus, also in this place, idolatry appears to be cloaked because so many people come from such distant lands without Saint Ann's ever having performed any miracles there. It
2990-549: The Catholic evangelization of colonial New Spain (now Mexico). Born in Sahagún , Spain, in 1499, he journeyed to New Spain in 1529. He learned Nahuatl and spent more than 50 years in the study of Aztec beliefs, culture and history. Though he was primarily devoted to his missionary task, his extraordinary work documenting indigenous worldview and culture has earned him the title as “the first anthropologist ." He also contributed to
3120-414: The Florentine Codex . Each trecena is named according to the calendar date of the first day of the 13 days in that trecena . In addition, each of the twenty trecenas in the 260-day cycle had its own tutelary deity: In ancient times the year was composed of eighteen months, and thus it was observed by the native people. Since their months were made of no more than twenty days, these were all
3250-519: The Julian month. The Nahuatl word for moon is metztli but whatever name was used for these periods is unknown. Through Spanish usage, the 20-day period of the Aztec calendar has become commonly known as a veintena . Each 20-day period started on Cipactli (Crocodile) for which a festival was held. The eighteen veintena are listed below. The dates are from early eyewitnesses; each wrote what they saw. Bernardino de Sahagún 's date precedes
3380-729: The Mexican–American War , soldiers of the United States Army who occupied the plaza used it for target shooting, though there is no evidence of such damage to the sculpture. Victorious General Winfield Scott contemplated taking it back to Washington D.C. as a war trophy, if the Mexicans did not make peace. In August 1885, the stone was transferred to the Monolith Gallery of the Archaeological Museum on Moneda Street, on
3510-455: The New Fire ceremony, which was conducted to ensure the earth's survival for another 52-year cycle, and human heart sacrifice played an important role in preserving these cosmic cycles. Human sacrifice was not only used in religious context; additionally, sacrifice was used as a military tactic to frighten Aztec enemies and remind those already under their control what might happen if they opposed
3640-508: The Primeros Memoriales convey a blend of indigenous and European artistic elements and influences. Analysis of Sahagún's research activities in this earlier period indicates that he was developing and evaluating his own methods for gathering and verifying this information. During the period 1561–1575, Sahagún returned to Tlatelolco. He interviewed and consulted more elders and cultural authorities. He edited his prior work. He expanded
3770-560: The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire . In 1585 he wrote a revision of the conquest narrative, published as Book 12 of the Florentine Codex, one of his last works before his death in 1590. After the fervor of the early mass conversions in Mexico had subsided, Franciscan missionaries came to realize that they needed a better understanding of indigenous peoples in order effectively to pursue their work. Sahagún's life changed dramatically in 1558 when
3900-531: The Xitle volcano, and could have been obtained from San Ángel or Xochimilco . The geologist Ezequiel Ordóñez in 1893 determined such an origin and ruled it as olivine basalt . It was probably dragged by thousands of people from a maximum of 22 kilometers to the center of Mexico-Tenochtitlan . After the conquest, it was transferred to the exterior of the Templo Mayor , to the west of the then Palacio Virreinal and
4030-601: The Yale University Art Gallery , on loan from the Peabody Museum of Natural History . The sculpture, officially known as Aztec Calendar Stone in the museum catalog but called Altar of the Five Cosmogonic Eras , bears similar hieroglyphic inscriptions around the central compass motif but is distinct in that it is a rectangular prism instead of cylindrical shape, allowing the artists to add the symbols of
Aztec calendar - Misplaced Pages Continue
4160-464: The monolith found would not be buried again due to its perceived pagan origin (for which it had been buried almost two centuries before). León y Gama argued that in countries like Italy there was much that was invested in rescuing and publicly showcasing monuments of the past. It is noteworthy that, for the spirit of the time, efforts were made to exhibit the monolith in a public place and also to promote its study. León y Gama defended in his writings
4290-461: The Acequia Real, where it remained uncovered, with the relief upwards for many years. According to Durán, Alonso de Montúfar , Archbishop of Mexico from 1551 to 1572, ordered the burial of the Sun Stone so that "the memory of the ancient sacrifice that was made there would be lost". Towards the end of the 18th century, the viceroy Juan Vicente de Güemes initiated a series of urban reforms in
4420-567: The Atlantic, learning from indigenous nobles who were returning to the New World from Spain. Later he was recognized as one of the Spaniards most proficient in this language. Most of his writings reflect his Catholic missionary interests, and were designed to help churchmen preach in Nahuatl, or translate the Bible into Nahuatl, or provide religious instruction to indigenous peoples. Among his works in Nahuatl
4550-468: The Aztec Sun Stone, with 4-Movement at the center surrounded by 4-Jaguar, 4-Wind, 4-Rain, and 4-Water, all of which represent one of the five suns, or "cosmic eras". The year sign 11-Reed in the lower middle places the creation of this sculpture in 1503, the year of Motecuhzoma II's coronation, while 1-Crocodile, the day in the upper middle, may indicate the day of the ceremony. The date glyph 1-Rabbit on
4680-606: The Aztec deity of the sun. It is for this reason that the stone became known as the "Sun Stone." Richard Townsend proposed a different theory, claiming that the figure at the center of the stone represents Tlaltecuhtli , the Mexica earth deity who features in Mexica creation myths. Modern archaeologists, such as those at the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City, believe it is more likely to have been used primarily as
4810-592: The Aztec people, and in Book 12 gives an account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire from the Tenochtitlan - Tlatelolco point of view. In the process of putting together the Historia general , Sahagún pioneered new methods for gathering ethnographic information and validating its accuracy. The Historia general has been called "one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed," and Sahagún has been called
4940-485: The Aztec people. He began informal studies of indigenous peoples, their beliefs, and religious practices. In the Florentine Codex, Sahagún wrote numerous introductions, addresses "to the reader", and interpolations in which he expresses his own views in Spanish. In Book XI, The Earthly Things, he replaces a Spanish translation of Nahuatl entries on mountains and rocks to describe current idolatrous practices among
5070-573: The Aztecs, and his linguistic skills enabled him to do so. Thus, Sahagún had the motivation, skills and disposition to study the people and their culture. He conducted field research in the indigenous language of Nahuatl. In 1547, he collected and recorded huehuetlatolli (Nahuatl: "Words of the old men"), Aztec formal orations given by elders for moral instruction, education of youth, and cultural construction of meaning. Between 1553 and 1555 he interviewed indigenous leaders in order to gain their perspective on
5200-475: The Catholic Faith has very shallow roots, and with much labor little fruit is produced, and from little cause that which is planted and cultivated withers. It seems to me the Catholic Faith can endure little time in these parts...And now, in the time of this plague, having tested the faith of those who come to confess, very few respond properly prior to the confession; thus we can be certain that, though preached to more than fifty years, if they were now left alone, if
5330-623: The Catholic life of the colony. Franciscans newly arrived in the colony did not share the earlier Franciscans' faith and zeal about the capacity of the Indians. The pro-indigenous approach of the Franciscans and Sahagún became marginalized with passing years. The use of the Nahuatl Bible was banned, reflecting the broader global retrenchment of Catholicism under the Council of Trent . In 1575 the Council of
Aztec calendar - Misplaced Pages Continue
5460-577: The Ceremonial Seat of Fire which belongs to the Eusebio Davalos Hurtado Museum of Mexica Sculpture , is visually similar but omits the central Ollin image in favor of the Sun . The British Museum possesses a cuauhxicalli which may depict the tension between two opposites, the power of the sun (represented by the solar face) and the power of the moon (represented with lunar iconography on
5590-468: The Empire. The state was then exploiting the sacredness of the practice to serve its own ideological intentions. The Sun Stone served as a visual reminder of the Empire's strength as a monumental object in the heart of the city and as a ritualistic object used in relation to the cosmic cycles and terrestrial power struggles. The sun stone image is displayed on the obverse the Mexican 20 Peso gold coin, which has
5720-548: The Franciscan intellectual tradition. The philosophy of Scotus is founded upon the primacy of the Incarnation, and may have been a particularly important influence on Sahagún, since Scotus's philosophy was taught in Spain at this time. Scotus absorbed the intuitive insights of St. Francis of Assisi and his devotion to Jesus Christ as a human being, and expressed them in a broader vision of humanity. A religious philosophical anthropology —
5850-492: The General History. In his introduction ("To the reader") to Book 12 of the Historia general, Sahagún claimed the history of the conquest was a linguistic tool so that friars would know the language of warfare and weapons. Since compiling a history of the conquest from the point of view of the defeated Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolcan could be controversial for the Spanish crown, Sahagún may have been prudent in trying to shape how
5980-555: The Indies banned all scriptures in the indigenous languages and forced Sahagún to hand over all of his documents about the Aztec culture and the results of his research. The respectful study of the local traditions has probably been seen as a possible obstacle to the Christian mission . Despite this ban, Sahagún made two more copies of his Historia general . Sahagún's Historia general was unknown outside Spain for about two centuries. In 1793,
6110-485: The San Damiano Crucifix and the practice of compassion among lepers and social outcasts. Franciscan prayer includes the conscious remembering of the human life of Jesus and the practice of care for the poor and marginalized. Saint Francis’ intuitive approach was elaborated into a philosophical vision by subsequent Franciscan theologians, such as Bonaventure of Bagnoregio and John Duns Scotus , leading figures in
6240-516: The Spanish evangelical fervor for converting newly encountered peoples, and as a part of the broader Franciscan millenarian project. Founded by Francis of Assisi in the early 13th century, the Franciscan Friars emphasized devotion to the Incarnation , the humanity of Jesus Christ . Saint Francis developed and articulated this devotion based on his experiences of contemplative prayer in front
6370-582: The Spanish nation were not to intercede, I am certain that in less than fifty years there would be no trace of the preaching which has been done for them. Sahagún wrote two versions of the conquest of the Aztec Empire, the first is Book 12 of the General History (1576) and the second is a revision completed in 1585. The version in the Historia general is the only narration of historical events, as opposed to information on general topics such as religious beliefs and practices and social structure. The 1576 text
6500-480: The Stone of Tizoc. The monument was discovered in 1831 underneath the National Palace in Mexico City and is approximately 1 meter square at the base and 1.23 meters tall. It is carved in a temple shape, and the year at the top, 2-House, refers to the traditional founding of Tenochtitlan in 1325 CE. The compass motif with Ollin can be found in stone altars built for the New Fire ceremony . Another object,
6630-480: The Virgin Mary with an ancient goddess. At this place [Tepeyac], [the Indians] had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods, whom they called Tonantzin , which means Our Mother. There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess...And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there, they also call her Tonantzin, being motivated by the preachers who called Our Lady, the Mother of God, Tonantzin. It
SECTION 50
#17328561674326760-428: The Western understanding of art. Claiming something as art often elevates the object in the viewer's mind, but then the object is only valued for its aesthetic purposes, and its historical and cultural importance is depleted. The Sun Stone was not made as an art object; it was a tool of the Aztec Empire used in ritual practices and as a political tool. By referring to it as a "sculpture" and by displaying it vertically on
6890-411: The actions of deities and humans to preserve the cycles of time. The central figure is shown holding a human heart in each of his clawed hands, and his tongue is represented by a stone sacrificial knife ( Tecpatl ). The four squares that surround the central deity represent the four previous suns or eras, which preceded the present era, "Four Movement" ( Nahuatl : Nahui Ōllin ). The Aztecs changed
7020-589: The artistic character of the stone, in competition with arguments of authors like Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , who gave lesser value to those born in the American continent , including their artistic talent. The monolith was placed on one side of the west tower of the Metropolitan Cathedral on 2 July 1791. There it was observed by, among others, Alexander von Humboldt , who made several studies of its iconography. Mexican sources alleged that during
7150-399: The back of the sculpture (not visible in the image to the right) orients Motecuhzoma II in the cosmic cycle because that date represents "the beginning of things in the distant mythological past." The Throne of Montezuma uses the same cardinal point iconography as part of a larger whole. The monument is on display at the National Museum of Anthropology alongside the Aztec Sun Stone and
7280-556: The broader landscape context. The herbal and the map show the influence of both the Spanish and the Aztec cultures, and by their structure and style convey the blending of these cultures. In addition to teaching, Sahagún spent several extended periods outside of Mexico City, including in Tlalmanalco (1530–32); Xochimilco (1535), where he is known to have performed a marriage; Tepepulco (1559–61), Huexotzinco, and also evangelized, led religious services, and provided religious instruction. He
7410-611: The calendar, while ignoring most primary colonial sources that contradict this idea, using a method that proposes to connect the year count to the vernal equinox and placing the first day of the year on the first day after the equinox. In this regard, José Genaro Emiliano Medina Ramos, a senior native nahua philosopher from San Lucas Atzala in the state of Puebla, proposes a multidisciplinary calendar reconstruction in náhuatl (‘centro de Puebla’ variant) according with his own nahua cosmosvision; and relying precisely on Ochoa's smart correlation and on Tena's presuppositions as well. His proposal
7540-434: The capital of New Spain . One of them was the construction of new streets and the improvement of parts of the city, through the introduction of drains and sidewalks. In the case of the then so-called Plaza Mayor, sewers were built, the floor was leveled and areas were remodeled. It was José Damián Ortiz de Castro , the architect overseeing public works, who reported the finding of the sun stone on 17 December 1790. The monolith
7670-401: The center of Mexico City, while others are of unknown origin. Many fall under a category known as temalacatl , large stones built for ritual combat and sacrifice. Matos Moctezuma has proposed that the Aztec Sun Stone might also be one of these. The Stone of Tizoc 's upward-facing side contains a calendrical depiction similar to that of the subject of this page. Many of the formal elements are
7800-399: The center of the world and therefore, as the center of authority. Townsend argues for this idea, claiming that the small glyphs of additional dates amongst the four previous suns— 1 Flint ( Tecpatl ), 1 Rain ( Atl ), and 7 Monkey ( Ozomahtli )—represent matters of historical importance to the Mexica state. He posits, for example, that 7 Monkey represents the significant day for the cult of
7930-474: The college, perhaps with help from students or other teachers. In this document, the plants are drawn, named and presented according to the Aztec system of organization. The text describes where the plants grow and how herbal medicines can be made from them. This "herbal" may have been used to teach indigenous medicine at the college. The Mapa de Santa Cruz shows the urban areas, networks of roads and canals, pictures of activities such as fishing and farming, and
SECTION 60
#17328561674328060-428: The confusion of this name, Tonantzin. And they now come to visit from very far away, as far away as before, which is also suspicious, because everywhere there are many churches of Our Lady and they do not go to them. They come from distant lands to this Tonantzin as in olden times. Sahagún explains that a church of Santa Ana has become a pilgrimage site for Toci (Nahuatl: "our grandmother"). He acknowledges that Saint Ann
8190-493: The constant cycles of death and rebirth. When the gods made the sun and the earth, they sacrificed themselves in order for the cycles of the sun to continue, and therefore for life to continue. Because the gods sacrificed themselves for humanity, humans had an understanding that they should sacrifice themselves to the gods in return. The Sun Stone's discovery near the Templo Mayor in the capital connects it to sacred rituals such as
8320-643: The construction of churches and monasteries, not only for the construction itself, but also as artists, painters and sculptors, and their works were used for decoration and evangelization. In this process, the native artists added many references to their customs and beliefs: flowers, birds or geometric symbols. Friars thought the images were decorative, but the Natives recognized their strong religious connotation. The mixture of Christian and Indian symbols has been described as Indocristiano or Indochristian art . Inspired by their Franciscan spirituality and Catholic humanism,
8450-520: The continuity of time and the continuous power struggle between the deities over the earthly and terrestrial worlds. In the upper part of this zone, a square carved between the tails of the serpents represents the date Matlactli Omey-Ácatl ("13-reed"). This is said to correspond to 1479, the year in which the Fifth Sun emerged in Teotihuacan during the reign of Axayácatl, and at the same time, indicating
8580-461: The corruption of European society, including, at times, the leadership of the Catholic Church. They believed that New Spain was the opportunity to revive the pure spirit of primitive Christianity. During the first decades of the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica , many indigenous people converted to Christianity, at least superficially. The friars employed a large number of indigenous Americans for
8710-960: The cosmic conflicts within the Aztec ideology. Beginning at the symbol just left of the large point in the previous zone, these symbols are read counterclockwise. The order is as follows: 1. cipactli – crocodile, 2. ehécatl – wind, 3. calli – house, 4. cuetzpallin – lizard, 5. cóatl – serpent, 6. miquiztli – skull/death, 7. mázatl – deer, 8. tochtli – rabbit, 9. atl – water, 10. itzcuintli – dog, 11. ozomatli – monkey, 12. malinalli – herb, 13. ácatl – cane, 14. océlotl – jaguar, 15. cuauhtli – eagle, 16. cozcacuauhtli – vulture, 17. ollín – movement, 18. técpatl – flint, 19. quiahuitl – rain, 20. xóchitl – flower The second concentric zone or ring contains several square sections, with each section containing five points. Directly above these square sections are small arches that are said to be feather ornaments. Directly above these are spurs or peaked arches that appear in groups of four. There are also eight angles that divide
8840-440: The cycle of numbers would restart (though the twenty day signs had not yet been exhausted), resulting in 1. Jaguar, 2. Eagle, and so on, as the days immediately following 13. Reed. This cycle of number and day signs would continue similarly until the 20th week, which would start on 1. Rabbit, and end on 13. Flower. It would take a full 260 days (13×20) for the two cycles (of twenty day signs, and thirteen numbers) to realign and repeat
8970-457: The days contained in a month, because they were not guided by the moon but by the days; therefore, the year had eighteen months. The days of the year were counted twenty by twenty. Xiuhpōhualli is the Aztec year ( xihuitl ) count ( pōhualli ). One year consists of 360 named days and 5 nameless ( nēmontēmi ). These 'extra' days are thought to be unlucky. The year was broken into 18 periods of twenty days each, sometimes compared to
9100-405: The depth of the mass conversions in Mexico. He thought that many if not most of the conversions were superficial. He also became concerned about the tendency of his fellow Franciscan missionaries to misunderstand basic elements of traditional Aztec religious beliefs and cosmology. He became convinced that only by mastering native languages and worldviews could missionaries be effective in dealing with
9230-668: The description of Nahuatl, the imperial language of the Aztec Empire . He translated the Psalms , the Gospels , and a catechism into Nahuatl. Sahagún is perhaps best known as the compiler of the Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva España— in English, General History of the Things of New Spain— (hereinafter referred to as Historia general ). The most famous extant manuscript of the Historia general
9360-407: The diadem may form part of the name of the Mexica ruler, Moctezuma II . The first concentric zone or ring contains the signs corresponding to the 20 days of the 18 months and five nemontemi of the Aztec solar calendar (Nahuatl: xiuhpohualli ). The monument is not a functioning calendar, but instead uses the calendrical glyphs to reference the cyclical concepts of time and its relationship to
9490-448: The earth, with measurements being 4 by 3.57 meters high, it was thought that the sun stone was the largest Mexica monolith in dimensions. The sculpted motifs that cover the surface of the stone refer to central components of the Mexica cosmogony . The state-sponsored monument linked aspects of Aztec ideology such as the importance of violence and warfare, the cosmic cycles, and the nature of
9620-455: The famous and large stone, very carved where the figures of the months and years, days and weeks were sculpted". Juan de Torquemada described in his Monarquía indiana how Moctezuma Xocoyotzin ordered to bring a large rock from Tenanitla, today San Ángel , to Tenochtitlan , but on the way it fell on the bridge of the Xoloco neighborhood. The parent rock from which it was extracted comes from
9750-499: The father of American ethnography . In 2015, his work was declared a World Heritage by the UNESCO . Fray Bernardino was born Bernardino de Rivera (Ribera, Ribeira) 1499 in Sahagún , Spain. He attended the University of Salamanca , where he was exposed to the currents of Renaissance humanism . During this period, the university at Salamanca was strongly influenced by Erasmus , and was
9880-534: The first European school of higher education in the Americas, the Colegio Imperial de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, in what is now Mexico City. This later served as a base for his own research activities, as he recruited former students to work with him. The college contributed to the blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures in what is now Mexico. It became a vehicle for evangelization of students, as well as
10010-593: The first day of the Mexica year was February 13 of the old Julian calendar or February 23 of the current Gregorian calendar . Using the same count, it has been the date of the birth of Huitzilopochtli , the end of the year and a cycle or "Tie of the Years", and the New Fire Ceremony , day-sign 1 Tecpatl of the year 2 Acatl , corresponding to the date February 22 . A correlation by independent researcher Ruben Ochoa interprets pre-Columbian codices, to reconstruct
10140-619: The following: ... On the occasion of the new paving, the floor of the Plaza being lowered, on December 17 of the same year, 1790, it was discovered only half a yard deep, and at a distance of 80 to the West from the same second door of the Royal Palace, and 37 north of the Portal of Flowers, the second Stone, by the back surface of it. León y Gama himself interceded before the canon of the cathedral in order that
10270-614: The four previous suns at the corners. It bears some similarities to the Coronation Stone of Moctezuma II, listed in the next section. The Coronation Stone of Moctezuma II (also known as the Stone of the Five Suns ) is a sculpture measuring 55.9 x 66 x 22.9 cm (22 x 26 x 9 in ), currently in the possession of the Art Institute of Chicago . It bears similar hieroglyphic inscriptions to
10400-416: The friars organized the indigenous peoples into utopian communities. There were massive waves of indigenous peoples converting to Catholicism, as measured by hundreds of thousands of baptisms in massive evangelization centers set up by the friars. In its initial stages, the colonial evangelization project appeared quite successful, despite the sometimes antagonizing behavior of the conquistadores. However,
10530-459: The gods could take all they had, and destroy the world. The 260 days of the sacred calendar were grouped into twenty periods of 13 days each. Scholars usually refer to these thirteen-day "weeks" as trecenas , using a Spanish term derived from trece "thirteen" (just as the Spanish term docena "dozen" is derived from doce "twelve"). The original Nahuatl term was "in cencalli tonalli" (a family of days), according to Book IV of
10660-608: The green (home), white (away) and red (third) colors of the Mexican flag respectively. The kit was featured until the 1998 World Cup in which the Mexican side impressed the world with satisfying results. Elvis Presley had a jumpsuit made with the Aztec Sun Stone which he used in the last years of his concerts and used it in his Elvis in Concert TV performance in June 19-21, 1977 and in his last live performance on stage on June 26, 1977. The suit
10790-477: The idea of coloring and create updated digitized images for a better understanding of what the stone might have looked like. It was generally established that the four symbols included in the Ollin glyph represent the four past suns that the Mexica believed the earth had passed through. Another aspect of the stone is its religious significance. One theory is that the face at the center of the stone represents Tonatiuh ,
10920-531: The indigenous people did not express their Christian faith in the ways expected by the missionary friars. Many still practiced their pre-European contact religious rituals and maintained their ancestral beliefs, much as they had for hundreds or thousands of years, while also participating in Catholic worship, a practice known as multiple religious belonging . The friars had disagreements over how best to approach this problem, as well as disagreements about their mission, and how to determine success. Sahagún helped found
11050-448: The indigenous peoples were human and had souls, Sahagún was interviewing them, seeking to understand who they were, how they loved each other, what they believed, and how they made sense of the world. Even as he expressed disgust at their continuing practice of human sacrifice and what he perceived as their idolatries, he spent five decades investigating Aztec culture. Learning more about Aztec culture, Sahagún grew increasingly skeptical of
11180-521: The indigenous populations. During this period, Franciscans who affirmed the full humanity and capacity of indigenous people were perceived as suspect by colonial officials and the Dominican Order. Some of the latter competitors hinted that the Friars were endorsing idolatry. The friars had to be careful in pursuing and defining their interactions with indigenous people. Sahagún was one of several friars at
11310-481: The initiative of Jesús Sánchez, director of the same. Through documents from the time, it is known that popular animosity resulted from the "confinement" of a public city icon. In 1964 the stone was transferred to the National Museum of Anthropology , where the stone presides over the Mexica Hall of the museum and is inscribed in various Mexican coins. Before the discovery of the monolith of Tlaltecuhtli , deity of
11440-502: The last fifteen or so editing, translating and copying. His field research activities can be grouped into an earlier period (1558–1561) and a later period (1561–1575). From his early research, Sahagún wrote the text known as Primeros Memoriales . This served as the basis for his subsequent, larger Historia general . He conducted his research at Tepeapulco, approximately 50 miles northeast of Mexico City, near present-day Hidalgo . There he spent two years interviewing approximately
11570-413: The meaning of this singular monument. The earliest interpretations of the stone relate to what early scholars believed was its use for astrology, chronology, or as a sundial. In 1792, two years after the stone's unearthing, Mexican scholar Antonio de León y Gama wrote one of the first treatises on Mexican archaeology on the Aztec calendar and Coatlicue. He correctly identified that some of the glyphs on
11700-436: The methods and strategies of modern ethnography. He systematically gathered knowledge from a range of diverse informants, including women, who were recognized as having knowledge of indigenous culture and tradition. He compared the answers obtained from his various sources. Some passages in his writings appear to be transcriptions of informants' statements about religious beliefs, society or nature. Other passages clearly reflect
11830-526: The most famous work of Mexica sculpture . It measures 3.6 metres (12 ft) in diameter and 98 centimetres (39 in) thick, and weighs 24,590 kg (54,210 lb). Shortly after the Spanish conquest , the monolithic sculpture was buried in the Zócalo , the main square of Mexico City. It was rediscovered on 17 December 1790 during repairs on the Mexico City Cathedral . Following its rediscovery,
11960-630: The most part, deeply disturbed by the conquistadores' abuse of the native peoples. In Sahagún's collaborative approach, in which he consistently gave credit to his collaborators, especially Antonio Valeriano , the Franciscan value of community is expressed. In his five decades of research, he practiced a Franciscan philosophy of knowledge in action. He was not content to speculate about these new peoples, but met with, interviewed and interpreted them and their worldview as an expression of his faith. While others – in Europe and New Spain – were debating whether or not
12090-463: The name glyph of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in the central disc dates the monument to his reign between 1502 and 1520. There are no clear indications about the authorship or purpose of the monolith, although there are certain references to the construction of a huge block of stone by the Mexicas in their last stage of splendor. According to Diego Durán , the emperor Axayácatl "was also busy in carving
12220-459: The name of the current era. Some scholars have argued that the identity of the central face is of the earth monster, Tlaltecuhtli , or of a hybrid deity known as "Yohualtecuhtli" who is referred to as the "Lord of the Night". This debate on the identity of the central figure is based on representations of the deities in other works as well as the role of the sun stone in sacrificial context, which involved
12350-414: The native way of life.” Although in his own mind Sahagún was a Franciscan missionary, he has also been referred to by scholars as the "father of American Ethnography". Sahagún has been described as a missionary, ethnographer, linguist, folklorist, Renaissance humanist, historian and pro-indigenous. Scholars have explained these roles as emerging from his identity as a missionary priest, a participant in
12480-405: The new provincial of New Spain, Fray Francisco de Toral , commissioned him to write in Nahuatl about topics he considered useful for the missionary project. The provincial wanted Sahagún to formalize his study of native language and culture, so that he could share it with others. The priest had a free hand to conduct his investigations. He conducted research for about twenty-five years, and spent
12610-511: The observations of Diego Durán by several decades and is before recent to the surrender. Both are shown to emphasize the fact that the beginning of the Native new year became non-uniform as a result of an absence of the unifying force of Tenochtitlan after the Mexica defeat. The ancient Mexicans counted their years by means of four signs combined with thirteen numbers, thus obtaining periods of 52 years, which are commonly known as Xiuhmolpilli ,
12740-444: The order of the suns and introduced a fifth sun named "Four Movement" after they seized power over the central highlands. Each era ended with the destruction of the world and humanity, which were then recreated in the next era. The duration of the ages is expressed in years, although they must be observed through the prism of Aztec time. In fact the common thread of figures 676, 364 and 312 is that they are multiples of 52, and 52 years
12870-511: The people. "Having discussed the springs, waters, and mountains, this seemed to me to be the opportune place to discuss the principal idolatries which were practiced and are still practiced in the waters and mountains." In this section, Sahagún denounces the association of the Virgin of Guadalupe with a pagan Meso-American deity. The Franciscans were then particularly hostile to this cult because of its potential for idolatrous practice, as it conflated
13000-404: The pope to ensure Catholic missionary work was part of a broader project of conquest and colonization. The decades after the Spanish conquest witnessed a dramatic transformation of indigenous culture, a transformation with a religious dimension that contributed to the creation of Mexican culture. People from both the Spanish and indigenous cultures held a wide range of opinions and views about what
13130-564: The proper position for the stone was horizontal. Roberto Sieck Flandes in 1939 published a monumental study entitled How Was the Stone Known as the Aztec Calendar Painted? which gave evidence that the stone was indeed pigmented with bright blue, red, green, and yellow colors, just as many other Aztec sculptures have been found to have been as well. This work was later to be expanded by Felipe Solís and other scholars who would re-examine
13260-401: The published accounts twisted the perception of the Aztecs into bloodthirsty, barbaric, and inferior people. The words and actions of the Spanish, such as the destruction, removal, or burial of Aztec objects like the Sun Stone supported this message of inferiority, which still has an impact today. The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was covered by the construction of Mexico City, and the monument
13390-401: The rear of the object). This would be a parallel to the Templo Mayor with its depictions of Huitzilopochtli (as one of the two deities of the temple) and the large monument to Coyolxauhqui . Bernardino de Sahag%C3%BAn Bernardino de Sahagún OFM ( c. 1499 – 5 February 1590) was a Franciscan friar , missionary priest and pioneering ethnographer who participated in
13520-580: The recruiting and training of native men to the Catholic clergy; it was a center for the study of native languages, especially Nahuatl. The college contributed to the establishment of Catholic Christianity in New Spain and became an important institution for cultural exchange. Sahagún taught Latin and other subjects during its initial years. Other friars taught grammar, history, religion, scripture, and philosophy. Native leaders were recruited to teach about native history and traditions, leading to controversy among colonial officials who were concerned with controlling
13650-420: The relationship between gods and man. The Aztec elite used this relationship with the cosmos and the bloodshed often associated with it to maintain control over the population, and the sun stone was a tool in which the ideology was visually manifested. In the center of the monolith is often believed to be the face of the solar deity, Tonatiuh , which appears inside the glyph for "movement" ( Nahuatl : Ōllin ),
13780-407: The ring into eight parts, which likely represent the sun's rays placed in the direction of the cardinal points. Two fire serpents, Xiuhcoatl , take up almost this entire zone. They are characterized by the flames emerging from their bodies, the square shaped segments that make up their bodies, the points that form their tails, and their unusual heads and mouths. At the very bottom of the surface of
13910-425: The same, although the five glyphs at the corners and center are not present. The tips of the compass here extend to the edge of the sculpture. The Stone of Tizoc is currently located in the National Anthropology Museum in the same gallery as the Aztec Sun Stone. The Stone of Motecuhzoma I is a massive object approximately 12 feet in diameter and 3 feet high with the 8 pointed compass iconography. The center depicts
14040-553: The school who wrote notable accounts of indigenous life and culture. Two notable products of the scholarship at the college are the first New World "herbal," and a map of what is now the Mexico City region. An "herbal" is a catalog of plants and their uses, including descriptions and their medicinal applications. Such an herbal, the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis , was written in Latin by Juan Badianus de la Cruz , an Aztec teacher at
14170-409: The scientific discipline of anthropology would formalize the methods of ethnography as a scientific research strategy for documenting the beliefs, behavior, social roles and relationships, and worldview of another culture, and for explaining these factors with reference to the logic of that culture. His research methods and strategies for validating information provided by his informants are precursors of
14300-493: The scope of his earlier research, and further developed his interviewing methods. He recast his project along the lines of the medieval encyclopedias. These were not encyclopedias in the contemporary sense, and can be better described as worldbooks, for they attempt to provide a relatively complete presentation of knowledge about the world. Sahagún was among the first to develop methods and strategies for gathering and validating knowledge of indigenous New World cultures. Much later,
14430-599: The sequence back to 1. Crocodile. The set of day signs used in central Mexico is identical to that used by Mixtecs , and to a lesser degree similar to those of other Mesoamerican calendars . Each of the day signs bear an association with one of the four cardinal directions. There is some variation in the way the day signs were drawn or carved. Those here were taken from the Codex Magliabechiano . Wind and Rain are represented by images of their associated gods, Ehēcatl and Tlāloc respectively. Other marks on
14560-466: The silver center. The sun stone image also has been adopted by modern Mexican and Mexican American/Chicano culture figures, and is used in folk art and as a symbol of cultural identity. In 1996, sportswear manufacturer ABA Sport in partnership with the Mexico national football team , employed a depiction of the sun stone image on its home, away and third match kits, with each individual shirt being assigned
14690-534: The site of present-day Mexico City ) in 1521, and Franciscan missionaries followed shortly thereafter in 1524. Sahagún was not in this first group of twelve friars, which arrived in New Spain in 1524. An account, in both Spanish and Nahuatl, of the disputation that these Franciscan friars held in Tenochtitlan soon after their arrival was made by Sahagún in 1564, in order to provide a model for future missionaries. Thanks to his own academic and religious reputation, Sahagún
14820-418: The stone are the glyphs for the days of the month. Alexander von Humboldt also wanted to pass on his interpretation in 1803, after reading Leon y Gama's work. He disagreed about the material of the stone but generally agreed with Leon y Gama's interpretation. Both of these men incorrectly believed the stone to have been vertically positioned, but it was not until 1875 that Alfredo Chavero correctly wrote that
14950-421: The stone showed the current world, and the worlds before this one. Each world was called a sun, and each sun had its own species of inhabitants. The Aztecs believed that they were in the Fifth Sun, and like all of the suns before them, they would also eventually perish due to their own imperfections. Every 52 years was marked out due to the belief that 52 years was a life cycle and at the end of any given life cycle,
15080-429: The stone, are human heads emerging from the mouths of these serpents. Scholars have tried to identify these profiles of human heads as deities, but have not come to a consensus. One possible interpretation of the two serpents is that they represent two rival deities who were involved in the creation story of the fifth and current "sun", Queztalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca . The tongues of the serpents are touching, referencing
15210-414: The sun deity Tonatiuh with the tongue sticking out. The Philadelphia Museum of Art has another. This one is much smaller, but still bears the calendar iconography and is listed in their catalog as "Calendar Stone". The side surface is split into two bands, the lower of which represents Venus with knives for eyes; the upper band has two rows of citlallo star icons. A similar object is on display at
15340-468: The sun stone was mounted on an exterior wall of the cathedral, where it remained until 1885. Early scholars initially thought that the stone was carved in the 1470s, though modern research suggests that it was carved some time between 1502 and 1521. The monolith was carved by the Mexica at the end of the Mesoamer Postclassic Period . Although the exact date of its creation is unknown,
15470-415: The utopian idealism of the first Franciscans in New Spain was fading while the Spanish colonial project continued as brutal and exploitative. In addition, millions of indigenous people died from repeated epidemics, as they had no immunity to Eurasian diseases. Some of his final writings express feelings of despair. The Crown replaced the religious orders with secular clergy, giving friars a much smaller role in
15600-436: The wall instead of placed horizontally how it was originally used, the monument is defined within the Western perspective and therefore loses its cultural significance. The current display and discussion surrounding the Sun Stone is part of a greater debate on how to decolonize non-Western material culture. There are several other known monuments and sculptures that bear similar inscriptions. Most of them were found underneath
15730-423: The year in which this monolithic sun stone was carved. The edge of the stone measures approximately 20 cm (8 inches) and contains a band of a series of dots as well as what have been said to be flint knives. This area has been interpreted as representing a starry night sky. From the moment the Sun Stone was discovered in 1790, many scholars have worked at making sense of the stone's complexity. This provides
15860-502: Was a translation of the Psalms and a catechism . He likely composed his Psalmodia Christiana in Tepepolco when he was gathering material for the Primeros Memoriales . It was published in 1583 by Pedro Ocharte, but circulated in New Spain prior to that in order to replace with Christian texts the songs and poetry of the Nahuas. His curiosity drew him to learn more about the worldview of
15990-509: Was aware of the need to avoid running afoul of the Inquisition , which was established in Mexico in 1570. Sahagún's work was originally conducted only in Nahuatl. To fend off suspicion and criticism, he translated sections of it into Spanish, submitted it to some fellow Franciscans for their review, and sent it to the King of Spain with some Friars returning home. His last years were difficult, because
16120-455: Was first and foremost a missionary, whose goal was to bring the peoples of the New World to the Catholic faith. He spent much time with the indigenous people in remote rural villages, as a Catholic priest, teacher, and missionary. Sahagún was a gifted linguist, one of several Franciscans. As an Order, the Franciscans emphasized evangelization of the indigenous peoples in their own languages. Sahagún began his study of Nahuatl while traveling across
16250-494: Was found half a yard (about 40 centimeters) under the ground surface and 60 meters to the west of the second door of the viceregal palace, and removed from the earth with a "real rigging with double pulley". Antonio de León y Gama came to the discovery site to observe and determine the origin and meaning of the monument found. According to Alfredo Chavero , it was Antonio who gave it the name of Aztec Calendar , believing it to be an object of public consultation. León y Gama said
16380-404: Was happening in this transformation. The evangelization of New Spain was led by Franciscan, Dominican and Augustinian friars. These religious orders established the Catholic Church in colonial New Spain, and directed it during most of the 16th century. The Franciscans in particular were enthusiastic about the new land and its people. Franciscan friars who went to the New World were motivated by
16510-430: Was lost for centuries until it was unearthed in 1790. The reemergence of the Sun Stone sparked a renewed interest in Aztec culture, but since the Western culture now had hundreds of years of influence over the Mexican landscape, the public display of the monument next to the city's main cathedral sparked controversy. Although the object was being publicly honored, placing it in the shadow of a Catholic institution for nearly
16640-430: Was marked by violence and the conquering of native groups, and their mythic history was used to legitimize their conquests and the establishment of the capital Tenochtitlan . As the Aztecs grew in power, the state needed to find ways to maintain order and control over the conquered peoples, and they used religion and violence to accomplish the task. The state religion included a vast canon of deities that were involved in
16770-451: Was recruited in 1529 to join the missionary effort in New Spain. He would spend the next 61 years there. During the Age of Discovery , 1450–1700, Iberian rulers took a great interest in the missionary evangelization of indigenous peoples encountered in newly discovered lands. In Catholic Spain and Portugal, the missionary project was funded by Catholic monarchs under the patronato real issued by
16900-399: Was translated to Spanish and English, and codified as an academic webpage in 2023. Aztec sun stone 19°25′34″N 99°11′15″W / 19.42611°N 99.18750°W / 19.42611; -99.18750 The Aztec sun stone ( Spanish : Piedra del Sol ) is a late post-classic Mexica sculpture housed in the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City , and is perhaps
#431568