A jet aircraft (or simply jet ) is an aircraft (nearly always a fixed-wing aircraft ) propelled by one or more jet engines .
107-534: The Avro Vulcan (later Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963) is a jet-powered , tailless , delta-wing , high-altitude, strategic bomber , which was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1956 until 1984. Aircraft manufacturer A.V. Roe and Company ( Avro ) designed the Vulcan in response to Specification B.35/46 . Of the three V bombers produced, the Vulcan was considered the most technically advanced, hence
214-578: A UHF transmitter-receiver (ARC-52). The initial B.2 radio fit was similar to the B.1A though it was ultimately fitted with the ARC-52, a V/UHF transmitter/receiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband modulation HF transmitter-receiver ( Collins 618T). The navigation and bombing system comprised an H2S Mk9 radar and a navigation bombing computer Mk1. Other navigation aids included a Marconi radio compass ( ADF ), GEE Mk3 , Green Satin Doppler radar to determine
321-568: A V-class of bombers, and the Air Council announced the following month that the 698 would be called Vulcan after the Roman god of fire and destruction . In January 1953, VX770 was grounded for the installation of wing fuel tanks, Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines of 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust and other systems; it flew again in July 1953. From 1957, VX770 was used as the flying testbed for
428-471: A contract for the prototype SA.4 to the less-stringent Specification B.14/46. The SA.4, later named Sperrin, was not required. In April 1948, Vickers also received authority to proceed with their Type 660 , which, although falling short of the B.35/46 Specification, but being of a more conventional design, would be available sooner. This plane entered service as the Valiant. As Avro had no flight experience of
535-407: A conventional control wheel, was powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines of 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust, its intended Bristol Olympus engines not being available. The prototype had fuselage fuel tanks but no wing tanks, so temporary additional tankage was carried in the bomb bay. VX770 made an appearance at the 1952 Society of British Aircraft Constructors' (SBAC) Farnborough Air Show
642-410: A dorsal spine; a new main undercarriage to carry an all-up-weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg); and reheated Olympus 301s of 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust. An amended proposal of October 1960 inserted a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) plug into the forward fuselage with capacity for six crew members including a relief pilot, all facing forwards on ejection seats, and aft-fan versions of
749-658: A government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons, the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge, even to countries that had collaborated on the Manhattan Project . OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m) in length, 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter and 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) in weight. The weapon had to be suitable for release from 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m). In January 1947,
856-531: A heavy landing at Farnborough. It was repaired, fitted with Olympus 101 engines of 11,000 lbf (49 kN) thrust before resuming trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down . While exploring VX777's high-speed and high-altitude flight envelope at the A&;AEE, mild buffeting and other undesirable flight characteristics were experienced while approaching
963-510: A highly flammable fabric surface. During the 1920s and 1930s a number of approaches were tried. A variety of motorjet , turboprop , pulsejet and rocket powered aircraft were designed. Rocket-engine research was being carried out in Germany and the first aircraft to fly under rocket power was the Lippisch Ente , in 1928. The Ente had previously been flown as a glider. The next year, in 1929,
1070-553: A jet fighter on 26 July 1944, the day before the British Gloster Meteor entered operational service. The Me 262 had first flown on April 18, 1941, but mass production did not start until early 1944, with the first squadrons operational that year, too late for any effect on the outcome of the World War II . While only around 15 Meteors were operational during WW2, up to 1,400 Me 262 were produced, with 300 entering combat. Only
1177-516: A jet-powered aircraft in 1910, the Coandă-1910 . However, to support this claim, he had to make substantial alterations to the drawings which he used to support his subsequently debunked claims. In fact the ducted-fan engine backfired, setting the aircraft on fire before any flights were ever made, and it lacked nearly all of the features necessary for a jet engine - including a lack of fuel injection, and any concern about hot jet efflux being directed at
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#17328454801931284-509: A lower exhaust speed than turbojets, and are mostly used for high sonic, transonic, and low supersonic speeds. High bypass turbofans are relatively efficient, and are used by subsonic aircraft such as airliners. Jet aircraft fly considerably differently than propeller aircraft . One difference is that jet engines respond relatively slowly. This complicates takeoff and landing maneuvers. In particular, during takeoff, propeller aircraft engines blow air over their wings and that gives more lift and
1391-565: A maritime radar reconnaissance role and six for an airborne tanker role. An updated bomb rack assembly allowing the carriage of 30 1,000 lb bombs, up from 21 was demonstrated by Avro but was not introduced. The updated wing profile increased range to 4,000 nm (7,400 km). The Avro 718 was a 1951 proposal for a delta-winged military transport based on the Type 698 to carry 80 troops or 110 passengers. It would have been powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines. The Avro Type 722 Atlantic
1498-497: A practical refit scheme was rejected. A rudimentary sixth seat forward of the navigator radar was provided for an additional crew member; the B.2 had an additional seventh seat opposite the sixth seat and forward of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's compartment could be fitted with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight , in many B.2s, this space housed a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera for assessing simulated low-level bombing runs. Fuel
1605-460: A prototype contract for its crescent-winged HP.80 B.35/46 tender in November 1947. Although considered the best option, the contract award for Avro's design was delayed while its technical strength was established. Instructions to proceed with the construction of two Avro 698 prototypes were received in January 1948. As an insurance measure against both radical designs failing, Short Brothers received
1712-413: A shorter takeoff. These differences caught out some early BOAC Comet pilots. In aircraft overall propulsive efficiency η {\displaystyle \eta } is the efficiency, in percent, with which the energy contained in a vehicle's propellant is converted into useful energy, to replace losses due to air drag , gravity, and acceleration. It can also be stated as the proportion of
1819-422: A speed that is the same as, or nearly the same as, the vehicle velocity. The exact formula for air-breathing engines as given in the literature, is where c is the exhaust speed, and v is the speed of the aircraft. For a long range jet operating in the stratosphere , the speed of sound is constant, hence flying at fixed angle of attack and constant Mach number causes the aircraft to climb, without changing
1926-495: A version of the Whittle engine built by General Electric . The Meteor was the first production jet, with the first orders for production examples being made on 8 August 1941, the prototype first flying on 5 March 1943 and the first production aircraft flying on 12 January 1944, while the first orders for production Me 262 aircraft were not issued until 25 May 1943, and the first production Me 262 did not fly until 28 March 1944 despite
2033-496: A wrap-around camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green because, during Red Flag exercises in the US, defending SAM forces had found that the grey-painted undersides of the Vulcan became much more visible against the ground at high angles of bank. The original Vulcan B.1 radio fit was: two 10-channel VHF transmitter/receivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) and an STR-18, 24-channel HF transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A also featured
2140-557: Is known as the Breguet range equation after the French aviation pioneer Louis Charles Breguet . Roy Chadwick Roy Chadwick , CBE , FRSA , FRAeS (30 April 1893 – 23 August 1947) was an English aircraft design engineer for the Avro Company. Born at Marsh Hall Farm, Farnworth , Widnes , the son of the mechanical engineer Charles Chadwick, he was the chief designer for Avro and
2247-650: Is the X-15 at Mach 6.85. The Space Shuttle , while far faster than the X-43 or X-15, was not regarded as an aircraft during ascent as it was carried ballistically by rocket thrust, rather than the air. During re-entry it was classed (like a glider) as an unpowered aircraft. The first flight was in 1981. The Bell 533 (1964), Lockheed XH-51 (1965), and Sikorsky S-69 (1977-1981) are examples of compound helicopter designs where jet exhaust added to forward thrust. The Hiller YH-32 Hornet and Fairey Ultra-light Helicopter were among
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#17328454801932354-427: Is the cycle efficiency and η p {\displaystyle \eta _{p}} is the propulsive efficiency. The cycle efficiency, in percent, is the proportion of energy that can be derived from the energy source that is converted to mechanical energy by the engine . For jet aircraft the propulsive efficiency (essentially energy efficiency ) is highest when the engine emits an exhaust jet at
2461-565: Is therefore an important consideration. Jet aircraft are usually designed using the Whitcomb area rule , which says that the total area of cross-section of the aircraft at any point along the aircraft from the nose must be approximately the same as that of a Sears-Haack body . A shape with that property minimises the production of shockwaves which would waste energy. There are several types of engine which operate by expelling hot gas: The different types are used for different purposes. Rockets are
2568-463: The Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment 's chief test pilot Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE. The second low-speed 707, VX790, built with the still uncompleted 707A's nose section (containing an ejection seat ) and redesignated 707B, flew in September 1950 piloted by Avro test pilot Wg Cdr Roland "Roly" Falk . The high-speed 707A, WD480, followed in July 1951. Due to the delay of
2675-764: The Avro Pike , a twin-engined pusher biplane bomber. That year, when starting to design entire aircraft, he was based at Hamble , near Southampton . In 1918 he was appointed Avro's Chief Designer when Avro had about 40 employees. He designed the Avro Baby and in 1920, the Avro Aldershot , the world's largest single-engined bomber and variants of the Aldershot, the Avro Ava and the Avro Andover . In 1925 he designed an all-metal plane,
2782-886: The Blue Steel missile. As a part of the V-force , the Vulcan was the backbone of the United Kingdom's airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War . Although the Vulcan was typically armed with nuclear weapons , it could also carry out conventional bombing missions, which it did in Operation Black Buck during the Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina in 1982. The Vulcan had no defensive weaponry, initially relying upon high-speed, high-altitude flight to evade interception. Electronic countermeasures were employed by
2889-647: The Boeing 707 to enter service in 1958 and thus to dominate the market for civilian airliners. The underslung engines were found to be advantageous in the event of a propellant leak, and so the 707 looked rather different from the Comet: the 707 has a shape that is effectively the same as that of contemporary aircraft, with marked commonality still evident today for example with the 737 (fuselage) and A340 (single deck, swept wing, four below-wing engines). Turbofan aircraft with far greater fuel efficiency began entering service in
2996-804: The International Bomber Command Centre in Lincoln. The Chadwick Centre at the International Bomber Command Centre in Lincolnshire is named in honour of Chadwick. He is commemorated by a blue plaque on the surviving office building of the Avro factory at Greengate. and a blue plaque at 38 Chessel Avenue in Bitterne , Hampshire, where he lived from 1922 to 29 when the AVRO design team was based nearby at Hamble . The A523 bypass around Poynton , which crosses
3103-679: The Manchester Municipal College of Technology whilst training as a draughtsman at the British Westinghouse Electrical Company in Trafford Park under George Edwin Bailey of Metropolitan-Vickers . At age 18 in September 1911, he began work as Alliott Verdon-Roe's (later Sir Alliott) personal assistant and the firm's draughtsman at A.V. Roe and Company, Avro , based at Brownsfield Mill , Manchester. Under
3210-631: The Ministry of Defence in January 1982 stated that little prospect was seen of this happening without ascertaining the Argentine interest and whether such interest was genuine: 'On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands.' Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands less than three months later, after which a British embargo on the sale of any military equipment
3317-481: The Ministry of Supply distributed Specification B.35/46 to UK aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for "a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to a target 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) from a base which may be anywhere in the world." A cruising speed of 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m)
Avro Vulcan - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-721: The Nakajima J9Y Kikka , a modified, and slightly smaller version of the Me 262 that had folding wings. By the end of 1945, the US had introduced their first jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star into service and the UK its second fighter design, the de Havilland Vampire . The US introduced the North American B-45 Tornado , their first jet bomber, into service in 1948. It was capable of carrying nuclear weapons, but
3531-680: The North American A-5 Vigilante , BAC TSR-2 , General Dynamics F-111 , had become available. Had the Australian government pre-ordered the TSR-2, several V-bombers, including Vulcans, would have been made available, for interim use by the RAAF; however, the F-111C was ordered. (The UK government almost followed that decision – after the cancellation of the TSR-2 – it was offered the similar F-111K .) In
3638-554: The Opel RAK.1 became the first purpose-built rocket aircraft to fly. The turbojet was invented in the 1930s, independently by Frank Whittle and later Hans von Ohain . The first turbojet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 , on August 27, 1939 in Rostock (Germany), powered by von Ohain's design. This was largely a proof of concept, as the problem of " creep " (metal fatigue caused by
3745-465: The Rolls-Royce Conway by-pass engine. It crashed at a flying display at RAF Syerston in September 1958. The second prototype, VX777, first flew on 3 September 1953. More representative of production aircraft, it was lengthened to accommodate a longer nose undercarriage leg to increase the angle of attack of the wing, shortening the take-off run. It featured a visual bomb-aiming blister under
3852-435: The groundspeed and drift angle , radio and radar altimeters , and an instrument landing system . TACAN replaced GEE in the B.1A and B.2 in 1964. Decca Doppler 72 replaced Green Satin in the B.2 around 1969 A continuous display of the aircraft's position was maintained by a ground position indicator. Vulcan B.2s were eventually fitted with the free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2, based upon
3959-549: The inertial platform of the Blue Steel missile, which had been integrated into the system when the missile had been carried. With the HRS a navigator's heading unit was provided, which enabled the navigator plotter to adjust the aircraft heading, through the autopilot, by as little as 0.1 degrees. The B.2 (MRR) was additionally fitted with the LORAN C navigation system. The original ECM fit of
4066-488: The speed of sound . Jet aircraft generally cruise most efficiently at about Mach 0.8 (981 km/h (610 mph)) and at altitudes around 10,000–15,000 m (33,000–49,000 ft) or more. The idea of the jet engine was not new, but the technical problems involved did not begin to be solved until the 1930s. Frank Whittle , an English inventor and RAF officer, began development of a viable jet engine in 1928, and Hans von Ohain in Germany began work independently in
4173-541: The 1950s and 1960s, and became the most commonly used type of jet. The Tu-144 supersonic transport was the fastest commercial jet aircraft at Mach 2.35 (2,503 km/h (1,555 mph)). It went into service in 1975, but was withdrawn from commercial service shortly afterwards. The Mach 2 Concorde entered service in 1976 and flew for 27 years. The fastest military jet aircraft was the SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3.35 (3,661 km/h (2,275 mph)). Most people use
4280-399: The 698's development. More influential than the Avro 707 in the 698's design was the wind-tunnel testing performed at RAE Farnborough . This necessitated a wing redesign incorporating a cranked and drooped leading edge and vortex generators to avoid the onset of compressibility drag, which would have restricted the maximum speed. This wing modification resulted in the "phase 2" wing which
4387-454: The 707 programme, the contribution of the 707B and 707A towards the basic design of the 698 was not considered significant, though it did highlight a need to increase the length of the nosewheel to give a ground incidence of 3.5°, the optimum take-off attitude. The 707B and 707A proved the design's validity and gave confidence in the delta planform . A second 707A, WZ736, and a two-seat 707C, WZ744, were also constructed, but they played no part in
Avro Vulcan - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-510: The Avro Shackleton in 1946. His final involvement with Avro was overseeing the initial designs of the Avro Vulcan (Avro 698) from 1946. Author Harald Penrose describes Chadwick in "British Aviation" as "Artistic with unbounded enthusiasm and unsparing energy, Roy Chadwick was a great designer of intuitive diagnostic ability rather than a scientist, yet like all great masters was in step with
4601-482: The B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 from around 1960. A change to low-level tactics was made in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance operations, redesignated as B.2 (MRR). In the final years of service, six Vulcans were converted to the K.2 tanker configuration for aerial refuelling . After retirement by the RAF, one example, B.2 XH558 , named The Spirit of Great Britain ,
4708-451: The B.1's service life, 28 (the surviving B1 aircraft fitted with Olympus 102/104 engines) were upgraded by Armstrong Whitworth between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A standard, including features of the B.2 such as ECM equipment, in-flight refuelling receiving equipment, and UHF radio. However, the B.1As were not strengthened for low-level operations and all were withdrawn by 1968. As far back as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines had begun development of
4815-423: The B.1A and B.2 was one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive warning receiver with four aerials; a Red Steer tail warning radar ; and chaff dispensers. The bulk of the equipment was carried in a large, extended tail cone, and a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate was mounted between the starboard tailpipes. Later equipment on
4922-548: The B.2 included: an L band jammer (replacing a Red Shrimp); the ARI 18146 X-band jammer; replacing the Green Palm; the improved Red Steer Mk.2; infra-red decoys (flares); and the ARI 18228 PWR with its aerials that gave a squared top to the fin. The aircraft was controlled by a fighter-type control stick and rudder bar, which operated the powered flying controls, which each had a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except
5029-418: The B.2) ejection seats whilst on the lower level the navigator radar , navigator plotter , and air electronics officer (AEO) sat facing rearwards and would abandon the aircraft via the entrance door. The original B35/46 specification sought a jettisonable crew compartment , but this requirement was removed in a subsequent amendment; the rear crew's escape system was often an issue of controversy, such as when
5136-575: The BOl.6 (Olympus 6) rated at 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust but if fitted to the B.1, this would have reintroduced the buffet requiring further redesign of the wing. The decision to proceed with the B.2 versions of the Vulcan was made in May 1956, being developed by Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans . The first B.2 was anticipated to be around the 45th aircraft of the 99 then on order. As well as being able to achieve greater heights over targets, operational flexibility
5243-844: The Blue Steel missile; 33 aircraft were delivered to the RAF with these modifications. When the Mk.2 version of Blue Steel was cancelled in favour of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile in December 1959, fittings were changed in anticipation of the new missile, one under each wing. Though Skybolt was cancelled in November 1962, many aircraft were delivered or retrofitted with "Skybolt" blisters. Later aircraft were delivered with Olympus 301 engines with 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust. Two earlier aircraft were re-engined (XH557 and XJ784) for trials and development work; another seven aircraft were converted around 1963. The last B.2 XM657
5350-621: The City of London. Chadwick died on 23 August 1947 in a crash during the takeoff of the prototype Avro Tudor 2 G-AGSU from Woodford Aerodrome , in the vicinity of Shirfold Farm. The accident was due to an error in an overnight servicing in which the aileron cables were inadvertently crossed . His bust is displayed at the RAF Club in London, among other notable designers, and at the Chadwick Centre at
5457-520: The Me 262 program having started earlier than that of the Meteor, as Projekt 1065, with initial plans drawn up by Waldemar Voigt's design team in April 1939. The Messerschmitt Me 262 was the first operational jet fighter , manufactured by Germany during World War II and entering service on 19 April 1944 with Erprobungskommando 262 at Lechfeld just south of Augsburg. An Me 262 scored the first combat victory for
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#17328454801935564-631: The MoS's Air Fleet on radio trials), amazed crowds at the Farnborough Air Show by executing a barrel roll on his second flypast in front of the SBAC president's tent. After two days of flying, he was called in front of service and civil aviation authorities and ordered to refrain from carrying out this "dangerous" manoeuvre. Now fitted with a phase 2 wing, XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to the A&AEE for trials for
5671-527: The Olympus 301. To counter improving Soviet defences after the cancellation of Skybolt , Avro proposed a Vulcan with three Gnat fighters slung underneath. The Gnats were to have been released in enemy airspace to provide fighter cover, and they were expected to land "in friendly territory" or return to the Vulcan to replenish their tanks by means of a specially installed flight-refuelling drogue. Other countries expressed interest in purchasing Vulcans, but as with
5778-737: The RAF trainer, the Avro Tutor , a smaller version, the Avro Cadet and an enclosed version, the Avro Commodore . This was followed by the Avro Anson , used in World War II for training crews and as transport aircraft. In the late 1930s work began on a long-range bomber, the Avro Manchester , followed by the Avro Lancaster (Avro 683) of which 7,300 were built. In 1939, production of Avro aircraft
5885-420: The Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), the pilots' components being: two beam compasses; two director-horizons; and an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot . From 1966, B.2s were fitted with the ARI 5959 TFR, built by General Dynamics , its commands being fed into the director-horizons. The B.1 had four elevators (inboard) and four ailerons (outboard). In the B.2, these were replaced by eight elevons . The Vulcan
5992-465: The air intakes were deepened on the 11th (XH557) and subsequent aircraft. Many of the early aircraft were retained for trials, and the 12th B.2, XH558, was the first to be delivered to the RAF in July 1960. Coincidentally, XH558 was also the last Vulcan in service with the RAF, before being retired in 1992. The 26th B.2, XL317, the first of a production batch ordered in February 1956, was the first Vulcan, apart from development aircraft, capable of carrying
6099-497: The bomb bay. Despite being designed before a low radar cross-section and other stealth factors were ever a consideration, an RAE technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar-echoing object, due to its shape; only one or two components contributed significantly to the echo at any aspect, compared with three or more on most other types. The two prototype Vulcans were finished in gloss white. Early Vulcan B.1s left
6206-426: The cabin and was fitted with Bristol Olympus 100 engines of 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) thrust. At Falk's suggestion, a fighter-style control stick had replaced the control wheel. Like VX770, VX777 had the original wing with straight leading edges. VX777 was joined in formation by the first prototype VX770 and four Avro 707s at the 1953 Farnborough Air Show. During trials in July 1954, VX777 was substantially damaged in
6313-399: The control column had to be pushed rather than pulled to maintain level flight. This artificial pitch-up made the Vulcan handle more like other aircraft as its speed increased. The first production B.1 XA889 first flew in February 1955 with the original wing and joined the trials in June. In September 1955, Falk, flying the second production B.1 XA890 (which had remained at Woodford as part of
6420-455: The delta wing, the company planned two smaller experimental aircraft based on the 698, the one-third scale model 707 for low-speed handling and the one-half scale model 710 for high-speed handling. Two of each were ordered. The 710 was cancelled when it was considered too time-consuming to develop; a high-speed variant of the 707 was designed in its place, the 707A. The first 707, VX784 , flew in September 1949, but crashed later that month, killing
6527-412: The direction of A.V. Roe, Chadwick drafted the Avro D , a two-seater tractor biplane, the Avro E , which was converted to a floatplane, and in 1912, the Avro F , the world's first monoplane and enclosed-cabin machine. He then worked on the draughtsmanship for the Avro 500 , 501 and 503 , which led to Avro's World War I light bomber and trainer, the Avro 504 . In 1915 at age 22, Chadwick designed
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#17328454801936634-492: The early 1930s. In August 1939 the turbojet powered Heinkel He 178 , the world's first jet aircraft, made its first flight. A wide range of different types of jet aircraft exist, both for civilian and military purposes. After the first instance of powered flight, a large number of jet engine designs were suggested. René Lorin , Morize, Harris proposed systems for creating a jet efflux. After other jet engines had been run, Romanian inventor Henri Coandă claimed to have built
6741-415: The early 1980s, Argentina approached the UK with a proposal to buy a number of Vulcans. An application, made in September 1981, requested the 'early availability' of a 'suitable aircraft'. With some reluctance, British ministers approved the export of a single aircraft but emphasised that clearance had not been given for the sale of a larger number. A letter from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to
6848-447: The factory in a natural metal finish; the front half of the nose radome was painted black, the rear half painted silver. Front-line Vulcan B.1s had a finish of anti-flash white and RAF "type D" roundels . Front-line Vulcan B.1As and B.2s were similar, but with pale roundels. With the adoption of low-level attack profiles in the mid-1960s, B.1As and B.2s were given a glossy sea grey medium and dark green disruptive pattern camouflage on
6955-458: The first commercial jet service, from London to Johannesburg , in 1952 with the de Havilland Comet jetliner . This highly innovative aircraft travelled far faster and higher than propeller aircraft, was much quieter, smoother, and had stylish blended wings containing hidden jet engines. However, due to a design defect, and use of aluminium alloys, the aircraft suffered catastrophic metal fatigue which led to several crashes, which gave time for
7062-410: The first in July 1956. Later aircraft, painted in anti-flash white and powered by the Olympus 102 with 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, began to enter squadron service in July 1957. The Olympus 102s were modified during overhaul to the Olympus 104 standard, ultimately rated at 13,500 lbf (60 kN) thrust. Rebuilding B.1s as B.2s was considered but rejected over cost. Nevertheless, to extend
7169-420: The high temperatures within the engine) had not been solved, and the engine quickly burned out. Von Ohain's design, an axial-flow engine, as opposed to Whittle's centrifugal flow engine, was eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950s. The first flight of a jet-propelled aircraft to come to public attention was the Italian Caproni Campini N.1 motorjet prototype which flew on August 27, 1940. It
7276-530: The last B.1 XH532 was delivered in March 1959. The second B.2, XH534, flew in January 1959. Powered by production Olympus 201s with 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust, it was more representative of a production aircraft, being fitted with an in-flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone. Some subsequent B.2s were initially lacking probes and ECM tail cones, but these were retrofitted. The first 10 B.2s outwardly showed their B.1 ancestry, retaining narrow engine air intakes. Anticipating even more powerful engines,
7383-426: The limiting Mach number, including an alarming tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive . This was judged unacceptable for an unarmed bomber. Fitting the phase 2 wing removed the buffeting and an auto-mach trimmer countered the high-speed dive. The latter applied up-elevator as the speed critically increased. This up-elevator force was greater than the force required to counter the dive. Consequently, as speed increased,
7490-476: The many helicopters where the rotors were driven by tip jets . Jet-powered wingsuits exist – powered by model aircraft jet engines – but of short duration and needing to be launched at height. Because of the way they work, the typical exhaust speed of jet engines is transonic or faster, therefore most jet aircraft need to fly at high speeds, either supersonic or speeds just below the speed of sound (" transonic ") so as to achieve efficient flight. Aerodynamics
7597-576: The mechanical energy actually used to propel the aircraft. It is always less than 100% because of kinetic energy loss to the exhaust, and less-than-ideal efficiency of the propulsive mechanism, whether a propeller , a jet exhaust, or a fan. In addition, propulsive efficiency is greatly dependent on air density and airspeed. Mathematically, it is represented as η = η c η p {\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{c}\eta _{p}} where η c {\displaystyle \eta _{c}}
7704-407: The next month when Falk demonstrated an almost vertical bank. After its Farnborough appearance, the future name of the Avro 698 was a subject of speculation. Avro had strongly recommended the name Ottawa , in honour of the company's connection with Avro Canada . The weekly magazine Flight suggested Albion after rejecting Avenger , Apollo , and Assegai . The chief of the air staff preferred
7811-399: The oldest type, and are mainly used when extremely high speeds are needed, or operation at extremely high altitudes where there is insufficient air to operate a jet engine. Due to the extreme, typically hypersonic , exhaust velocity and the necessity of oxidiser being carried on board, they consume propellant extremely quickly, making them impractical for routine transportation. Turbojets are
7918-627: The other V-bombers, no foreign sales materialised. As early as 1954, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) recognised that the English Electric Canberra might soon become outdated. Potential replacements, such as the Boeing B-47 E, Handley-Page Victor and Vulcan were considered. Political pressure for a Canberra replacement came to a head in 1962, by which time agile, supersonic bombers/strategic strike aircraft , such as
8025-558: The prototype), the Type 732 showed its Vulcan heritage. In 1960, the Air Staff approached Avro with a request into a study for a patrol missile carrier armed with up to six Skybolt missiles capable of a mission length of 12 hours. Avro's submission in May 1960 was the Phase 6 Vulcan, which would have been the Vulcan B.3. The aircraft was fitted with an enlarged wing of 121 ft (37 m) span with increased fuel capacity; additional fuel tanks in
8132-408: The riskiest option. Several reduced-scale aircraft, designated Avro 707s , were produced to test and refine the delta-wing design principles. The Vulcan B.1 was first delivered to the RAF in 1956; deliveries of the improved Vulcan B.2 started in 1960. The B.2 featured more powerful engines, a larger wing, an improved electrical system, and electronic countermeasures , and many were modified to accept
8239-492: The rocket-propelled Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet was a faster operational aircraft during the war. Around this time, mid 1944, the United Kingdom's Meteor was being used for defence of the UK against the V-1 flying bomb – the V-1 itself a pulsejet -powered aircraft and direct ancestor of the cruise missile – and then ground-attack operations over Europe in the last months of
8346-418: The rudder, which had two, one running as a back-up. Artificial feel and auto stabilisation in the form of pitch and yaw dampers were provided, as well as an auto Mach trimmer. The flight instruments in the B.1 were traditional and included G4B compasses; Mk.4 artificial horizons; and zero reader flight display instruments. The B.1 had a Smiths Mk10 autopilot. In the B.2, these features were incorporated into
8453-409: The second oldest type; they have a high, usually supersonic, exhaust speed and low frontal cross-section, and so are best suited to high-speed, usually supersonic, flight. Although once widely used, they are relatively inefficient compared to turboprop and turbofans for subsonic flight. The last major aircraft to use turbojets were Concorde and Tu-144 supersonic transports . Low bypass turbofans have
8560-573: The single-seater fighter Avro Avenger and in 1926, the Avro Avian in which Bert Hinkler flew the first solo flight from England to Australia in 1928. In 1928, he moved back to the Avro factory in Woodford , Greater Manchester, used by BAE Systems until its closure in 2012. That year, he designed an eight-passenger high wing plane, the Avro 10 and a four-passenger version, the Avro 4 . In 1929, he designed
8667-470: The specification. No worthwhile information about high-speed flight was available from the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) or the US. Avro were aware that Alexander Lippisch had designed a delta-wing fighter and considered the same delta configuration would be suitable for their bomber. The team estimated that an otherwise conventional aircraft, with a swept wing of 45°, would have doubled
8774-484: The term 'jet aircraft' to denote gas turbine based airbreathing jet engines , but rockets and scramjets are both also propelled by jet propulsion. Cruise missiles are single-use unmanned jet aircraft, powered predominantly by ramjets or turbojets or sometimes turbofans, but they will often have a rocket propulsion system for initial propulsion. The fastest airbreathing jet aircraft is the unmanned X-43 scramjet at around Mach 9–10. The fastest manned (rocket) aircraft
8881-741: The tide of knowledge and contemporary outlook." Chadwick was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1943 Birthday Honours for his contribution to the design of the Lancaster and in particular for the adaptations he made to it in preparation for the low-level attacks on the German dams, during the Dam Busters raid Operation Chastise . The same year he was granted the Honorary Freedom of
8988-601: The type's initial Certificate of Airworthiness which it received the following month. (In 1956, VX777 was modified with the even larger phase 2(C) wing. Fitted with Olympus 104 engines, it became the aerodynamic prototype of the Vulcan B.2.) The first 15 production B.1s were powered by the Olympus 101. Many of these early examples in a metallic finish remained the property of the Ministry of Supply, being retained for trials and development purposes. Those entering RAF service were delivered to No 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU),
9095-436: The upper surfaces, white undersurfaces, and "type D" roundels. (The last 13 Vulcan B.2s, XM645 onwards, were delivered thus from the factory). In the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s received a similar scheme with matte camouflage, light aircraft grey undersides, and "low-visibility" roundels. B.2(MRR)s received a similar scheme in gloss; and the front halves of the radomes were no longer painted black. Beginning in 1979, 10 Vulcans received
9202-578: The value of the local speed of sound. In this case: V = a M {\displaystyle V=aM} where M {\displaystyle M} is the cruise Mach number and a {\displaystyle a} the local speed of sound. The range equation can be shown to be: R = a M c T C L C D l n W 1 W 2 {\displaystyle R={\frac {aM}{c_{T}}}{\frac {C_{L}}{C_{D}}}ln{\frac {W_{1}}{W_{2}}}} which
9309-481: The war. In 1944 Germany introduced the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance and bomber aircraft into service, though chiefly used in the former role, with the Heinkel He 162 Spatz single-jet light fighter appearing at the end of 1944. USSR tested its own Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1 in 1942, but the project was scrapped by leader Joseph Stalin in 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy also developed jet aircraft in 1945, including
9416-416: The weight requirement. Realising that swept wings increase longitudinal stability, the team deleted the tail ( empennage ) and the supporting fuselage , it thus became a swept-back flying wing with only a rudimentary forward fuselage and a fin ( vertical stabilizer ) at each wingtip. The estimated weight was now only 50% over the requirement; a delta shape resulted from reducing the wingspan and maintaining
9523-446: The wing area by filling in the space between the wingtips, which enabled the specification to be met. Although Alexander Lippisch is generally credited as the pioneer of the delta wing, Chadwick's team had followed its own logical design process. The initial design submission had four large turbojets stacked in pairs buried in the wings on either side of the centreline. Outboard of the engines were two bomb bays . In August 1947, Chadwick
9630-433: The wing transport joints; the intakes and centre fuselage ; the front fuselage, incorporating the pressure cabin ; the nose; the outer wings; the leading edges; the wing trailing edge and rear end of the fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with a single rudder was on the trailing edge. A five-man crew was accommodated within the pressure cabin on two levels; the first pilot and co-pilot sitting on Martin-Baker 3K (3KS on
9737-478: Was a 1952 proposal (announced in June 1953) for a 120-passenger delta-winged airliner based on the Type 698. The Avro 732 was a 1956 proposal for a supersonic development of the Vulcan and would have been powered by 8 de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. Unlike the proposed Avro 721 low-level bomber of 1952 or the Avro 730 supersonic stainless steel canard bomber dating from 1954 (cancelled in 1957 before completion of
9844-469: Was also fitted with six electrically operated three-position (retracted, medium drag, high drag) airbrakes , four in the upper centre section and two in the lower. Originally, four lower airbrakes were used, but the outboard two were deleted before the aircraft entered service. A brake parachute was installed inside the tail cone. The main electrical system on the B.1/B.1A was 112 V DC supplied by four 22.5 kW engine-driven starter-generators . Backup power
9951-461: Was believed to be extended by the provision of in-flight refuelling equipment and tanker aircraft. The increasing sophistication of Soviet air defences required the fitting of electronic countermeasure (ECM) equipment, and vulnerability could be reduced by the introduction of the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile , then in development. To develop these proposals, the second Vulcan prototype VX777
10058-464: Was carried in 14 bag tanks, four in the centre fuselage above and to the rear of the nosewheel bay, and five in each outer wing. The tanks were split into four groups of almost equal capacity, each normally feeding its respective engine, though cross-feeding was possible. The centre of gravity was automatically maintained by electric timers, which sequenced the booster pumps on the tanks. B.2 aircraft could be fitted with one or two additional fuel tanks in
10165-403: Was considered too exacting. Six companies submitted technical brochures to this specification, including Avro. Required to tender by the end of April 1947, work began on receipt of Specification B.35/46 at Avro, led by technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies ; the type designation was Avro 698 . As was obvious to the design team, conventional aircraft could not satisfy
10272-466: Was delivered in 1965 and the type served until 1984. Whilst in service, the B.2 was continuously updated with modifications, including rapid engine starting, bomb-bay fuel tanks, wing strengthening to give the fatigue life to enable the aircraft to fly at low level (a tactic introduced in the mid-1960s), upgraded navigation equipment, terrain-following radar , standardisation on a common weapon ( WE.177 ) and improved ECM equipment. Nine B.2s were modified for
10379-428: Was first investigated on Avro 707A WD480. This modification was too late to be incorporated on the two prototype 698s and the first three B.1 aircraft before their first flights. (The B.1s were quickly retrofitted). Painted gloss white, the 698 prototype VX770, with its pure delta wing, flew for the first time on 30 August 1952 piloted by Roly Falk flying solo. VX770, fitted with only the first pilot's ejection seat and
10486-486: Was killed in the crash of the Avro Tudor 2 prototype , and was succeeded by Sir William Farren. Reductions in wing thickness made incorporating the split bomb bays and stacked engines impossible, thus the engines were placed side by side in pairs on either side of a single bomb bay, with the fuselage growing somewhat. The wingtip fins gave way to a single fin on the aircraft's centreline. Rival manufacturer Handley Page received
10593-711: Was moved to a new factory at Greengate in Chadderton , owned by BAE Systems until its closure in 2012. In 1941, he designed a long-range transport, the Avro York and larger variants of the Lancaster, the Avro Lincoln and the Avro Lancastrian . After the war, he designed Britain's first pressurised airliner, the Avro Tudor , based around the Lancaster-derivative Avro Lincoln , though few were built and also
10700-563: Was provided by four 24 V 40 Ah batteries connected in series providing 96 V. Secondary electrical systems were 28 V DC, single-phase 115 V AC at 1600 Hz, and three-phase 115 V AC at 400 Hz, driven by transformers and inverters from the main system. The 28 V DC system was backed up by a single 24 V battery. Jet aircraft Whereas the engines in propeller-powered aircraft generally achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower speeds and altitudes, jet engines achieve maximum efficiency at speeds close to or even well above
10807-410: Was quickly imposed. Despite its radical and unusual shape, the airframe was built along traditional lines. Except for the most highly stressed parts, the whole structure was manufactured from standard grades of light alloy. The airframe was broken down into a number of major assemblies: The centre section, a rectangular box containing the bomb bay and engine bays bounded by the front and rear spars and
10914-617: Was rebuilt with the larger and thinner phase-2C wing, improved flying control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines, first flying in this configuration in August 1957. Several Vulcan B.1s were used for the development of the B.2: development of the BOl.6 (later Olympus 200), XA891; a new AC electrical system, XA893; ECM including jammers within a bulged tail cone and a tail warning radar , XA895: and for Blue Steel development work, XA903. The 46th production aircraft and first B.2, XH533, first flew in September 1958 using Olympus 200 engines, six months before
11021-756: Was responsible for practically all of their aeroplane designs. He is famous in particular for designing the Avro Lancaster bomber, its follow-up Avro Lincoln and preliminary designs of the Avro Vulcan V-bomber. He also converted the Lincoln into the Shackleton . His Avro Yorks carried one-third of the entire British tonnage during the Berlin Airlift . Chadwick married Mary Gomersall in 1921 and had two daughters. Chadwick attended St Clements Church School in Urmston , then studied at night school from 1907 to 1911 at
11128-631: Was restored for use in display flights and air shows, whilst two other B.2s, XL426 and XM655 , have been kept in taxiable condition for ground runs and demonstrations. B.2 XH558 flew for the last time in October 2015 and is also being kept in taxiable condition. XM612 is on display at Norwich Aviation Museum . The origin of the Vulcan and the other V bombers is linked with early British atomic weapon programme and nuclear deterrent policies. Britain's atom bomb programme began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946. This anticipated
11235-441: Was specified. The maximum weight when fully loaded should not exceed 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Alternatively, the aircraft was to be capable of carrying a conventional bomb load of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). The similar OR.230 required a "long-range bomber" with a 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) radius of action with a maximum weight of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg) when fully loaded; this requirement
11342-697: Was the first jet aircraft recognised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (at the time the German He 178 program was still kept secret). Campini began development of the motorjet in 1932; it differed from a true turbojet in that the turbine was driven by a piston engine, rather than combustion of the turbine gases - which was a much more complex solution. The British experimental Gloster E.28/39 first flew on May 15, 1941, powered by Sir Frank Whittle 's turbojet. The United States Bell XP-59A flew on October 1, 1942, using two examples of
11449-555: Was used for reconnaissance over Korea. On November 8, 1950, during the Korean War , United States Air Force Lt. Russell J. Brown, flying in an F-80 , intercepted two North Korean MiG-15s near the Yalu River and shot them down in the first jet-to-jet dogfight in history. The UK put the English Electric Canberra into service in 1951 as a light bomber . It was designed to fly higher and faster than any interceptor . BOAC operated
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