Tlalmanalco is a municipality located in the far south-eastern part of the State of Mexico . The municipal seat and second largest town in the municipality is the town of Tlalmanalco de Velázquez The name is from the Nahuatl language, meaning “flat area.” The municipality's seal shows flat land, with a pyramid on it, representing its pre-Hispanic history, surrounded by small mountains, which is how the area was represented in Aztec codices. The municipality is bordered by the municipalities of Chalco , Ixtapaluca , Cocotitlan , Temamatla , Tenango del Aire , Ayapango and Amecameca . It also shares a border with the neighboring state of Puebla . Much of the municipality borders the Iztaccihuatl-Popocatepetl National Park . For this reason, Iztaccihuatl volcano dominates the landscape. The town has been designated as a “Pueblo con Encanto” (Town with Charm) by the government of the State of Mexico.
88-502: According to archeological findings, there was a village stronghold in the area from about 3,100 to 600 B.C. The archeological zone is located just to the northwest of the main plaza of the town. Groups such as the Xochteca , Cocolca , Olmec-Xicallanca and Quiyahuizteca populated the area between the 10th and 13th centuries. However, these groups were later driven from here by the Toltecs and
176-589: A Toltec Empire between the 10th and 12th century AD. The Aztecs referred to several Mexican city states as Tollan, "Place of Reeds", such as "Tollan Cholollan ". Archaeologist Laurette Séjourné , followed by the historian Enrique Florescano, have argued that the "original" Tollan was probably Teotihuacán . Florescano adds that the Mayan sources refer to Chichén Itzá when talking about the mythical place Zuyua (Tollan). Many historicists such as H. B. Nicholson (2001 (1957)) and Nigel Davies (1977) were fully aware that
264-647: A colony, or only loose connections between the two. Whether the Mixteca-Puebla art style has any meaning is also disputed. A contrary viewpoint is argued in a 2003 study by Michael E. Smith and Lisa Montiel, who compare the archaeological record related to Tula Hidalgo to those of the polities centered in Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan . They conclude that relative to the influence exerted in Mesoamerica by Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, Tula's influence on other cultures
352-568: A few days later Francis sent her to Sant' Angelo in Panzo, another monastery of the Benedictine nuns on one of the flanks of Subasio. Her sister Catarina unexpectedly joined Clare 16 days later and took the name 'Agnes'. This caused a tremendous uproar in Clare's family as now two of their girls had refused marriage and left the family. Clare's uncle Monaldo, who was head of the family, came to Sant' Angelo with
440-484: A group of men to bring Agnes back. He confronted Agnes forcefully while Clare was praying for her sister's safety. In the end, Monaldo left empty-handed as he and his men failed to force Agnes to return home. The sisters remained with the Benedictines until a small dwelling was built for them next to the church of San Damiano , which Francis had repaired some years earlier. The dwelling was built hastily, as Francis and
528-546: A group of sedentary Chichimeca from northern Mesoamerica. The former of these is believed to have composed the majority of the new culture and were influenced by the Mayan culture. During Teotihuacan's apogee in the Early Classic period, these people were tightly integrated into the political and economic systems of the state and formed large settlements in the Tula region, most notably Villagran and Chingu. Beginning around 650 CE,
616-550: A newly constructed shrine in the crypt of the Basilica of Saint Clare, where her relics can still be venerated today. Clare was canonized on 26 September 1255 by Pope Alexander IV , and her feast day was immediately inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 12 August, the day after her death, as 11 August was already assigned to Saints Tiburtius and Susanna , two 3rd-century Roman martyrs. The celebration
704-594: A number of older houses that show the French influence that was popular in Mexico between the 19th and 20th centuries. The town is nearly surrounded by pine forest and there are many unpaved roads leading into it, most of which were cut by the paper mill. The municipality has a number of elevations, including Teyotl, a 4700 meters and Tlatlachelo at 3175 meters. The latter has some Toltec -era shrines at its peak. Toltec The Toltec culture ( / ˈ t ɒ l t ɛ k / )
792-558: A pair of Saracen armies attacked the monastery of San Damiano and the town of Assisi. Both targets were successfully defended as Clare prayed to Christ, present in the Blessed Sacrament . In her later years, Clare endured a long period of poor health. She died on 11 August 1253 at the age of 59, one day after having her Rule approved by Pope Innocent IV. Her last words are reported to have been, "Blessed be You, O God, for having created me." On 9 August 1253, two days before her death,
880-407: A portrait of Friar Martin de Valencia, and Saint Claire . The mix of Christian and indigenous motifs has been studied by Gustavo Curiel and others. According to Curiel, the images seem to represent the clash between idolatry , associated with the devil and Christianity in competition for the soul. Nonohualca Museum exhibits archeological pieces from the area around Tlalmanalco. Much of the work
968-723: A problem with Clare's lifestyle of strict poverty. Gregory IX was the Cardinal Huglino who had previously known and worked with Clare and her order at San Damiano. During this time, he came to care for Clare and she became very dear to him. Gregory IX worried that the health of the sisters would suffer unduly under the strict vow of poverty Clare wanted. During a visit to San Damiano, Gregory IX urged Clare to give up her way of strict poverty, stating that "if you fear because of your vow, We dispense you from it", to which she immediately responded, "Holy Father, never and in no way do I wish to be dispensed from following Christ!" At that moment,
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#17328700026911056-571: A short period, the order was directed by Francis himself. In 1216, however, Clare reluctantly accepted the role of abbess of San Damiano. As abbess, Clare had more authority to lead the order than when she was the prioress and required to follow the orders of a priest heading the community. Clare did not care for titles or power within the Order, and took on the role of abbess only on the instruction of Francis. Clare referred to herself by such terms as mother, handmaid, or servant rather than an abbess. She
1144-584: A significant role in encouraging and aiding Francis, whom she saw as a spiritual father figure, and she took care of him during his final illness. After Francis's death, Clare continued to promote the growth of her order, writing letters to abbesses in other parts of Europe, including Agnes of Prague, with whom she had formed a close friendship. However, with Francis gone, she faced another challenge. The fourth Lateran council of 1215 decreed that any new religious communities that had not yet been approved would have to adopt an established order. This established order
1232-453: A similar end. To that point, imported goods at Tula Grande shows that the Toltecs indeed interacted commercially with sites throughout Mesoamerica; shared ceramic and ritual figurine styles between Tula and regions such as Socunusco supplement this idea. Additionally, surveys of Tula Grande have suggested the existence of an "extensive and highly specialized workshop-based obsidian industry," at
1320-615: A symbolically powerful building for the Toltec due to its reference in architecture to the historic and mythic homes of the people's ancestors. The physical layout of the broader plaza also partakes in referencing a shared past; its sunken colonnaded hall units are incredibly similar to those at cities of Tula's ancestral peoples. Importantly, these halls are known to have served as places to engage with both regional and long-distance trade networks and were possibly also used for diplomatic relations, suggesting that Tula Grande used these structures for
1408-506: A teen, she heard Francis preach during a Lenten service in the church of San Giorgio at Assisi. Inspired by his words and knowing that marriage was rapidly approaching, Clare went to Francis and asked him to help her to live after the manner of the Gospel. On the evening of Palm Sunday , 20 March 1212, with the consent of Guido II, bishop of Assisi, Clare left her father's house accompanied by her aunt Bianca and another companion, and proceeded to
1496-487: A trapezoidal layout, left incomplete. Five arches with capitals finished with reliefs and a frieze that follows the outline of the arches filled with human figures. These arches were reserved for persons of high social rank. The arch behind these was most likely reserved for the altar. The interior is “proto- renaissance” and decorated with Italian-style motifs and figures that seem to represent indigenous bestiary . Images includes telamons , male goats (to represent lust) and
1584-511: A very local specialty is tamales with capulins (a type of cherry) and corn. In October 2008, the town held its first International Festival of Antique Music, inviting vocalist Rita Guerrero , flutist Horacio Franco , the Alharaca Ensamble among others. The festival was a series of twelve concerts held in the most historically important sites of the town such as the Temple of San Luis Obispo
1672-631: A woman. Following her death, the order she founded was renamed in her honor as the Order of Saint Clare, commonly referred to today as the Poor Clares. Her feast day is on 11 August. Clare was born in Assisi to the Offreduccio household during the High Middle Ages , the eldest daughter of Favarone or Favorino Sciffi, Count of Sasso-Rosso, and his wife Ortolana . Traditional accounts say that Clare's father
1760-469: A year after Clare's canonization, and her remains were transferred there on 3 October 1260 from the church of St George, also in Assisi. Her bones are now in the crypt at the Basilica, having been rediscovered in 1850. In art, Clare is often shown carrying a monstrance or pyx , in commemoration of the occasion when she warded away the invading soldiers of Frederick II at the gates of her convent by displaying
1848-418: Is a large mythological part of the narrative, some maintain that, by using a critical comparative method, some level of historicity can be salvaged from the sources. Others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of factual history is futile and hinders access to learning about the culture of Tula . Other controversies relating to the Toltec include the question of how best to understand
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#17328700026911936-554: Is an Italian saint who was one of the first followers of Francis of Assisi . Inspired by the teachings of St. Francis, she founded the Order of Poor Ladies , a monastic religious order for women in the Franciscan tradition. The Order of Poor Ladies was different from any other order or convent because it followed a rule of strict poverty. Clare wrote their Rule of Life, the first set of monastic guidelines known to have been written by
2024-464: Is hundreds of miles to the south and gave its name to the nearby city of Santa Clarita . The early California missions were founded by Franciscan Friars, who had a special devotion to Saint Clare. Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico , celebrates its Santa Clara Feast Day annually on 12 August, as the feast was celebrated before the 1969 calendar change. The first convent in Cuba, Convento de Santa Clara de Asis ,
2112-596: Is logging for wood as well, but this is heavily managed. Tlalmanalco has been designated as a “sustainability center” by the Foundation for Sustainable Development in Mexico in cooperation with the state government and UAM. This is in response to the deterioration of the environment in this area, as well as population growth, leading to demand for more public services. The major river here is called La Compañía, which has nine arroyos, one lake and seven aqueducts associated with it in
2200-551: Is stone sculpture, the best known of which is the Effigy of Xochipilli . This statue was found on the side of the volcano Popocatépetl near Tlalmanalco. however, this piece is in the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City . Dishes of the area include mixiote , tlacoyos with fava beans, pinto beans and requeson , cecina , green mole with chicken or pork, and pork in chile mulato but
2288-602: The Aztec , the Kʼicheʼ and the Itza' Mayas. While the skeptical school of thought does not deny that cultural traits of a seemingly central Mexican origin have diffused into a larger area of Mesoamerica, it tends to ascribe this to the dominance of Teotihuacán in the Classic period and the general diffusion of cultural traits within the region. Recent scholarship, then, does not see Tula, Hidalgo as
2376-622: The Chichimecas . A subgroup of these two tribes, called the Nonohualcas , arrived to the area in the 13th century and formed a city-state in what is now Tlalmanalco in 1336. This city-state formed an alliance with ethnically-related populations such as those in Amaquemecan , Chimalhuacan and Tenango Tepopollan . This area was one of the last to be conquered by the Aztecs, but after 100 years of fighting,
2464-530: The Mesoamerican Postclassic period . The Nahuatl word for 'Toltec', for example, can mean 'master artisan' as well as 'inhabitant of Tula, Hidalgo', and the word Tollan (known as Tula in modern times) can refer specifically to Tula, Hidalgo, or more generally to all great cities through meaning 'place of the reeds'. Much of the questioning of these Aztec narratives is due to the lack of archaeological evidence to support them. Aztec accounts tell that
2552-450: The historicity of the Aztec mythical accounts based on the original approach of Brinton. This approach applies a different understanding of the word Toltec to the interpretation of the Aztec sources, interpreting it as largely a mythical and philosophical construct by either the Aztecs or Mesoamericans generally that served to symbolize the might and sophistication of several civilizations during
2640-591: The papal bull Solet annuere of Pope Innocent IV confirmed that Clare's rule would serve as the governing rule for Clare's Order of Poor Ladies. Her remains were interred at the chapel of San Giorgio while a church to hold her remains was being constructed. At her funeral, Pope Innocent IV insisted the friars perform the Office for the Virgin Saints as opposed to the Office for the Dead. This move by Pope Innocent ensured that
2728-460: The 20th century, represented in the works of scholars such as David Carrasco , Miguel León-Portilla , Nigel Davies and H. B. Nicholson , which all held the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group. This school of thought connected the "Toltecs" to the archaeological site of Tula , which was taken to be the Tollan of Aztec myth. This tradition assumes that much of central Mexico was dominated by
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2816-505: The Aztec chronicles were a mixture of mythical and historical accounts; this led them to try to separate the two by applying a comparative approach to the varying Aztec narratives. For example, they seek to discern between the deity Quetzalcoatl and a Toltec ruler often referred to as Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl . Since the 1990s, the historicist position has fallen out of favor for a more critical and interpretive approach to
2904-413: The Benedictines feared further conflict with Monaldo and other relatives of Clare and Agnes. Other women joined the sisters, and they became known as the "Poor Ladies of San Damiano". They lived a simple life of poverty, austerity, and seclusion from the world, according to a Rule which Francis gave them as a Second Order (Poor Clares). San Damiano became the centre of Clare's new religious order, which
2992-546: The Blessed Sacrament and kneeling in prayer. Pope Pius XII designated Clare as the patron saint of television in 1958 on the basis that when she was too ill to attend Mass , she had reportedly been able to see and hear it on the wall of her room. There are traditions of bringing offerings of eggs to the Poor Clares for their intercessions for good weather, particularly for weddings. This tradition remains popular in
3080-548: The Mixtec-Puebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware, and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware ceramics. The presence of stylistic traits associated with Tula in Chichén Itzá is also taken as evidence for a Toltec horizon. The nature of interaction between Tula and Chichén Itzá has been especially controversial, with scholars arguing for either military conquest of Chichén Itzá by the Toltec, Chichén Itzá establishing Tula as
3168-679: The Old Belthemite Hospital and the main plaza. The major annual celebrations revolve around the town's patron saints, especially Saint Louis, the Bishop and the Archangel Raphael . The feast of Saint Louis, the Bishop is on 20 August and the feast of the Archangel Raphael is 29 September. They are celebrated with processions, fireworks and local dances including “Los Doce Pares de Francia”, “Marotas” and “Chinelos.” As municipal seat,
3256-760: The Philippines, particularly at the Real Monasterio de Santa Clara in Quezon City and in the town of Obando, Bulacan . According to the Filipino essayist Alejandro Roces , the practice arose because of Clare's name. In Castilian clara refers to an interval of clear weather, and also to the white or albumen of the egg. Many places, including churches , convents , schools , hospitals , towns , and counties are named for Saint Clare, Santa Clara , or other variants. Lake Saint Clair between Lake Erie and Lake Huron
3344-516: The Pope had no more objections, and during his second year as Pope reapproved the Privilegium Paupertatis . Following the Order's approval from the Pope, Clare wanted to make a Rule based on Francis's teachings, which her sisters would be able to follow long after she died. Clare began writing her own Rule, keeping Francis's teachings at the forefront of her mind. Her Rule especially emphasized
3432-481: The Toltec discovered medicine, designed the calendar system, created the Nahuatl language. More broadly, the Aztec traced most of their own societal achievements to the Toltec and their city Tollan, which was idolized as the epitome of state civilization with an enormous influence in the surrounding region. However, Tula—the site attributed with this Tollan—lacks much of the splendor that the Aztecs describe. For example, Tula
3520-682: The Toltecs were disciples of the "High Priest Topiltzin." Topiltzin and his disciples were said to have preached and performed miracles. "Astonished, the people called these men Toltecs," which Duran says, "means Masters, or Men Wise in Some Craft." Duran speculated that this Topilzin may have been the Thomas the Apostle sent to preach the Christian Gospel among the "Indians", although he provides nothing more than circumstantial evidence of any contact between
3608-651: The Visit of the Virgin. The paintings on this altar were done by Baltasar de Echave The cloister has frescos with scenes of flora and fauna and human figures, as well as portraits of Martin de Valencia and Saint Clare. Friar Martin de Valencia died in Ayotzingo and is interred in the Tlalmanalco church. Tlalmanalco was one of the first sites to have an “open chapel,” and is one of the very few places where one can be found intact today. In
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3696-587: The absolute non-possession of property. She had her Rule approved by both Cardinal Rainaldo and Pope Innocent IV. Clare's Franciscan theology of joyous poverty in imitation of Christ is evident in the Rule she wrote for her community and in her four letters to Agnes of Prague . As Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II battled Pope Gregory IX for control of Italy during the Crusades era, separately in September 1240 and June 1241,
3784-469: The alliance succumbed in 1465. The founding of the Spanish town occurred in 1525 by Friar Juan de Rivas, the same year that evangelization of the native population was begun by Friar Martin de Valencia . The Annals of Chimalpain indicate that the indigenous shrine here was destroyed in 1525, and a church and open-air chapel were consecrated in 1532 even though the chapel was never completed. Tlalmanalco suffered
3872-498: The arrival of Aztec ceramics, suggest that the Aztecs' reverence of the Toltec might have been mostly propagandistic, intentionally overexaggerating the previous culture to use it as a steppingstone for their own. Scholars such as Michel Graulich (2002) and Susan D. Gillespie (1989) maintained that the difficulties in salvaging historic data from the Aztec accounts of Toltec history are too great to overcome. For example, there are two supposed Toltec rulers identified with Quetzalcoatl:
3960-434: The canonization process for Clare would begin shortly after her funeral. Pope Innocent was cautioned by multiple advisers against having the Office for the Virgin Saints performed at Clare's funeral. The most vocal of these advisers was Cardinal Raynaldus, who would later become Pope Alexander IV and, in two years' time, would canonize Clare. At Pope Innocent's request the canonization process for Clare began immediately. While
4048-507: The capital of the Toltecs of the Aztec accounts. Rather, it takes Toltec to mean simply an inhabitant of Tula during its apogee. Separating the term Toltec from those of the Aztec accounts, it attempts to find archaeological clues to the ethnicity, history and social organization of the inhabitants of Tula. Clare of Assisi Chiara Offreduccio (16 July 1194 – 11 August 1253), known as Clare of Assisi (sometimes spelled Clara , Clair or Claire ; Italian : Chiara d'Assisi ),
4136-658: The chapel of the Porziuncula to meet Francis. There, her hair was cut, and she exchanged her rich gown for a plain robe and veil. Fully cutting a woman's hair was a symbolic act showing that she was no longer bound by the laws of man or society but rather that she followed the will of God. Francis placed Clare in the convent of the Benedictine nuns of San Paulo, near Bastia. Her father, along with other members of her family, attempted to convince her to return home. At first, they tried to persuade her by enticing her with wealth, and
4224-581: The epitome of civilization. In the Nahuatl language the word Tōltēkatl [toːɬˈteːkat͡ɬ] (singular) or Tōltēkah [toːɬˈteːkaḁ] (plural) came to take on the meaning " artisan ". The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec Empire , giving lists of rulers and their exploits. Modern scholars debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. While all scholars acknowledge that there
4312-429: The first ruler and founder of the Toltec dynasty and the last ruler, who saw the end of the Toltec glory and was forced into humiliation and exile. The first is described as a valiant triumphant warrior, but the last as a feeble and self-doubting old man. This caused Graulich and Gillespie to suggest that the general Aztec cyclical view of time, in which events repeated themselves at the end and beginning of cycles or eras
4400-460: The forced indentured servitude of the native population from 1550 to 1633, when this practice was abolished. Attempts to industrialize the rural, farming economy began in 1858, when a copper smelting operation and various textile mills were introduced, as well as a railroad line. One of the more important factories by the turn of the century was the San Rafael y Anexas, S.A. paper mill, located in
4488-426: The ground, ate no meat, and observed almost complete silence. This was in accordance with the strict teachings of poverty assigned to Clare by Francis. Francis and Clare believed that through poverty they could become closer to Jesus as they would live the way he did. They were not inconvenienced by this lifestyle, but rather they believed it was a blessing, as they were following in the footsteps of Jesus Christ. For
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#17328700026914576-413: The hemispheres. The later debate about the nature of the Toltec culture goes back to the late 19th century. Mesoamericanist scholars such as Mariano Veytia, Manuel Orozco y Berra , Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg , and Francisco Clavigero all read the Aztec chronicles and believed them to be realistic historic descriptions of a pan-Mesoamerican empire based at Tula, Hidalgo. This historicist view
4664-681: The leadership of Kukulcan. Following Charnay the term Toltec has since been associated with the influx of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Maya sphere of dominance that took place in the late Classic and early Postclassic periods; the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of Chichén Itzá , Mayapán and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "Toltecized" or "Mexicanized" Mayas. The historicist school of thought persisted well into
4752-455: The majority of these settlements were abandoned as a result of Teotihuacan's decline. The Coyotlatelco rose as the dominant culture in the region. It is with the Coyotlatelco that Tula, as it relates to the Toltec, was founded along with a number of hilltop communities. Tula Chico, as the settlement is referred to during this phase, grew into a small regional state out of the consolidation of
4840-457: The most important house in the order, and Clare became its undisputed leader. By 1263, just ten years after Clare's death, the order had become known as the Order of Saint Clare . Unlike the Franciscan friars , whose members moved around the country to preach, Clare's sisters lived in enclosure , since an itinerant life was hardly conceivable at the time for women. Their life consisted of manual labour and prayer. The nuns went barefoot, slept on
4928-454: The most prominent examples of the Toltec material culture at the site include pyramids, ball-courts, and the Atlantean warrior sculptures on top of Pyramid B. Various civic buildings surrounding a central plaza are especially distinctive, as excavations show the use of columns inside these buildings and in surrounding colonnades. One of these buildings, known as Building 3, is argued to have been
5016-436: The municipality has a total area of 158.76 km2 and a population of 43,930. Uncultivated areas are mostly pine forest, which cover about 65% of the municipality. Only 17.9% of the land is used for agriculture, mostly growing corn during the rainy season. The area also has some livestock raising. About 40% of the municipality's population is employed in industries such as paper and textile mills as well as small workshops. There
5104-469: The municipality. Much of the water flowing from this system comes from the Ayolotepito glacier. However, potable water availability is an issue here. In January 2008, 400 ranchers in the upper mountains of the municipality, who lack access to potable water themselves, protested and shut down a project to transport water to the lowlands and especially to the municipal seat. The protesters are demanding access to
5192-424: The myth of the struggle between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca . Désiré Charnay , the first archaeologist to work at Tula, Hidalgo, defended the historicist views based on his impression of the Toltec capital, and was the first to note similarities in architectural styles between Tula and Chichén Itza . This led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been violently taken over by a Toltec military force under
5280-477: The name Agnes and became an early abbess in the order. She established it in additional communities, and was declared a saint herself in the mid-18th century.) As children, Clare and her sisters were taught the ways of Christianity by their mother; they all became very religious and devoted to prayer. When Clare was 12 years old, her parents wanted her to marry a wealthy young man; however, she protested and said that she did not want to marry until she turned 18. As
5368-532: The nearby village of San Rafael. This mill elevated the area economically, and was considered one of the most important industries in Mexico from 1930 to 1970. The Temple of San Luis Obispo , with the adjoining Capilla Abierta (Open Chapel) were built in the 16th century by the Franciscans as part of the Monastery of San Luis. The first church was built by Friar Juan de Rivas which opened in 1532. The larger complex
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#17328700026915456-476: The only possibly historical data in the Aztec chronicles are the names of some rulers and possibly some of the conquests ascribed to them. Furthermore, among the Nahuan peoples the word Tolteca was synonymous with artist, artisan or wise man, and Toltecayotl , literally 'Toltecness', meant art, culture, civilization, and urbanism and was seen as the opposite of Chichimecayotl ('Chichimecness'), which symbolized
5544-505: The open chapel was where mass was offered to natives who would not enter the dark confines of the typical church. The Capilla Abierta is done in Mexican Baroque style and is considered an interesting example of “tequitqui” art. The word “tequitqui” is from Nahuatl, meaning “vassal.” This expression was used to refer to artistic works, especially sculpture, that had Christian themes but was done by indigenous craftsmen. The Capilla Abierta has
5632-421: The privileges of nobility through marriage, but she resisted each attempt, professing that she would have no other husband but Jesus Christ. Finally, when they tried to use force she clung to the altar of the church and threw aside her veil to show her cropped hair. It was only after seeing her cropped hair that her family relented and left her in peace. In order to provide the greater solitude Clare desired,
5720-522: The reasons behind the perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula and the Maya site of Chichén Itzá . Researchers are yet to reach a consensus in regards to the degree or direction of influence between these two sites. While the exact origins of the culture are unclear, it likely developed from a mixture of the Nonoalca people from the southern Gulf Coast and
5808-479: The region, Chichén Itzá, as the vast majority of obsidian at both sites comes from the same two geological sources. One of the earliest historical mentions of Toltecs was in the 16th century by the Dominican friar Diego Durán , who was best known for being one of the first westerners to study the history of Mesoamerica. Durán's work remains relevant to Mesoamerican societies, and based on his findings Durán claims that
5896-468: The saint, Pope Urban IV officially changed the name of the Order of Poor Ladies to the Order of Saint Clare in 1263. On her deathbed, Clare was heard to say to herself, "Go forth in peace, for you have followed the good road. Go forth without fear, for He Who created you has made you holy, has always protected you, and loves you as a mother. Blessed be You, my God, for having created me." Some 600 years later in 1872, Clare's relics were transferred to
5984-472: The savage, nomadic state of peoples who had not yet become urbanized. This interpretation argues that any large urban center in Mesoamerica could be referred to as Tollan and its inhabitants as Toltecs – and that it was a common practice among ruling lineages in Postclassic Mesoamerica to strengthen claims to power by asserting Toltec ancestry. Mesoamerican migration accounts often state that Tollan
6072-429: The site that could have been one of the sources of the city's economic and political power, taking on Teotihuacan's previous role as the region's distributor. A survey done by Healan et al. recovered roughly 16,000 pieces of obsidian from the site's urban zone and over 25,000 from its surrounding residential areas. Tula's involvement in obsidian trade is also evidence for the city's interaction with another powerful city in
6160-712: The site was burned and abandoned at the end of the Epiclassic period, Tula Grande was soon constructed bearing strong similarities 1.5 kilometers to the south. It is during the Early Postclassic period that Tula Grande and its associated Toltec culture would become the dominant force in the broader region. Some archaeologists, such as Richard Diehl , argue for the existence of a Toltec archaeological horizon characterized by certain stylistic traits associated with Tula, Hidalgo and extending to other cultures and polities in Mesoamerica. Traits associated with this horizon are include
6248-411: The surrounding Coyotlatelco sites. The settlement was roughly three to six square kilometers in size with a gridded urban plan and a relatively large population. The complexity of the main plaza was especially distinct from other Coyotlatelco sites in the area, as it had multiple ball courts and pyramids . The Toltec culture, as it is understood during its peak, can be tied directly to Tula Chico; after
6336-1042: The town of Tlalmanalco has governing jurisdiction for the following communities: San Antonio Tlaltecahuacán, San Lorenzo Tlalmimilolpan, San Rafael, Santo Tomás Atzingo, Ranchería San José Zavaleta, La Ladrillera, Rancho Santa Cruz, Rancho Cuautenampa (La Quebradora), La Escondida, Rancho la Mesa, Santa María, Restaurante el Arenal (Familia Carbajal), El Brasero, Gavillero (Rancho el Gavillero), Lomas del Pedregal, Santiago (Kilómetro Cincuenta y Ocho y Medio), Fraccionamiento Valle Plateado, Villa Rincón de las Montañas, La Presa, Ejido San Lorenzo (La Cañada), Rancho de la Huerta, El Durazno, Rancho Santa Rita, Terreno San Luis (La Nopalera), Rancho la Joya (La Rosa), Vista Hermosa, Fraccionamiento Vergel de la Sierra, El Trapiche (Xacalco), Rancho Alfa y Omega, Colonia Ejidal (San Juan Atzacoaloya), El Faro, El Capulín, Tiro de las Palomas, Colonia el Magueyal Dos, Rancho Carvajal, Rancho San Luis, Rancho Fernando de la Machorra, Rancho la Encumbre, Colonia la Esperanza, Tepopotal and Fraccionamiento las Palomas. Together,
6424-495: The water to be carried by the new line. The most important community in the municipality outside of the seat is San Rafael , located about 5 km east of the town of Tlalmanalco at the foot of the Iztaccihuatl volcano The town essentially was created due to the placement of the San Rafael paper mill, which reached its height of production between 1930 and 1970. Its old cinema and casino are still standing but empty, and there are
6512-464: The whole process took two years, the examination of Clare's miracles took just six days. On 26 September 1255, Pope Alexander IV canonized Clare as Saint Clare of Assisi. Construction of the Basilica of Saint Clare was completed in 1260, and on 3 October of that year Clare's remains were transferred to the newly completed basilica where they were buried beneath the high altar . In further recognition of
6600-462: Was ranked as a Double (as in the Tridentine calendar ) or, in the terminology adopted in 1960, a Third-Class Feast (as in the General Roman Calendar of 1960 ). The 1969 calendar revision removed the feast of Tiburtius and Susanna from the calendar, finally allowing the memorial of Saint Clare to be celebrated on 11 August, the day of her death. Construction of the Basilica di Santa Chiara began
6688-481: Was a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican culture that ruled a state centered in Tula , Hidalgo , Mexico , during the Epiclassic and the early Post-Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology , reaching prominence from 950 to 1150 CE. The later Aztec culture considered the Toltec to be their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described Toltec culture emanating from Tōllān [ˈtoːlːãːn̥] ( Nahuatl for Tula) as
6776-525: Was a wealthy representative of an ancient Roman family, who owned a large palace in Assisi and a castle on the slope of Mount Subasio . Ortolana belonged to the noble family of Fiumi, and was a very devout woman who had undertaken pilgrimages to Rome, Santiago de Compostela , and the Holy Land . Later in life, after being widowed, Ortolana entered Clare's monastery. Clare's younger sisters, Beatrix and Catarina, followed her into religious life. (The latter took
6864-469: Was being inscribed into the historical record by the Aztecs, making it futile to attempt to distinguish between a historical Topiltzin Ce Acatl and a Quetzalcoatl deity. Graulich argued that the Toltec era is best considered the fourth of the five Aztec mythical "Suns" or ages, the one immediately preceding the fifth Sun of the Aztec people, presided over by Quetzalcoatl. This caused Graulich to consider that
6952-450: Was constructed between 1585 and 1591. The church is relatively simply decorated with only roses on the jamb of the main doors. In the central nave, there is a large relief of Saint Francis with the stigmata . The church has only one nave with a polygonal space for the main altar. This is covered by a barrel vault with false ribs painted on the ceiling. The interior has a lavish Mexican Baroque altarpiece done in cedar representing
7040-447: Was dedicated to Saint Clare, as well as her namesake city and its cathedral, Catedral de Santa Clara de Asís . Columbus's ship known as Niña , which visited Cuba twice, was officially named Santa Clara . Clare is one of five characters in the oratorio Laudato si' , composed in 2016 by Peter Reulein on a libretto by Helmut Schlegel , the others being an angel, Mary , Francis of Assisi, and Pope Francis . Clare of Assisi
7128-455: Was first challenged by Daniel Garrison Brinton who argued that the "Toltecs" as described in the Aztec sources were merely one of several Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the Postclassic period, and not a particularly influential one at that. He attributed the Aztec view of the Toltecs to the "tendency of the human mind to glorify the good old days" and the confounding of the place of Tollan with
7216-413: Was known in her lifetime as the "Order of Poor Ladies of San Damiano". San Damiano is traditionally considered the first house of this order; it may have been affiliated with an existing network of women's religious houses organised by Hugolino (who later became Pope Gregory IX ). Hugolino wanted San Damiano as part of the order he founded because of the prestige of Clare's monastery. San Damiano emerged as
7304-399: Was mainly built out of the relatively soft and unimpressive adobe brick, and while Tula certainly was a major regional city in its time, it was minuscule both in population and in influence in comparison to both its predecessor, Teotihuacan, and its Aztec descendant, Tenochtitlan. Additional material remains at Tula, such as the destruction of Toltec buildings and monumental art coinciding with
7392-502: Was navigated and named on her feast day in 1679. The Saint Clair River , St. Clair Shores, Michigan , and St. Clair County, Michigan were also consequently named for her. Mission Santa Clara , founded by Spanish missionaries in Northern California in 1777, has given its name to the university , city , county and valley in which it sits, nicknamed " Silicon Valley " since the 1970s. Southern California's Santa Clara River
7480-531: Was negligible and was probably not deserving of being defined as an empire , but more of a kingdom. While Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital, its influence and dominance were not very far reaching. Evidence for Tula's participation in extensive trade networks has been uncovered; for example, the remains of a large obsidian workshop. At its height, Tula Grande had an estimated population of as many as 60,000 and covered 16 square kilometers of hills, plains, valleys, and marsh. Some of
7568-488: Was ruled by Quetzalcoatl (or Kukulkan in Yucatec and Q'uq'umatz in Kʼicheʼ ), a godlike mythical figure who was later sent into exile from Tollan and went on to found a new city elsewhere in Mesoamerica. According to Patricia Anawalt, a professor of anthropology at UCLA , assertions of Toltec ancestry and claims that their elite ruling dynasties were founded by Quetzalcoatl have been made by such diverse civilizations as
7656-424: Was very shy and did not like giving orders. On the rare occasions when she would give orders, she would do so with great humility and shyness. Clare would purposefully save the most tedious tasks for herself because she always wished to take care of her sisters. Clare sought to imitate Francis's virtues and way of life so much so that she was sometimes titled alter Franciscus , 'another Francis'. She also played
7744-679: Was very similar to the Rule of Saint Benedict , which was the common rule that monasteries followed. Clare vigorously fought to keep her rule of strict poverty. Ultimately, when the other priests and bishops refused to accept her rule of strict poverty, she sought to get a special privilege from the pope. If granted, this special privilege of poverty ( "Privilegium Paupertatis" ) from the pope would allow her order to keep living in strict poverty as they wanted. But, although Innocent III had approved Clare's privilege and his successor Honorius III had no problem with it, Gregory IX, successor of Honorius III did have
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